| FO:AFWC/2000/2
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| FO:AFWC/2000/2
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AFRICAN FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE COMMISSION |
Item 3 of Provisional Agenda |
TWELFTH SESSION |
Lusaka, Zambia, 27-30 March 2000 |
STATE OF FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE IN THE REGION |
Secretariat Note |
1. Many African countries are actively participating in the ongoing global debate on sustainable forest management, which entails the balancing of the economic, environmental, social and cultural functions and values of forests for the benefit of present and future generations.1 They have committed themselves to combatting deforestation as spelled out in Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and the Forest Principles2 which complement it. This implies that sustainable forest management must be considered an integral part of overall national strategies for economic growth, social equity in development and environmental sustainability.
2. A number of challenges and conditions are common to Africa. Among them are the debt burden and related constraints; political instability and associated conditions; a need for reliable and timely information; a need for broad-based education about the ecological functions of forests and the goods and services they provide; and a need for social security programmes that are conducive to sustainable forest management.
3. Africa represents nearly 23 percent of the world's land area and supports 13 percent of the world's population.
4. Africa has 15 percent of the world's forests and about 5 percent of its forest plantations. Overall, the forests cover an area of 520 million hectares, equivalent to almost 18 percent of the land area of Africa. The forest area per caput (0.7 ha) is higher than in Asia (0.1 ha) but only about half of the value for Europe (1.3 ha) and North and Central America (1.2 ha); and considerably lower than in South America (2.7 ha) and Oceania (3.2 ha).3
5. Three major vegetation zones cover the continent : the arid and semi-arid forest zones; the tropical high forest zone; and the subtropical zone. These broad categories can be further subdivided into eight eco-geographic zones, each with its characteristic forest ecosystems, timber and non-wood resources, biological and genetic diversity, human societies and development dynamics. The various natural vegetation zones are not consistent with political jurisdictions. All, even desert ecosystems, have their importance.
6. In forestry as in many other respects, Africa is a continent of diversity. It includes countries with some of the world's richest forests. Others are poor in valuable species, while others yet are low forest cover countries (LFCCs), severely lacking in forest cover. Some countries are only modestly endowed, some with dry deciduous forest, others with predominantly savannah ecosystems with dispersed trees and woody shrubs. All forest types have local subsistence uses.
7. Central Africa, with 204.7 million hectares, and moist West Africa, with 46.3 million hectares, contain most of the dense humid forests on the continent.4 The Congo basin alone is 210 million hectares.5 A number of countries have compensated for the lack of natural forests by establishing forest plantations. Yet, in general, except in southern Africa, the rate of establishment of forest plantations is very limited relative to deforestation.
8. Trees outside forests form an important source of wood and other products. With changes in land and tree tenure and with appropriate interventions, including provision of support services, there is considerable scope to enhance their contribution to local economies. In many countries local communities are actively involved in conserving and managing tree resources.
9. Africa is known for its rich diversity of animals and plants. The Congo basin alone harbours 400 mammalian species, not less than 1 000 different species of birds and 10 000 plant species of which 3 000 are endemic. In 1992, more than 2 000 plant species, including one new to science, were recorded in a two-week survey of the Ziama Forest Reserve in Guinea (W. Butzler, pers. comm.). The Ruwenzori, Kilimanjaro and Karthala volcanoes have plants that are not known elsewhere.
10. Wildlife has an important role in maintaining tree cover. Birds eat insect pests; they also spread tree seeds, thus favouring natural forest regeneration. The absence of birds from a given ecosystem where they ought to be found is an obvious indicator of impaired ecosystem health and integrity or of overhunting. In arid and semi-arid ecosystems, mammals pre-digest seeds of tree species, for example of Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia tortilis, that would otherwise not germinate as readily or at all.
11. The knowledge of biological diversity in African forests (the variety of ecosystems, species and genetic resources and their interactions) is very incomplete; several initiatives are being carried out to gather information on the different levels of forest and tree diversity, conservation status and trends and the contribution of biological diversity to overall socio-economic development.
12. Trade in forest products represents 2 percent of the value of Africa's total trade. For some countries (for example, Cameroon and Ghana) this percentage is much higher, between 15 and 48 percent of total export value. Sawnwood production in Africa in 1998 was estimated to be 8.03 million cubic metres of the world's total of 415.42 million cubic metres.6 Africa is a net importer of most of the industrial wood products, although it is a net exporter of industrial roundwood.
