THE STATE OF MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA FISHERIES

The fishing fleets in operation in the Mediterranean (GSAs 1 to 27), Marmara Sea and the Black Sea (GSAs 28 and 29) consist of around 87 600 vessels, with a gross tonnage (GT) of around 903 000 tonnes and total engine power of 5 745 000 kW (Table 4). Despite the presence of some gaps, data coverage has generally improved over the last two years due to greater and more consistent data submissions from CPCs to the GFCM. This improvement in data transmissions is most likely responsible for the increase, by around 1 100 units, of operating vessels over the last two years (1.4 percent more than in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries) (FAO, 2018). Changes in the fleets per country show some variability, with six countries reporting an increase of over 15 percent each (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Montenegro, Morocco and Ukraine) for a total of 5 109 vessels, while eight countries (Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Israel, Malta, Portugal, Spain and Syrian Arab Republic) reported a decrease of over 13 percent each, dropping to 3 644 vessels in total. The overall number of vessels, as well as the (small) interannual variability, should still be considered as approximate and most likely as an underestimate of the real size of the fleet, given the lack of data, especially on small-scale fleets, from some Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal states or non-state actors.

Around 60 percent of the total reported number is represented by just four countries: Turkey (17.5 percent), Tunisia (15.2 percent), Greece (14.6 percent) and Italy (12.4 percent). The breakdown by area revealed that, together, Tunisia, Greece and Italy account for around 48.5 percent of operating vessels in the Mediterranean Sea, while Turkey represents 82.1 percent of the total fleet in the Black Sea (Table 7).

According to the most up-to-date information reported to the GFCM (Table 4), the capacity of operating fishing vessels in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea reaches about 903 000 GT and 5 745 000 kW, as shown in Figure 2. Compared to the capacity figures reported in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018), more information is provided from Libya and Lebanon, which showed, respectively, a 66 percent increase and a 69 percent decrease in GT value, due to an improved analysis carried out on the latest data available. It is important to underline that five countries alone account for around 63 percent of the total fishing capacity (in GT) in the GFCM area of application: Turkey (19 percent), Italy (14.7 percent), Tunisia (11.8 percent), Egypt (9.9 percent) and Algeria (8.3 percent). Although Japan is also relevant in terms of capacity (around 77 000 GT), its fishing fleet is not currently operating in the area and therefore not considered in the analysis. Indeed, although 191 of its vessels are authorized to carry out fishing operations in the Mediterranean Sea, they are not fishing in this area. Other national fleets of substantial capacity (more than 49 000 GT) are from Greece, Libya and Spain.

The distribution of the fishing fleet in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea is shown in Figure 3. The values displayed result from an analysis carried out on the latest available data (covering around 92 percent of the recorded fleet) as reported by countries to the GFCM through “DCRF Task II.1 Landing” (operating vessels and landings by fleet segment and GSA), which was then extrapolated to the total number of operating vessels (Table 4). The same method of analysis was used for all the tables and figures in this chapter.

In the Mediterranean Sea, five GSAs alone account for around 52 percent of all the operating fishing vessels: GSA 22 (Aegean Sea, 18.2 percent), GSA 17 (northern Adriatic Sea, 12 percent), GSA 14 (Gulf of Gabès, 8.4 percent), GSA 4 (Algeria, 7.6 percent) and GSA 21 (southern Ionian Sea, 6.3 percent).

In the Marmara Sea and Black Sea (GSAs 28 and 29), 81.2 percent of all operating fishing vessels are represented by GSA 29, with around 9 200 operating in this GSA.

The largest shares of operating vessels are from the eastern and central Mediterranean subregions, with 30.6 and 23.2 percent of the total respectively, whereas the Black Sea area (GSAs 28 and 29) accounts for 13 percent (Figure 4).

In 2018, the ten ports with the greatest landings in the Mediterranean Sea (four Tunisian, three Moroccan, two Algerian and one Syrian) accounted for 7.3 percent of Mediterranean vessels, whereas in the Black Sea, the ten main ports (seven Bulgarian and three Turkish) represented 7.7 percent of the total fishing vessels in this basin (See Box 7).

The relevant groups of fishing vessels operating in the GFCM area of application are those authorized: a) within the context of nine GFCM fishery management plans, accounting for a total of 4 150 vessels (Box 2); and b) in two FRAs, representing a total of 164 vessels (Box 3).

The average construction year of the fishing vessels from each state or relevant non-state actor, as found in the GFCM vessel records (fleet register and authorized vessel list), is reported in Table 5. Although information on the year of construction is not always available for all countries (on average, the data covers around 71 percent of a country’s total fleet), the following patterns emerge: Romania has the youngest fleet, with an average age of 13 years old, followed by Morocco (14 years old), Egypt (15 years old) and Algeria (20 years old). By contrast, the oldest fishing vessels are from Israel (46 years old), Slovenia (41 years old), Croatia (39 years old) and Albania (38 years old). While the ageing of the fleet in these latter countries may be a matter of concern for safety, the replacement of ageing vessels can present its own drawback. Potential increases in fishing capacity could ensue if no rules are in place to regulate the entry of new vessels into the fishery.

According to the available information, a comparison between the total number of fishing vessels in each country’s fleet (Table 4) and the average age of its vessels shows that two of the smallest fleets in the GFCM area of application represent both the youngest (Romania, with an average age of 22 years old) and the oldest (Israel, with an average age of 46 years old) of the whole region.

A boxplot analysis revealed an asymmetric distribution of the average age of vessels among countries in both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, with a higher variability of values (large interquartile range) in Albania, France, Israel, Italy, Malta, Montenegro and Spain (Figure 5).

A breakdown of the available information on the year of vessel construction identifies different patterns in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (Figure 6). In particular, it is noteworthy that the Mediterranean Sea fleet is characterized by fishing vessels with an average age of 30 years old, with data coverage reaching about 76 percent, whereas the Black Sea has a younger fleet (24 years on average), with very low data coverage (only 26 percent).

The analysis of the fishing fleet segments (Box 4) operating in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea over the period 2018–2019 is based on a total number of 53 fleet segments – defined as the intersections between all predefined vessel groups and all length classes (Box 5). As with the results reported in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018), this analysis revealed a heterogeneous approach to data collection among countries: indeed, several CPCs have aggregated their data and then communicated them to the GFCM by combining the same vessel groups with different length classes. Subsequently, the length ranges of some fleets segments overlap (e.g. “Trawlers between 12–24 m” with “Trawlers above 6 m”).

To facilitate the analysis presented in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries 2020, the 53 fleet segments by which CPCs report data have been sorted into four fleet segment groups, as outlined in Table 6. While these groups remain largely the same as those reported in previous versions of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries, an important difference is found in the name of the “Small-scale vessels” group, which was previously called “Polyvalent vessels (all lengths)”. This change was made to reflect the conclusions of the second meeting of the Working Group on Small-Scale Fisheries (WGSSF) which noted that, in the absence of a definition of small-scale fisheries (SSF), experts advocated to “continue including polyvalent vessels of less than 12 m length overall (LOA) as SSF vessels for data reporting purposes, while polyvalent vessels larger than 12 m should not be included in the SSF group for data analysis” (GFCM, 2019b). As a result, the “Polyvalent vessels” fleet segments (>0 m, >6 m, >12 m, >24 m, 0–24 m, 6–24 m, 12–24 m), previously reported under the umbrella group “Polyvalent vessels (all lengths)”, are now reported under the group “Other fleet segments”. Similarly, in line with the discussions of the WGSSF, longliners below 12 m LOA are included within the “Small-scale vessels” group.