13. There is a recent trend of restricting exports of logs from the West and Central African subregions. For example, Ghana and C�te d'Ivoire took measures to this end in 1996 and 1997, respectively. This has resulted in increased saw- and ply-milling and increased manufacture of tertiary wood products in these countries, but also in lower log prices for forest owners, devaluation of the forest resource and negative impacts on forest management. Improving the quality of locally manufactured goods to meet international market standards should now be a priority for these countries. In Cameroon, the discussion on log export restrictions is heated, but at least the stakeholders are involved in dialogue. Log exports from Gabon remain substantial.
14. The countries of North Africa accounted for 71 percent of the continent's wood imports in 1997. South Africa alone accounted for 79 percent of the continent's production of wood pulp in 1997. With the exception of Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Swaziland, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe, all countries in sub-Saharan Africa import nearly all of their paper requirements.
15. Africa's population, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, relies more than ever on wood to meet domestic energy needs. Fuelwood and charcoal consumption increased significantly between 1980 and 1998. It is expected that this trend will continue, driven by increasing populations and macro-economic policies. Of the 603 million cubic metres of roundwood produced in the region in 1998, 86 percent was in the form of fuelwood and charcoal. Given the present trends, fuelwood is expected to continue to be the most important source of household energy in Africa in the foreseeable future.
16. Worldwide, but noticeably in Africa, there has been increasing recognition of the importance of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) for national and rural economies. Such products include foods such as condiments, wild game, honey, fruits, nuts, vegetables and mushrooms; and non-edible NWFPs such as resins, colorants, tannins, gum, perfumes, medicine, "tooth brushing" sticks, fodder from trees, rattan, bamboo, fibres and wrapping materials. Some NWFPs, such as palm wine or toddy and kola (Kola nitida) nuts, have socio-cultural as well as economic importance. Most NWFPs are of major importance for subsistence purposes rather than being commercialized. The importance of NWFPs for the livelihood of rural communities is well understood, systematic efforts are wanting to quantify this, undermining appropriate interventions to enhance their contribution..
17. The natural forests of Africa provide drugs and medicines of great actual and potential worth. For example, extractions of Prunus africana, Warburgia salutaris and Garcinia sp. are already of considerable socio-economic importance.
18. The wildlife resources of Africa's forests have a significant economic role and can contribute to socio-economic development. Wildlife of all kinds is heavily exploited for food in most parts of Africa. In much of West Africa and Central Africa, bush meat, fish from forest streams and a great number of insects provide important protein supplements to the local diet. In Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, bush meat is estimated to generate trade worth between US$150 million and $160 million. Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea also rely heavily on protein from bush meat. Recent studies have indicated that much of the bush meat trade is unsustainable.7
19. The managed utilization of wildlife resources can provide an important means of sustainable land use and conservation in the region, and figures prominently in the ongoing debate about the environment.
20. In addition to tourism based on wildlife viewing or hunting, other forms of nature-based tourism are gaining in popularity worldwide. Many African urban dwellers and people from Northern countries are keen to visit Africa's rain forest ecosystems as well as deserts, not only to see wild animals, but to appreciate the diverse geography and natural beauty.
21. Nature-based tourism represents an opportunity not only to generate income, but also to educate both visitors and hosts on natural phenomena, ecosystems and ecology and on the need for proper management and use of forest resources. Such tourism can also lead to greater understanding of differing cultures.
22. Africa's forests face considerable threats. Conversion to agricultural land, wildfires, grazing, logging, fuelwood collection and charcoal production, without proper attention to the capacity of the land, lead to diminished forest cover, erosion, the lowering of productive capacity and the loss of biological diversity and genetic resources, which are often accompanied by or contribute to civil unrest. Since the 1940s, deforestation has resulted in a steady loss of wildlife habitat.
23. Deforestation and forest degradation have a serious impact on national economies in many African countries, particularly those where agriculture, pastoralism and tourism otherwise predominate. Without healthy forests and other vegetation types, none of these activities are sustainable, not only in the countries where they are located, but also far downstream. For instance, deforestation and forest degradation in Fouta-Djalon, Guinea, affects water yields in at least 17 countries, not considering its effect on global climate.
24. The continent's loss of forest cover was estimated at 10.5 percent between 1980 and 1995, which was worse than that reported for the developing world as a whole. The annual rate of deforestation in the period 1990 to 1995 was 0.7 percent for Africa, more than twice the world average of 0.3 percent.8 This is cause for serious concern and calls for priority attention.
25. Deforestation and degradation of land and forest resources result mostly from human activity: forest clearing for agricultural expansion, unsustainable fuelwood collection, charcoal making and timber harvesting operations. Other causes include overgrazing, fire, resettlement and mining. Natural causes of loss of vegetation cover include recurrent droughts, desertification, sand dune encroachment, natural wildfires, windthrow and salination. Much of Africa is prone to recurrent cycles of drought and abundance of rain; although these areas are resilient, overpopulation and other factors related to human activity have seriously compounded the situation resulting from the last major drought.
26. During recent decades, civil wars and the resulting flows of refugees have brought about extensive damage to Africa's forests, including officially protected areas. Refugee camps are sometimes located near forest reserves where refugees may farm, hunt and collect fuelwood. Malians expelled from other countries have been allowed to settle in or near forest reserves in Mali because of standing claims to most other land.
27. In 1999, civil war, declared or not, is ongoing in 15 African countries. Rebel groups often launch their operations from forested areas, including plantations. For example, rebels have occupied the Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda since 1997, preventing any conservation activity; in December 1999, UNESCO added the site to its List of World Heritage Sites in Danger. In many places, the rural landscape is strewn with land mines that maim or kill humans and wild animals.
28. African countries have high annual population growth rates, large rural populations, accelerating urbanization and low per caput incomes. The AIDS epidemic is having an adverse effect on the economies, including agriculture, and its ultimate direct and indirect impact on forestry is still unclear. The demographic changes, combined with other factors, exert pressures on forests to supply land, fuelwood, poles, food, etc. at unsustainable rates. Most low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs) in the region are also low-forest cover countries (LFCCs); even so, their meagre forest resources are often used to help meet basic needs. Vast areas around urban centres have been stripped of trees and tree cover for energy purposes. As a consequence the fertility of these lands is reduced and agriculture is becoming less attractive or unfeasible.
29. Greater awareness of the value of the multiple goods and services and ecological functions provided by healthy forest ecosystems, together with knowledge of improved technologies for increased food production outside forested areas, is necessary to arrest deforestation and forest degradation. While there is considerable awareness of the importance of forests, there are insufficient incentives to pursue effective action. Even where there is awareness of the downstream effects of local activities (which may include siltation of reservoirs, destruction of mangroves and coral reefs,flooding from improper farming techniques on steep slopes, and contamination of drinking-water by cattle or excessive use of chemical fertilizers), there are limited options for their prevention in the absence of appropriate policies and incentive mechanisms.
30. Broad-based education and awareness-raising on the ecological functions of forests and the goods and services they currently offer or can provide to humankind is clearly needed at all levels. This may require, among other measures, the review of training and educational curricula for forest resources managers, with emphasis on new skills in rural sociology, communication, technology transfer, biological diversity conservation and participatory approaches. FAO has initiated such a process in selected countries in West Africa.
31. In the past, forest policy initiatives have tended to be narrowly sectoral. In addition, many countries lack an adequate policy and legislative framework that supports and facilitates local forest management and a multistakeholder approach to planning and implementation of forestry initiatives. However, forestry is increasingly being considered within the context of rural development, with attention to forests' role in fulfilling local needs for goods and services.
32. In an effort to link environmental concerns more directly with social and economic development, Agenda 21 of UNCED, adopted in 1992, calls for cross-sectoral policy analysis and formulation. Under the framework of national forest programmes, many African countries have initiated policy reforms. In the cases of Cameroon, Ghana, Senegal and United Republic of Tanzania, these initiatives have been quite successful, but progress in other countries has been hampered by lack of political and institutional stability, inadequate technical expertise and lack of financial resources.
33. At the consultation of African Policy Experts in Accra, Ghana in October 1995, the failure of forest policies was attributed to the use of assistance-driven project tools in place of emphasis on lifting local constraints, setting up incentive systems and developing least-cost strategies.
34. Legally binding regulatory instruments based on forest legislation, national constitutions and revised property rights frameworks have been the tools most commonly used for policy implementation. A second category of policy instruments comprises economic, financial and market instruments that are generally aimed at inducing proper forest management planning through a framework of rewards and penalties. These include eco-labelling and forest certification.