The fleet segment groups “Small-scale vessels” and “Trawlers and beam trawlers” are the main categories in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The prevalence of the “Small-scale vessels” group is only slightly higher in the Black Sea (88.2 percent) compared to the Mediterranean (82.1 percent), while similarly, the fleet segment group “Trawlers and beam trawlers” plays approximately the same importance in the two areas (7.4 percent in the Black Sea versus 7.9 percent in the Mediterranean Sea) (Figure 8).

Based on the available information, the “Small-scale vessels” group represents more than 90 percent of the operating fishing fleet in eight countries – six in the Mediterranean Sea (Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Lebanon, Tunisia and Turkey) and two in the Black Sea (Bulgaria and Ukraine).

Without considering the unallocated fishing vessels, the “Small-scale vessels” group ranges from constituting 73.8 percent of the fleet in the western Mediterranean to 85.8 percent in the central Mediterranean; the “Trawlers and beam trawlers” group stretches from 5 percent in the central Mediterranean to 13.1 percent in the Adriatic Sea; whereas the “Purse seiners and pelagic trawlers” group runs from 2.8 percent in the central Mediterranean to 13.1 percent in the western Mediterranean (Table 8).

The subregional distribution of the main fleet segment groups is illustrated in Figure 9. As shown, the “Small-scale vessels” group is mainly present in the eastern Mediterranean (21 425 vessels, 30 percent of the total) and in the central Mediterranean (17 744 vessels, 24.9 percent of the total).

In contrast, the western Mediterranean (1 985 vessels, 29.5 percent of the total), the Adriatic Sea (1 450 vessels, 21.1 percent of the total) and the eastern Mediterranean (1 421 vessels, 21.1 percent of the total) represent the main subregions in terms of the “Trawlers and beam trawlers” group.

Finally, “Purse seiners and pelagic trawlers” show the most imbalanced geographical distribution, with the western Mediterranean accounting for 54.9 percent of the total fleet (2 401 vessels).

Overall, total capture fisheries production in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea increased irregularly from about one million tonnes in 1970 to almost 1 788 000 tonnes in 1988. Total landings remained relatively stable during most of the 1980s, before declining abruptly in 1990 and 1991, largely due to the collapse of pelagic fisheries in the Black Sea. In the Mediterranean Sea, landings continued to increase until 1994, reaching 1 087 000 tonnes, and subsequently declined irregularly to 760 000 in 2015, with production increasing over the following three years and reaching 805 700 tonnes in 2018. In the Black Sea, landings have varied considerably from one year to another since 1990, showing a generally increasing trend between 1992 and 1995, followed by a decreasing trend in the period 1996–1998, then fluctuations until 2018, when the total reported landings in the Black Sea were 324 100 tonnes (Figure 10).

The combined average landings for the Mediterranean and the Black Sea over the 2016–2018 period amount to 1 175 700 tonnes (787 900 tonnes in the Mediterranean, accounting for 67 percent of the total, and 387 800 tonnes in the Black Sea). This value is slightly higher (2.7 percent) than the catch from the 2014–2016 period, with an increase of 2.9 percent in the Mediterranean Sea and 2.1 percent in the Black Sea. The landings time series (1970–2018) of the largest producers, as well as of countries catching up to 150 000 tonnes and of countries catching up to 20 000 tonnes, are reproduced in Figure 11 and Figure 12 for reference.

In the GFCM area of application, Turkey is the main producer (274 000 tonnes, 23.3 percent of the total), followed by Italy (178 000 tonnes, 15.2 percent) and Algeria (103 000 tonnes, 8.8 percent), which has grown to be the third largest producer from being the fourth in the period 2014–2016. Other countries that contribute at least 5 percent of the total catch are Tunisia (96 300 tonnes, 8.2 percent), Spain (78 500 tonnes, 6.7 percent), Greece (73 000 tonnes, 6.2 percent), Georgia (70 800 tonnes, 6 percent), Croatia (70 000 tonnes, 6 percent) and the Russian Federation (70 000 tonnes, 6 percent) (Figure 14).

In the Mediterranean Sea, Italy continues to be the main producer (22.7 percent), followed by Algeria (13.1 percent), Tunisia (12.2 percent), Spain (10 percent), Greece (9.3 percent), Croatia (8.9 percent), Egypt (6.9 percent), and then Turkey (6.4 percent) (Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 15). The highest percentage increase in the Mediterranean Sea is shown by Turkey (50 770 tonnes, + 20.4 percent); by contrast, the greatest decrease is represented by Morocco (23 200 tonnes, - 10.6 percent) (Figure 16).

In addition to the CPCs described above, others that have shifted in the rankings from The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries 2018 (FAO, 2018) include Spain (78 500 tonnes and 6.5 percent), which increased its contribution to Mediterranean landings by 7.8 percent compared to the period 2014–2016, now becoming the fifth largest producer in the GFCM area of application and the fourth in the Mediterranean Sea. In contrast, Croatia’s landings decreased by around 6.4 percent (70 000 tonnes) and the country now ranks as the eighth largest producer (it was the fifth in the period 2014–2016) (Figure 16).

In the Black Sea, Turkey dominates the catch (57.6 percent), although it accounts for a lower percentage compared to the period 2014–2016, when it brought in 67.6 percent. The other countries are Georgia (18.3 percent), the Russian Federation (18.1 percent), Bulgaria (2.2 percent), Romania (2.1 percent) and Ukraine (1.9 percent) (Figure 17). The most evident increase compared to the period 2014–2016 is shown by Georgia (accounting for 70 900 tonnes in 2018, + 78.9 percent), whose landing statistics largely depend on the fluctuating catch of anchovy and have been subject to an important review within the work carried out under the umbrella of the WGBS. Romania also has shown an important increase in landings (+ 73.9 percent) followed by Ukraine (+ 23.3 percent). Bulgarian catch remains quite constant, whereas Turkey has decreased its contribution to Black Sea landings by around 13 percent (see Table 9, Figure 12 and Figure 16).

Taking into account the contribution of each fleet component to the average 2016–2018 landings data, as transmitted by CPCs through the DCRF Task II.1 “Landings,” and classifying the fleet segments as defined in Chapter 1, the group “Purse seiners and pelagic trawlers” continues to be the segment responsible for the largest share of total landings (50.7 percent), with similar percentages in the Mediterranean Sea (50 percent) and the Black Sea (52.8 percent) (Figure 18). “Trawlers and beam trawlers” is the second largest fleet segment group (23.2 percent) in terms of its contribution to the landings, with a higher importance in the Mediterranean Sea (27 percent) than in the Black Sea (12.6 percentage). The group “Small-scale vessels” has a similar impact in both the Mediterranean (15.4 percent) and the Black Sea (13.9 percent). Finally, the miscellaneous group “Other fleet segments” accounts for 11.2 percent of the total, with a higher impact on landings in the Black Sea (20.7 percent) than in the Mediterranean (7.7 percent).

The three species groups most caught over the period 2016–2018 remain the same as those from the average landings reported in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018): “Herrings, sardines, anchovies” (633 000 tonnes), “Miscellaneous coastal fishes” (130 000 tonnes) and “Miscellaneous pelagic fishes” (87 000 tonnes). These three groups constitute 72.3 percent of the total reported landings in the entire GFCM area of application, representing a slight increase from the 71.1 percent of the period 2014–2016. Seven other species groups contributing more than 1.5 percent to the total landings amount to 22.5 percent of the total landings, and the combination of all remaining species contributing less than 1.5 percent to the total landings amount to 5.2 percent overall (Table 10, Figure 19).