35. Current trends indicate a movement towards more community-based management, participation, decentralization of forest administration and, in some cases (especially in southern Africa) privatization. Stronger links are emerging between the private sector and community and farmers' organizations (e.g. outgrower schemes in South Africa). In some countries public institutions need to review how they should go about their respective missions within this new framework. In most countries, tourism, forestry and wildlife departments are hosted in different ministries with uncoordinated polices and/or programmes that are not well harmonized. As a result, relevant policies and legislation are often fragmented or unharmonized.
36. There is a need for well-trained professional and technical staff. It is recognized that many African countries have forestry institutional capacities far below the minimum required to plan and implement Agenda 21. There appears to be a specific need for cross-sectoral analytical capacity building. Structural adjustment programmes have had serious impact by imposing freezes on hiring of new staff.
37. Successful forest policy implementation depends on the development of sound systems of information and data collection, analysis and dissemination to ensure timely feedback to national cabinets and policy- and decision-making bodies. Despite significant improvements, there remains a lack of reliable and timely information on the status and potential of forest resources in many African countries. The FAO Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000), the Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA), a project on data collection supported by the European Union and other recent initiatives aim to address this problem. There is however an urgent need to strengthen national capacity to collect, analyse and use information for policy making and planning. Developments in information technology have provided necessary tools, but systematic efforts are required to take full advantage of them.
38. Forestry research capacity and output have sharply declined in the last 15 years. Indeed, in some countries, forestry research has ground to a halt. African countries await, with high expectations, regional and continental initiatives to revitalize forestry research. In particular, the countries urgently call for implementation of Forestry Research Networks for Sub-Saharan Africa (FORNESSA), which has been in the planning stages for some five years. FAO and IUFRO/SPDC are currently developing strategies to enhance institutional capacities through subregional and regional research organizations. If forestry is to benefit from the developments in science, there is an urgent need to step up investment in research.
39. The Capacity Building in Forestry Research (CBFR) programme of the African Academy of Sciences has made important contributions to strengthening forestry research in the continent. CBFR efforts complement those of FORNESSA, as CBFR focuses on individual scientists and networking among scientists, while FORNESSA's efforts are geared to institutional capacity building. However, given the magnitude of the human and institutional capacity building needed in Africa, coordination and partnership among CBFR, FORNESSA and Capacity 21 of UNDP is essential.
40. Participation by African countries in the global policy dialogue has so far been very modest. In several countries, there is a lack of adequate information on the ongoing debate on major forest-related issues. Political instability is partly accountable for discordant country positions at successive gatherings.
41. Subregional organizations such as the African Timber Organization (ATO), the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), the Forestry Sector Technical Coordination Unit (FSTCU) of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Economic Community of West African States' (ECOWAS) Forestry Division provide opportunities for countries to participate and cooperate more effectively in these discussions. The Commission may offer the best opportunity to stimulate fuller participation of member governments. Its capability in this respect will be greatly enhanced by the recently created Africa Forest Experts Group (AFEG) under the auspices of the African Academy of Sciences (AAS). As part of its mission, AFEG will work towards concerted and well-thought-out positions on forest-related matters affecting Africa, to strengthen the continent's voice in international fora.
42. In many African countries heavy debt burdens have seriously impeded the implementation of forestry programmes. Thirty-two African countries are qualified as heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs). Economic progress remains elusive, with 22 of the 53 African countries registering rates of economic growth lower than their population growth rates.9 Structural adjustment programmes may be necessary for the recovery of debt and improved long-term prospects, but they must not lead to environmental and ecological degradation that eventually compound the problem, with dire socio-economic results.
43. The inadequacy of financial resources for the forestry sector in Africa is a real constraint on the ability and effectiveness of public institutions to fulfil their missions. Sustainable forest management and development require substantial financing which many countries can hardly afford, particularly since funding from both domestic and international public sources has been declining. The huge amounts needed to address the world refugee problem is a major constraint in this respect, since well endowed countries nonetheless have limits on their aid budgets. Although the worldwide refugee situation is a priority for international bodies, they should not neglect to support forestry.
44. Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 estimated that the total investment funds needed to achieve sustainable forest management in developing countries would be about $31 250 million for the period 1993 to 2000. The current level of overseas development assistance (ODA) in forestry is only 27.2 percent of this amount, and it is not likely to increase in the present political and economic climate.10 In addition, for a variety of reasons, African countries are faced with sharp declines in ODA for forestry.
45. The World Bank, which has the largest portfolio of natural resources/rural environmental management projects (involving some aspects of forest management), supported more projects in Africa than in other regions in 1997. However, the projects were smaller, such that the total project budget for Africa (US$446 million) was notably lower than for East Asia, Southeast Asia or Latin America and the Caribbean.
46. Some bilateral agencies are faced with a limited aid budget and are obliged to link their support to a number of criteria including, for instance, the country's record for good governance and human rights.
47. As yet, the private sector has not been adequately involved in funding forestry programmes. This option should be seriously considered and favoured through enabling political and legislative instruments.
48. Common criteria by which sustainable forest management can be defined and quantifiable indicators by which it can be assessed or described and regularly monitored are essential to the evaluation of the overall effects of forest management interventions. The development and implementation of national and forest management unit level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in Africa is taking place through the work of two main processes and initiatives: the Dry-Zone Africa Process, covering 28 sub-Saharan countries, and the African Timber Organization (13 member countries). Implementation in some northern African countries falls under the Near East Process. ITTO and the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) also have activities in the region in the development, testing and implementation of criteria and indicators at the forest management unit level.
49. Eastern and southern Africa have become world leaders in sustainable management of wildlife resources and the development of tourism based on sound forestry polices and adequate investment. In other African countries, the potential offered by wildlife resources remains largely underutilized.
50. The challenges for conserving forest and wildlife resources involve the maintenance and enhancement of existing natural forests and the protected area system and the conservation of recognized areas of high biological diversity. Other challenges include involving local communities in protected area management and reconciling conservation and development (especially rural development).
51. African countries have participated in the international dialogue on conservation and sustainable utilization of the genetic resources of forest trees and shrubs. A subregional plan of action of forest genetic resources was prepared by participants from 15 West Sahelian countries during a workshop in Ouagadougou, Burkino Faso in September 1998. A similar process has been initiated in eastern and southern Africa under the umbrella of the SADC/FSTCU, and a workshop on forest genetic resources in the SADC subregion is scheduled in early 2000. Subsequently, the sub-Saharan Africa Forest Genetic Resources Network (SAFORGEN), to be launched by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in collaboration with FAO, will be instrumental in implementing several research activities of the subregional action plans.
52. Forest plantations represent an important element in the sustainable development of the forest sector, and are complementary to natural forests. In non-tropical and southern Africa, plantations already account for almost the entire industrial forest estate, and in Kenya, Malawi, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, plantations are the main sources of timber and wood.
53. The majority of the plantations in Africa have been established in South Africa (1.428 million hectares), and in the Mediterranean countries of North Africa. Collectively these countries account for 55 percent of Africa's plantations. Plantation resources are nonetheless widely distributed among countries; 16 countries have more than 100 000 ha of plantations.
54. However, plantations in Africa are generally small in extent and in many cases suffer from poor survival and lack of management. This has been attributed to factors such as lack of financial resources for such long-term investments as well as climatic conditions and competition for water with agriculture.
55. Healthy forests and natural ecosystems can contribute substantially to economic development. Forests and natural ecosystems are essential to agriculture, livestock raising, health, housing and socio-cultural values. Educational programmes about their importance must reach the full spectrum of society from rural farmers and urban workers to the highest civil, military and traditional governing bodies.
56. The importance of wildlife to African economies is clear. The managed utilization of wildlife resources can be a vital element of sustainable land use and conservation in the region. In many countries, this potential remains largely underutilized.
57. Traditional knowledge about NWFPs, including medicinal plants and veterinary products, has tremendous economic worth. Ambiguous intellectual property rights and lack of equitable schemes for sharing of benefits are major impediments to sound use and development of NWFPs.
58. Civil war and political instability are major impediments to forestry in Africa. Peaceful solutions should be sought for resolution of political differences.
59. For Africa to implement successfully the recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), it is necessary to enhance national forestry development capacities.
60. Structural adjustment programmes carry serious constraints to sustainable forest management and development. Corrective measures are sometimes adopted for the agriculture sector, but forestry is excluded. Structural adjustment programmes may be required for long-term growth considerations, but they should not be at the expense of forestry.