Compared with those of the whole GFCM area of application, the main species groups contributing to landings in just the Mediterranean Sea are very similar. Nonetheless, the contribution of small pelagic species (i.e. the combination of “Herrings, sardines, anchovies” and “Miscellaneous pelagic fishes”) is moderately lower (44.3 percent of total Mediterranean landings versus 53.8 percent of total GFCM area of application landings). A slight increase is noted for “Miscellaneous coastal fishes” (4.3 percent more than in the whole GFCM area of application) and “Squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses” (2.4 percent more) (Figure 20).

In the Black Sea (Figure 21), the situation is opposite, with small pelagic species dominating (in particular “Herrings, sardines, anchovies,” with 73.2 percent) compared to the Mediterranean (44.3 percent) (Figure 20) and smaller contributions from other species groups, reflecting the lower diversity of the catch (see subregional analysis below). Moreover, in comparison with the Mediterranean, where they account for 2.3 percent of the catch, “Clams, cockles, arkshells” are more relevant (the second group in terms of importance, representing 8.8 percent of the total catch, 4.3 percent more than in the whole GFCM area of application). “Shrimps and prawns,” on the other hand, represent a very low percentage of the catch (0.7 percent contribution to the Black Sea’s landings, 3.3 percent less than in the whole GFCM area of application) and are therefore included in the “Others” group.

In the whole GFCM area of application, European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and sardine (Sardina pilchardus) continue to be the main species captured (333 340 tonnes and 185 700 tonnes on average, respectively), followed by European sprat (Sprattus sprattus) (57 400 tonnes). Seven species other than the small pelagic ones appear in the list of species contributing more than 1 percent to the total catch: two gastropods – striped venus clam (Chamelea gallina) and rapa whelk (Rapana venosa) – and five demersal species – gobies nei (Gobiidae), deep-water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris), bogue (Boops boops), European hake (Merluccius merluccius) and red mullet (Mullus barbatus) (Table 11, Figure 22).

Trends in landings of the main priority species (see Table 1) over the period 1970–2018 (Figure 23, Figure 24) reveal a variety of dynamics: landings of all the main pelagic species show large fluctuations, with European anchovy, for example, climbing from 275 100 tonnes in 1970 to 338 800 in 2018, with a collapse between 1989 and 1992 (reaching a minimum of 161 300 tonnes in 1991), followed by an irregular trend. Sardine landings fluctuate from 144 700 tonnes (1970) to 185 700 tonnes (2018) with a peak of 287 300 tonnes in 1987. An important fluctuation is also noted for European sprat, with landing values oscillating from around 4 400 tonnes in 1970 (minimum) to 38 800 in 2018 and a maximum of 120 900 tonnes in 2011. Round sardinella (Sardinella aurita) landings range from 11 600 tonnes (1970) to 8 500 tonnes (2018) with a peak of 20 500 tonnes in 2008. On the other hand, horse mackerel (Trachurus mediterraneus) catch shows an abrupt decline in the early 1990s (from around 100 000 tonnes to around 20 000 tonnes) and has since remained at a low level up to 2018. As for demersal species, European hake, whiting (Merlangius merlangus), Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) and turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) show continuous declines in catch since the 1980s–1990s, while sole (Solea solea) shows an abrupt decline in the late 1990s (from more than 8 000 to less than 5 000 tonnes) and has remained at low levels since. Both mullet species, i.e. red mullet and surmullet (Mullus surmuletus), as well as priority mollusc and most of the crustacean species, i.e. common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), rapa whelk, spottail mantis shrimp (Squilla mantis), deep-water rose shrimp, blue and red shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) and giant red shrimp (Aristaeomorpha foliacea), show a generally increasing trend, with fluctuations in some cases over recent years. Among those, four priority species have experienced their maximum landings values in the most recent years: deep-water rose shrimp (25 900 tonnes in 2018), rapa whelk (16 500 tonnes in 2018), blue and red shrimp (4 400 tonnes in 2018) and giant red shrimp (2 900 tonnes in 2017). On the other hand, for species of conservation concern such as European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and piked dogfish (Squalus acanthias), a steep decline in catch, with close to zero catch in recent years, has been observed (Figure 23, Figure 24).

Two priority species are not included in Figure 24. The first one is red coral (Corallium rubrum) (Box 15), whose FAO data differ from their GFCM data from 2013 onwards, when GFCM data sources became the official submissions made and validated by CPCs to the GFCM in line with Recommendation GFCM/36/2012/1 , subsequently repealed by Recommendation GFCM/43/2019/4 on a management plan for the sustainable exploitation of red coral in the Mediterranean Sea. FAO statistics, on the other hand, also include catch estimates based on trade information. The second species not included is the Atlantic bonito (Sarda sarda), which has been listed recently as one of the priority species for the Black Sea, with its catch ranging from 20 700 tonnes (1970) to 35 500 tonnes (2018) across the whole GFCM area of application.

By basin, sardine and European anchovy continue to be the most relevant species in the Mediterranean Sea, together accounting for 37.1 percent of total landings (in line with data from the period 2014–2016, with a large diversity of species significantly contributing to the catch, i.e. 17 species accounting for at least 1 percent of total landings). In the Black Sea, the predominant species is undoubtedly the Black Sea anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus), with 57.3 percent of total landings, followed by the European sprat, with 14.7 percent: both species account for 72 percent of landings in the region, i.e. around 2 percent more than in the period 2014–2016 (Figure 25, Figure 26).

The breakdown of capture fisheries production by GFCM subregions is here reproduced on the basis of the available landing data as transmitted by countries to the GFCM through the DCRF (Task I “Global figures of national fisheries,” Task II.1 “Operating vessels and landings by fleet segment and GSA,” Task II.2 Landing “Catch by fleet segment and GSA”) for the period 2016–2018, which were then extrapolated to the total catch statistics for the Mediterranean and the Black Sea that are stored in the FAO-GFCM capture production database.

The results of the analysis show that the western Mediterranean continues to be the most productive Mediterranean subregion (22 percent of total landings, with 258 300 tonnes). The Adriatic Sea, the central Mediterranean and the eastern Mediterranean have almost the same share of landings, with 15.2 percent (179 000 tonnes), 14.7 percent (172 300 tonnes) and 15.2 percent (178 200 tonnes), respectively. The Black Sea has the highest capture fisheries production in weight overall (33 percent of the total, with 387 800 tonnes) (Figure 27).

In general, the dynamics reported in The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018) continue to hold true, with the large majority of the catch in a given subregion being declared by countries belonging to this subregion and only a few cases of fleets from countries outside the subregion contributing a small percentage of its total catch (Figure 28).

In the western Mediterranean, Algeria (39.9 percent) brings in the largest share of landings by weight, followed by Spain (30.4 percent) and Italy (16.3 percent). The three together account for 86.5 percent of all landings in the subregion, with Morocco and France contributing the remaining 9 percent and 4.5 percent, respectively.

In the Adriatic Sea, landings by weight are dominated by Italy (56.8 percent) and Croatia (39.1 percent), which account for 95.9 percent of all landings in the subregion, followed by Albania (3.5 percent), Montenegro (0.5 percent) and Slovenia (0.1 percent).

In the central Mediterranean, landings by weight are dominated by Tunisia (55.9 percent), followed by Italy (20.3 percent) and Libya (17.1 percent), the three of which account for 93.2 percent of all landings in the subregion, followed by Greece (5.5 percent) and Malta (1.2 percent).

In the eastern Mediterranean, landings by weight are mostly split between Greece (35.6 percent), Egypt (30.5 percent) and Turkey (28.5 percent), which together account for 94.6 percent of all landings in the subregion, followed by Lebanon (1.8 percent), Palestine (1.7 percent), the Syrian Arab Republic (0.9 percent), Israel (0.6 percent) and Cyprus (0.4 percent).

Finally, in the Black Sea, Turkey brings in the largest share of landings by weight (57.6 percent), followed by Georgia (18.3 percent), the Russian Federation (18.1 percent), Bulgaria (2.2 percent), Romania (2.1 percent) and Ukraine (1.9 percent).

A further breakdown of the available data at the GSA level (Figure 29) reveals that six GSAs alone contribute 71.1 percent of total landings in the whole GFCM area of application, or around 835 500 tonnes. Geographical subarea 29 (Black Sea), the largest GSA, has the largest share of landings with 30.8 percent of the total (362 400 tonnes), i.e. more than double the contribution of the second most productive GSA, namely GSA 17 (northern Adriatic Sea), which accounts for 145 400 tonnes (12.4 percent of the total). The third most important of the GSAs with landings greater than 100 000 tonnes is GSA 4 (Algeria), accounting for 10.4 percent, or 121 700 tonnes. Three GSAs have landings between 50 000 and 100 000 tonnes: GSA 22 (Aegean Sea) at 7.9 percent (93 300 tonnes), GSA 26 (southern Levant Sea) at 5.4 percent (59 500 tonnes) and GSA 6 (northern Spain) at 4.8 percent (52 800 tonnes). The remaining 23 GSAs all together contribute 28.9 percent of total landings in the whole GFCM area of application, with around 340 200 tonnes (Figure 29).

In 2018, 15.7 percent (126 300 tonnes) of the total catch in the Mediterranean Sea was landed in ten ports, mainly located in the southern part of the basin, whereas the ten main landing ports in the Black Sea receive around 42 percent (159 000 tonnes) of the total landings in this area (Box 7).

In terms of species contribution in the different subregions (Figure 30), sardine is the main capture species in the Adriatic Sea (72 400 tonnes, 39.4 percent), the western Mediterranean (65 400 tonnes, 24.7 percent) and the central Mediterranean (16 700 tonnes, 10.3 percent), while European anchovy is the predominant species in the eastern Mediterranean (28 600 tonnes, 15.8 percent) and the Black Sea (222 200 tonnes, 57.3 percent).

In the western Mediterranean, European anchovy (39 300 tonnes, 14.8 percent) and sardinellas nei (Sardinella spp.) (22 900 tonnes, 8.6 percent) are the second and the third main species, whereas the remaining 51.9 percent (137 500 tonnes) corresponds to a large number of species contributing to the catch in this region (Figure 30).

In the central Mediterranean, other relevant species are sardinellas nei (12 900 tonnes, 8 percent), European anchovy (9 200 tonnes, 5.7 percent) and common Pandora (Pagellus erythrinus) (8 800 tonnes, 5 percent). The sum of all other species, each contributing less than 5 percent, constitutes the remaining 70.7 percent of the total with 114 800 tonnes (Figure 30).

In the Adriatic Sea, four species, namely sardine (72 400 tonnes, 39.4 percent), European anchovy (34 000 tonnes, 18.5 percent), striped venus clam (13 900 tonnes, 7.6 percent) and European hake (4 600 tonnes, 2.5 percent) account for 68 percent of the landings (Figure 30).

In the eastern Mediterranean, sardine (26 500 tonnes, 14.7 percent) and marine fishes nei (11 100 tonnes, 6.2 percent) are the other relevant species, with all the others accounting for the remaining 63.3 percent (Figure 30).

In the Black Sea, in addition to European anchovy, species of particular importance in terms of landings are European sprat (57 176 tonnes, 14.7 percent), striped venus clam (33 500 tonnes, 8.6 percent) and rapa whelk (13 980 tonnes, 3.6 percent), with all the other species contributing the remaining 15.7 percent of the total (61 045 tonnes) (Figure 30).

Overall, the diversity of species in the catch is much higher in the western, central and eastern Mediterranean (nearly 40 species). In comparison, the lowest number of species that, summed together, account for 90 percent of the total catch in the Adriatic and the Black Sea is lower (slightly more than 20 for the Adriatic and less than ten for the Black Sea) (Figure 31).

The data used to compile the analyses contained within this chapter were collected under the GFCM Data Collection Reference Framework (DCRF) Task VI relating to socio-economic aspects, including Task VI.1 on economic and social data, Task VI.2 on operating costs, Task VI.3 on species value and Task VI.4 on other economic aspects (for more information on the DCRF, see Box 1). Specific analyses were also carried out based on data from a group of selected countries that participated in a GFCM socio-economic survey initiative, an activity foreseen by the GFCM mid-term strategy (2017–2020) towards the sustainability of Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries (Box 8). The results of the socio-economic survey were also used to complement official DCRF transmissions (this was, for instance, the case for Algeria and Turkey where some socio-economic variables included in Tasks VI.2 and VI.4 were adjusted to support coherency). The trade data used in this chapter are from the FAO Fisheries Commodities Production and Trade database. All monetary values listed in this chapter have been adjusted for inflation and are listed as constant 2018 USD to facilitate comparison across reference years (World Bank, 2020a, 2020b).

In general, it should be stressed that the quality of socio-economic data submissions has significantly improved in comparison with 2016, the reference year supporting the preparation of the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018), although the quality of data still demands improvement for several indicators. In some cases, due to incomplete socio-economic data relating to specific geographical subareas and/or fleet segment groups as a result of these quality issues, it was necessary to exclude certain contracting parties and cooperating non-contracting parties (CPCs) or some of their fleet segment groups from select aggregated analyses. Where a limited number of CPCs were included for specific indicators, it is noted in the text.

Specific analyses by fleet segment group make reference to the fleet segment groups outlined in Table 6, namely: small-scale vessels; trawlers and beam trawlers; purse seiners and pelagic trawlers; and other fleet segments. However, to better analyse the economic characteristics of these groups, particularly their cost structures, this chapter further divides the “Other fleet segments” group into “Other: longliners and tuna purse seiners” and “Other: polyvalent vessels and dredgers”. Furthermore, as noted in Chapter 1, the aggregation of fleet segments included within the group “Small-scale vessels” differs from the previous editions of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2016; 2018) in order to reflect the conclusions of the second meeting of the Working Group on Small-Scale Fisheries (GFCM, 2019b). Toward the same end, SSF refers to the “Small-scale vessels” fleet segment group, whereas all other fleet segment groups are referred to collectively as “Industrial fisheries”.

Another important methodological aspect to underline is how significant improvements in the transmission of socio-economic data to DCRF over the last two to three years have facilitated undertaking deeper analyses, which are included within this socio-economic chapter. However, the available data are not yet adequate to present a time series or comparative analysis of major trends for most socio-economic indicators. Such a dynamic analysis, which is of particular relevance for the increased inclusion of socio-economics in fisheries management, is expected to be introduced in subsequent editions of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries.

The total revenue from marine capture fisheries in the GFCM area of application is estimated to be USD 3.6 billion in 2018 (USD 3.4 billion in the Mediterranean and USD 251 million in the Black Sea). Six countries, namely Italy, Greece, Turkey, Spain, Algeria and Tunisia, account for 83 percent of the total revenue (Figure 32). As such, this estimate represents the value at first sale of fish from vessel-based marine capture fisheries in FAO major fishing area 37, prior to any processing or value-addition activities. Shore-based fishing activities, such as gleaning (i.e. foot-based fishing, such as shellfish collecting), and some fishing activities performed by vessels that are not registered (e.g. vessels below 5 gross tonnage (GT) in the case of Tunisia) are not considered in this estimate. The wider economic impact of fisheries along the value chain in the region, including direct and indirect and induced effects, is estimated to be 2.6 times the value at first sale (FAO, 2018), or approximately USD 9.4 billion.

A reconstruction of revenue (adjusted for inflation and calculated as constant 2018 USD) from 2013 to 2018 shows that total revenue has fluctuated between USD 3.2 and 3.7 billion over this period (Figure 33). Compared to 2016 (the reference year for the 2018 edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries) (FAO, 2018), revenue has increased by approximately 10 percent. It can be assumed, however, that this increase is at least partially due to more complete and accurate data submissions from all fleet segment groups through the DCRF platform since its introduction in 2016.

Small-scale fisheries contribute 29 percent of the total revenue (29 percent in the Mediterranean and 22 percent in the Black Sea). Considering the revised calculation of the small-scale vessels fleet segment group, this represents an increase of three percent compared with the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018). However, in some countries, including Cyprus, France, Greece, Lebanon, Morocco, Slovenia and Ukraine, the contribution of SSF represents approximately 50 percent or more of total revenue from marine capture fisheries (Figure 32).

It is important to note that this employment figure does not account for non-vessel-based employment, such as work done in the pre-and post-harvest sectors and by gleaners and other shore-based activities, as well as the frequently “invisible” work of women (FAO, 2017a; European Commission, 2019). These non-vessel-based jobs are estimated by the World Bank/FAO/WorldFish Hidden Harvest report to employ almost 2.5 times as many people as those onboard vessels (World Bank, 2012), meaning that the total employment in the fisheries sector in the GFCM area of application is estimated to be approximately 785 000 people.

Furthermore, fisheries provide jobs where they are most needed, namely, in rural coastal communities. On average, employment onboard fishing vessels represents approximately 0.1 percent of total coastal populations (i.e. approximately one fisher per every 1 000 coastal residents). However, this number can reach between 0.6 and 1.1 percent (i.e. approximately one fisher per every 95 to 200 coastal residents) in select countries, such as Tunisia, Croatia and Morocco (Figure 35).

At the regional level, SSF contribute to 57 percent of total employment onboard fishing vessels (55 percent in the Mediterranean and 71 percent in the Black Sea). Considering the revised calculation of the small-scale vessels fleet segment group, this value represents a 4 percent increase from the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018). In some countries, namely Ukraine, Bulgaria, Greece, Lebanon, Slovenia, Cyprus, France, Croatia, Tunisia and Turkey, the contribution of SSF ranges between 70 and 90 percent of total employment (Figure 34).

As shown in Figure 32 and Figure 34, benefits from fisheries are not equally distributed between SSF and industrial fisheries. While employment is fairly evenly split (Figure 34), the two sectors accounting for 57 percent and 43 percent of total employment, respectively, SSF generate only 29 percent of total revenue (Figure 32), significantly less than the 71 percent of revenue generated by industrial fisheries, which is broken down into 39.4 percent from trawlers and beam trawlers, 23.8 percent from purse seiners and pelagic trawlers, 5.2 percent from longliners and tuna purse seiners, and 2.8 percent from polyvalent vessels and dredgers (Figure 36).

At the subregional level, benefits are more evenly distributed (Figure 37), with the western Mediterranean accounting for about 32 percent of employment and 33.4 percent of revenue, followed by the eastern Mediterranean (28.4 percent of employment and 24.1 percent of revenue), the central Mediterranean (21.8 percent of employment and 19.2 percent of revenue), the Adriatic Sea (7.7 percent of employment and 16.5 percent of revenue) and the Black Sea (10.1 percent of employment and 6.8 percent of revenue). The Adriatic Sea is notable as the only subregion where the share of revenue is significantly greater than the share of employment, likely reflective of the lower percentage of small-scale vessels in this subregion (see Figure 9).

While Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries are predominantly multi-species fisheries, 22 species represent over 70 percent of the total landing value in the Mediterranean (Figure 38) and just eight represent over 90 percent of the total landing value in the Black Sea (Figure 39). These values account for all CPCs, as a result of improved data submissions through the DCRF Task VI.3. Where Task VI.3 data were not available, it was possible to reconstruct values by applying average prices per species within the subregion to available information on the volume of landings per species from the DCRF Task II.2 or the STATLANT 37A (FAO, 2020d) databases.

The main species of commercial importance vary considerably by fleet segment group and subregion (Figure 40). For example, for SSF, the species of greatest commercial importance by subregion are: the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) in the western Mediterranean, European hake (Merluccius merluccius) in the central and eastern Mediterranean, the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) in the Adriatic Sea and whiting (Merlangius merlangus) in the Black Sea. Considering that SSF represent 57 percent of the total employment onboard fishing vessels in the region (see here), these species play a crucial role in supporting livelihoods.

An overview of revenue by fleet segment group and by GFCM subregion was introduced in the regional socio-economic overview at the beginning of this chapter (see here), particularly in Figure 36 and Figure 37. However, further analysis of revenue at a subregional and fleet segment level shows that the contribution of each fleet segment group to revenue varies across the different subregions (Figure 41). Trawlers and beam trawlers represent the highest source of revenue in the western Mediterranean (41.4 percent), in the Adriatic Sea (58.3 percent) and in the central Mediterranean (40.4 percent). On the other hand, in the eastern Mediterranean, small-scale vessels represent the highest source of revenue (38.6 percent) and in the Black Sea, purse seiners and pelagic trawlers represent the highest source of revenue (53.1 percent).

Operating costs include the variable and fixed costs necessary to carry out the fishing activity. These costs provide insight into the activity of the vessel and can include: personnel costs (i.e. costs related to remunerating the crew, including social security costs and imputed value of unpaid labour); energy costs (costs of consumed fuel and lubricants for the vessel); repair and maintenance costs (costs for maintenance and repairs of fishing equipment, gear and vessel parts); commercial costs (costs related to sales of vessel outputs, including fish market or wholesaler fees, transportation of products, purchasing of ice, boxes and packaging, etc.); other variable costs (costs of all purchased goods and services related directly or indirectly to fishing effort, such as bait, food consumed during the fishing operation, etc.) and fixed costs (costs not directly connected to the operational activities of the vessel and which remain fixed, regardless of the level of fishing activity in a given year, such as bookkeeping, vessel insurance, legal and/or bank expenses, annual quota for fishers associations, dock expenses, renewal of fishing licenses, etc.).

While the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018) presented a preliminary analysis of the fishing fleet’s operating costs based on four countries, since then, full or partial data submissions on operating costs reported through the DCRF platform have improved and information is currently available for 15 CPCs including Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey, allowing for further analysis of cost structures.

For this group of CPCs, personnel costs and energy costs represent the most significant portion of operating costs, accounting for 45.2 percent and 24.7 percent of total costs, respectively. However, the importance of personnel and energy costs varies at the fleet segment group level (Figure 42). For example, personnel costs reach as high as 57.2 percent of total costs for small-scale vessels, while energy costs represent only 16.4 percent of total costs. On the other hand, for trawlers and beam trawlers, energy costs are relatively high, accounting for 36.5 percent of all operating costs, while personnel costs are relatively lower, representing only 34 percent of all operating costs.

Similarly, commercial costs are relatively more important for purse seiners and pelagic trawlers (20.4 percent of total operating costs) than for small-scale vessels (7.1 percent of total operating costs), indicating perhaps a more complex value chain for the former and a shorter, more direct value chain for the latter (see here). Commercial costs are particularly significant for purse seiners and pelagic trawlers in select GFCM subregions, representing up to 15.3 percent of total operating costs in the eastern Mediterranean and 20.5 percent of total operating costs in the Black Sea.

Consideration of revenue and operating costs together provides insight into the profitability of the sector and the wealth generated by fishing activities. In this respect, two indicators are useful: gross cash flow and gross value added (GVA). This section presents analyses of these indicators based on data fully or partially submitted by a group of 13 CPCs , which includes Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey.

The first indicator, gross cash flow, represents the total amount of cash generated each year by the fishing activity and gives an appreciation of profitability. It can be considered as the main indicator for assessing the feasibility of the survival of the fishing activity over the short term and is calculated as revenue minus operating costs. The gross cash flow for all fleet segment groups is positive, representing on average 24 percent of revenue, indicating that the revenues from landings were greater than the total gross costs and that, on average, the fishing fleet in the region is profitable.

However, gross cash flow varies widely by fleet segment group, representing only 13.6 percent of revenue for small-scale vessels, as opposed to 28.5 percent of revenue, on average, for the industrial fleet segment groups (Figure 43). The low profit margins (i.e. gross cash flow) of SSF show the small-scale sector’s shortage of cash on hand to invest in itself (e.g. for gear or marketing improvements), as well as its limited financial resilience in the face of unforeseen shocks (e.g. the COVID-19 pandemic).

However, gross cash flow does not fully capture the total amount of wealth generated each year by the fishing activity. A second indicator, GVA, which is calculated as revenue minus all operating costs excluding personnel costs, is a better indicator of economic welfare (i.e. wealth created) since it considers personnel costs (i.e. salaries) not as a cost (as in the case of gross cash flow), but as a positive contribution to the economy. In this sense, GVA measures the contribution to gross domestic product by the fishing activity.

Available data from the 13 CPCs mentioned at the beginning of this section (which represent a total revenue of USD 2.7 billion, or about three quarters of the total revenue from fishing in the region) were analysed and the total GVA from fishing in these CPCs has been calculated at USD 1.6 billion, putting the GVA (for all fleet segment groups considered in the calculation) as a percentage of revenue in this selected group of countries at around 58.5 percent.

In terms of the percentage of total GVA obtained from fishing by each fleet segment group, trawlers and beam trawlers represent 34.7 percent; small-scale vessels represent 32.7 percent; purse seiners and pelagic trawlers represent 21.4 percent; longliners and tuna purse seiners represent 7.0 percent; and polyvalent vessels and dredgers represent 4.3 percent. The fact that the GVA of small-scale vessels is second only to trawlers and beam trawlers underlines that, while SSF may experience limited profit margins (and therefore limited capacity to invest in itself), this fleet segment group is nevertheless an important generator of wealth for the fishing sector.

The contribution of each fleet segment group to GVA varies across the different GFCM subregions (Figure 44). Trawlers and beam trawlers represent the main contributor to GVA in the Adriatic Sea (49.1 percent of total GVA from fishing in the subregion) and the central Mediterranean (37.7 percent), whereas small-scale vessels represent the main contributor to GVA in the western Mediterranean (50.9 percent of total GVA from fishing in the subregion) and the eastern Mediterranean (36.4 percent), and the second highest contributor to GVA in the central Mediterranean (32.2 percent). Purse seiners and pelagic trawlers represent the main contributor to GVA only in the Black Sea (56.7 percent of total GVA from fishing in the subregion). These values closely correlate with revenue by fleet segment group and subregion (see Figure 41).

A more in-depth analysis of the wealth generated by fishing activities (i.e. GVA) should also take into account the operating subsidies (e.g. the amount of direct monetary subsidies) received by fishing vessel owners from the government, either to support the fishing activity or to facilitate investments. While an analysis of subsidies in relation to GVA is limited by a lack of data (data has been partially provided by only eight of the 13 CPCs concerned), a preliminary analysis provides indications of the sector’s reliance on subsidies. Overall, subsidies represent 2.7 percent of GVA for all fleet segment groups. They are highest for trawlers and beam trawlers (4.5 percent) and for purse seiners and pelagic trawlers (2.5 percent) and below average for small-scale vessels (1.7 percent).

Physical capital (i.e. the value of the fleet, including the vessel hulls, engines, onboard equipment and gear) is one of the basic indicators of fishing capacity. Data on physical capital used in this chapter are preliminary (only 15 CPCs reporting fully or partially, including Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey). The value of fishing fleets (all segments included) for this group of CPCs is USD 2.5 billion, with trawlers and beam trawlers representing 37.6 percent of this total value, purse seiners and pelagic trawlers representing 31.8 percent and small-scale vessels representing 21 percent.

However, across the region, the relative contributions of the different fleet segment groups to physical capital varies significantly (Figure 45). Of particular note is the high value of trawlers and beam trawlers in the western Mediterranean (representing 57.1 percent of the entire value of the subregional fleet) and the high value of purse seiners and pelagic trawlers in the Black Sea (representing 71.1 percent of the entire value of the subregional fleet).

Annual investments are one of the indicators used to measure economic dynamics in the fisheries sector. Data are preliminary, with only 15 CPCs reporting fully or partially, including Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Montenegro, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey. Total annual investments are around USD 136.2 million, with 42.2 percent of the value of all investments in the region going to small-scale vessels, whereas 31.9 percent go to purse seiners and pelagic trawlers and 20.3 percent to trawlers and beam trawlers.

Across the region, investments vary significantly between fleet segment groups (Figure 46). The high value of investment in purse seiners and pelagic trawlers in the Black Sea, for example, (60.7 percent of all investments in the subregion) is consistent with the high value of this fleet in this subregion (Figure 45). The high value of investment in small-scale vessels in the eastern Mediterranean (55.8 percent of all investments in the subregion), on the other hand, may reflect more precise data collection resulting from the socio-economic survey carried out there.

As shown in Figure 36 and Figure 37, employment onboard fishing vessels varies across subregions and fleet segment groups. A further look at employment (Figure 47) shows that, at a regional level, small-scale vessels generate the highest number of (absolute) on-vessel jobs (56.6 percent of total employment), followed by purse seiners and pelagic trawlers (21.3 percent), and trawlers and beam trawlers (15.9 percent).

The importance of each fleet segment group in terms of absolute employment, however, varies significantly across subregions. For example, in the western Mediterranean, purse seiners and pelagic trawlers and small-scale vessels employ the highest number of people: 40.3 percent and 39.8 percent, respectively, of employment in the subregion. In the eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the central Mediterranean, small-scale vessels contribut 61 percent, 71.5 percent and 70.6 percent respectively. In the Adriatic Sea, small-scale vessels, followed by trawlers and beam trawlers, employ the highest number of people, accounting for 51.3 percent and 25.3 percent, respectively, of employment in the subregion.

The absolute employment data here indicated take into account the number of workers employed onboard vessels, including those working on a part-time basis (who may supplement their income, in some cases, with other part-time employment in other sectors; see Box 11). To facilitate the comparison of workloads across subregions and fleet segment groups, full time equivalent (FTE) employment can be a useful indicator. Full-time equivalent employment equals the number of full-time equivalent jobs and is calculated as total hours worked divided by the average annual number of hours worked in a full-time job. The commonly used international threshold for full-time employment in fishing is 2 000 hours per year; labour input below this threshold is considered as part-time.

Although full or partial data submissions on FTE reported through the DCRF platform have improved in recent years, the fact remains that not all CPCs report both absolute and FTE employment. As a result, the information available to calculate employment in terms of FTE represents about 86 percent of the information that is available on employment in absolute terms. In FTE terms, the contribution of each fleet segment group to total employment is more evenly distributed (Figure 47). Small-scale vessels still generate the highest number of jobs, but to a lesser extent (40.3 percent of FTE employment), owing to the fact that many small-scale fishers are employed on a part-time basis. On the other hand, the contributions of purse seiners and pelagic trawlers and of trawlers and beam trawlers are respectively 25.7 percent and 23.9 percent of total onboard vessel employment. It is important to recognize, however, that FTE does not fully capture SSF work, as it only considers time at sea, whereas a significant part of SSF work is shore-based.

Across the region, the importance of each fleet segment group, in terms of FTE, also varies significantly. For example, in the western Mediterranean, the fleet segment group employing the highest number of people in terms of FTE are purse seiners and pelagic trawlers (53.2 percent of FTE employment in the subregion). In the Adriatic Sea, trawlers and beam trawlers employ the highest number of people in terms of FTE (47.9 percent of FTE employment in the subregion). In all other subregions, small-scale vessels employ the highest number of people in terms of FTE, with the following proportions: 40.8 percent in the central Mediterranean, 47 percent in the eastern Mediterranean and 53.8 percent in the Black Sea.

Furthermore, the nature of the work carried out onboard, as well as the number of people working onboard a vessel at a given time, differ by fleet segment group. As illustrated by Figure 48, in those CPCs for which employment data are available, each small-scale vessel employs, on average, two fishers, whereas the average trawler or beam trawler employs approximately six fishers and the average purse seiner or pelagic trawler employs approximately 12 fishers.

Remuneration is the main measure of the fishing sector’s contribution to the livelihoods of fishers. It can include both cash and in-kind payments (e.g. a share of the catch for self-consumption) and can either be fixed or in proportion to the fishing vessel’s profit (revenue minus certain operating costs). Remuneration per fisher, which in the present section only considers cash payments (thereby excluding in-kind payments), is calculated by dividing total personnel costs by the number of fishers. The analysis presented in this section is based on data fully or partially submitted by a group of 13 CPCs including Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey.

Annual remuneration per fisher (absolute employment) is, on average, around USD 6 671 in the GFCM area of application. Fishers in the two main industrial fleet segment groups – trawlers and beam trawlers, and purse seiners and pelagic trawlers – earn annually, on average, USD 11 273 and USD 9 122 respectively, almost double the annual remuneration per small-scale fisher (Figure 49).

For insight into the demographic patterns of employment in the fishing sector in the GFCM area of application, the DCRF requests information on the age distribution of fishers (optional under Task VI-4). Information on the age distribution of on-vessel employment is available, at least partly, for 13 CPCs including Albania, Algeria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Egypt, Greece, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Romania, Slovenia, Tunisia and Turkey. For this group of CPCs, on average, 17 percent of the crew is less than 25 years old, 35 percent is between 25 and 40 years old, and 49 percent is over 40 years old, revealing that the fisheries in the GFCM area of application have a relatively older workforce.

The age distribution also varies by fleet segment group. For example, while the majority of fishers (60 percent) working on small-scale vessels are over the age of 40, this fleet segment group still employs a higher total number of young people than any other fleet segment group (Figure 50). To secure a future for the fishing sector, particularly for SSF, efforts are needed to support the generational turnover of the sector (see Chapter 6).

A value chain is “the full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production, transformation and delivery to final consumers, and eventual disposal after use” (Naji, 2015). Improving the understanding of the distribution of benefits along the value chain will provide insight into the dynamics that may affect fisher behaviour and thus fisheries management.

Other than information on the value at first sale and commercial costs (see Chapter 3), data transmitted through the DCRF provide limited insight into the commercialization of the catch from Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries. With a view to improving knowledge of fisheries value chains in the region, the GFCM socio-economic survey (see Box 8) collected data on the percentage of landings sold commercially, as well as on the specific destination of landings (when agreed by the country to be included within the questionnaire). The data presented are preliminary and based on the results of the socio-economic surveys in six CPCs, namely, Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco (only for self-consumption), Tunisia and Turkey.

Self-consumption describes the part of the production that is not sold commercially and is, instead, typically distributed amongst the crew members for their own consumption. The share of the landings that are not sold commercially is 7.4 percent for the small-scale vessels group, and varies from 6.5 percent for purse seiners and pelagic trawlers to 2.1 percent for trawlers and beam trawlers (Figure 51). This information suggests that about 37 600 tonnes of fish in total (approximately 5.7 percent of landings) do not therefore make their way into any value chain for this group of CPCs, yet are likely to represent an important component of food security, and in particular to the livelihoods of fishers, in the region.

Of the remaining landings that are sold commercially, the destination at first sale varies depending on the fleet segment group. In general, the main destinations (in terms of value) are fishing port auctions (especially for industrial fisheries, e.g. for purse seiners and pelagic trawlers, auctions account for up to 65 percent) and wholesalers (Figure 52). However, SSF clearly depend on shorter value chains, with direct selling to final consumers, hotels, restaurants and fishmongers representing over 42 percent of sales by value. Quite distinct from other vessel groups, 42 percent of all landings (in terms of value) of longliners and tuna purse seiners are destined to processing.

Fish and fishery products are some of the most highly traded food commodities in the world by value (FAO, 2020c). The Mediterranean and Black Sea region is no exception, with trade of fish products – particularly between European Union and non-European Union CPCs – essential for the profitability of the region’s fisheries sector. Indeed, as demonstrated during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, the closure of borders and restrictions on the import and export of goods had significant impacts on the sector (GFCM, 2020b; see also Box 16).

Furthermore, trade is not just essential for industrial fisheries, but also for SSF, where, despite the predominance of short value chains and more direct sales of products at the regional level (see Figure 52), in certain countries, select high-value SSF target species are destined almost exclusively for foreign markets, in particular European Union markets.

The total value of traded fish products (imports plus exports) in the GFCM area of application is USD 41.7 billion, over 11 times the revenue at first sale (Figure 53). As trade data are not collected through the GFCM, data are obtained from the FAO Fishery Commodities Global Production and Trade database (reference year 2018) and are aggregated by country. It is important to note that, due to this aggregation by country, included within the total value are aquaculture products, re-exports, as well as capture fisheries products not originating from the GFCM area of application for those countries bordering multiple FAO fishing areas (i.e. Egypt, France, Morocco and Spain).

In addition to the total value of trade, it is also useful to understand the standardized trade balance (STB), which indicates whether a country is a net importer or a net exporter of fishery products. It is calculated as a percent ratio between the simple balance (exports minus imports) and the total volume of trade (exports plus imports). An STB of negative one indicates 100 percent net imports and an STB of one indicates 100 percent net exports; an STB of zero indicates a perfect balance between imports and exports.

In the GFCM area of application, CPCs are generally net importers (Figure 54). In particular, Montenegro, the Syrian Arab Republic and Lebanon depend almost entirely on imports of fishery products. On the other hand, Morocco – and to a lesser extent also Tunisia and Turkey – has a significant net export ratio. At the subregional level, all GFCM subregions are net importers of fish products (Figure 55), with the Adriatic Sea subregion most highly dependent on imports. However, when analysing trade balances by World Bank income group classification (e.g. lower-middle income economies, upper-middle income economies and high-income economies), a direct correlation emerges between income level and trade balance (Figure 56), with lower-income countries tending to export more and higher-income countries importing more.

According to the analysis carried out in The State of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018), discards in the Mediterranean are estimated at around 230 000 tonnes per year, corresponding to approximately 18 percent of the catch. In the Black Sea, discards are estimated at around 45 000 tonnes (between 10 and 15 percent of the total catch). In both cases, the trawl fishery is generally responsible for the bulk of discards in all the Mediterranean and Black Sea geographical subareas, while available information for small-scale fisheries suggests that the discard rate is generally lower than 10 percent (FAO, 2018).

As previously reported, these estimates “are far from being complete, and suffer from low precision. Information was lacking for many types of fishing gear, countries and GFCM subregions, and most available studies only cover relatively short periods and small areas.” These knowledge gaps underlined the need to expand discard monitoring programmes and to standardize practices, so as to assess discards appropriately and address their important impacts (e.g. discards continue to represent a major source of uncertainty about the actual fishing mortality rates of several commercial stocks).

To address this issue, and also as a response to the priorities identified by Mediterranean and Black Sea countries in the context of international commitments and regional strategies (i.e. the mid-term strategy (2017–2020) towards the sustainability of Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries), the first regional protocol on Monitoring discards in Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries: Methodology for data collection was published in 2019 (FAO, 2019a). This publication and the methodology discussed therein aim to provide a framework for the development and implementation of an efficient, standardized data collection and monitoring system for discards in all Mediterranean and Black Sea countries, involving onboard observations, questionnaires at landing sites and self-sampling (by fishers). It establishes minimum common standards for the collection of discard data, allowing for repeatability and comparisons among fisheries across the region and offering a harmonized basis of knowledge, information and evidence for decision-making by:

• providing a minimum set of standards for the collection of discards data, consistent with GFCM requirements;

• standardizing the data to be collected, including the forms to be used; and

• specifying minimum standards for the development of a data collection programme in countries without a discard monitoring programme.

The publication was produced ahead of the implementation of a GFCM discards monitoring programme in Albania, Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Montenegro, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey and Ukraine, between 2019 and 2020, whose results will provide, in the near future, a clear overview of this phenomenon in these areas and support the identification of appropriate management measures both at the subregional and regional levels.

Box 12 provides, in the form of a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis, a preliminary reflection on the activities carried out during the GFCM discards monitoring programme in those countries. Working from the pros and cons of the methodology used and analysing how the monitoring activities were conducted could help improve and/or capitalize on the different aspects of the programme (e.g. advantages and disadvantages, future developments, how to progress, etc.) with a view to wider implementation across the whole region. A complete reanalysis of discard rates based on the new data and information collected through these programmes is expected to be carried out for the next issue of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries in 2022.

For the purposes of this document, attention was focused on the conservation-priority species listed in the DCRF (GFCM, 2018a; see Table 3), which include both those included in Annex II (endangered or threatened species) and those in Annex III (species whose exploitation is regulated) of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, as well as those on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (IUCN, 2020). Several of those vulnerable species are already included in different GFCM recommendations (Recommendation GFCM/42/2018/2; Recommendation GFCM/35/2011/3 on reducing incidental bycatch of seabirds in fisheries in the GFCM area of application; Recommendation GFCM/35/2011/4 on the incidental bycatch of sea turtles in fisheries in the GFCM area of application; Recommendation GFCM/35/2011/5 on fisheries measures for the conservation of the Mediterranean monk seal in the GFCM area of application; Recommendation GFCM/36/2012/2 on mitigation of incidental catches of cetaceans in the GFCM area of application; Recommendation GFCM/36/2012/3 on fisheries management measures for conservation of sharks and rays in the GFCM area of application and Recommendation GFCM/41/2017/6 on the submission of data on fishing activities in the GFCM area of application).

It is worth noting that the geographical and historical coverage of the data analysed varies greatly, and that only studies reporting individual values of vulnerable species were considered. Therefore, the data presented in this chapter should be considered as a likely underestimate of the frequency and volume of the incidental catch of vulnerable species in the GFCM area of application. Nevertheless, this analysis is more comprehensive than those of previous issues of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2016, 2018). It provides useful insights on the relative impacts of different fishing activities on the different groups of vulnerable species, as well as a comparative subregional perspective, including information on the relative volume and frequency of the incidental catch by species groups.

Overall, from a strictly numerical point of view, sea turtles (around 89 percent) and elasmobranchs (around 8 percent) continue to represent the highest share of reported incidental catch of vulnerable species. Seabirds and marine mammals (together, around 4 percent of the total) are the two groups of bycatch with the lowest numbers of reported specimens. This dynamic is clearly reflected also in the number of specimens comprising bycatch by vessel group (Figure 58); longliners and bottom trawlers are the most relevant vessel groups affecting conservation-priority species in the whole region.

Concerning the spatial distribution of recorded bycatch, the bulk of reported information (i.e. the number of specimens comprising bycatch) is equally distributed between the western and central Mediterranean (around 31 percent in both subregions). In the Adriatic Sea (around 19 percent) and the eastern Mediterranean (around 15 percent), the information is more scattered. The information reported for the Black Sea is very limited (around 2 percent) and refers only to a few groups of vulnerable species (i.e. marine mammals and elasmobranchs) (Figure 59).

Longliners (with 14 064 individuals reported) – set and drifting grouped together – and bottom trawlers (12 351 individuals) are by far the vessel groups with the greatest impact on conservation-priority elasmobranch species in the whole region. According to the collected data, small-scale vessels (7 231 individuals) and pelagic trawlers (2 851 individuals) represent vessel groups with minor impact on this group of vulnerable species. Purse (683 individuals) and tuna seiners (50 individuals) seem to have the lowest impact (Figure 60).

A more variegated picture emerges when considering the impact by vessel group in each of the GFCM subregions (Figure 61). In the Adriatic Sea, the bulk of the records comes from pelagic trawlers (around 81 percent). In the western Mediterranean, almost all the elasmobranch bycatch is attributed to bottom trawlers (92 percent). In the central Mediterranean, longliners (77 percent) represent the vessel group with the absolute highest number of available records (around 12 910 individuals reported in the area). Those numbers demonstrate that, in the central Mediterranean, the biomass and the relative abundance of conservation-priority elasmobranch species is still high when compared to other areas. In the eastern Mediterranean, trawlers (44 percent) still represent the vessel group with the highest incidental catch, with traditional coastal purse seiners (about 10 percent) also responsible for a considerable portion of the elasmobranch bycatch in the area.

A certain level of elasmobranch bycatch by small-scale vessels is reported in all the GFCM subregions, with the bulk of the catch reported from the Black Sea, where around 97 percent of the bycatch is attributed to passive gear (i.e. trammel nets and gillnets). Few records of elasmobranch bycatch in tuna seiners (including tuna traps) are reported from the western Mediterranean (23 individuals) and the Adriatic Sea (17 individuals).

Figure 62 shows the incidental catch of select elasmobranch species in the Mediterranean. Forty-nine species were identified, with the sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus), accounting for 7 884 individuals, and the smooth-hound shark (Mustelus mustelus), at 5 985 individuals – both species present in Annex III of the Barcelona Convention – being the most frequently captured (representing 21 percent and 16 percent of the total elasmobranch bycatch, respectively).

In the Black Sea, about 99 percent of the reported elasmobranch bycatch is represented by the common stingray (Dasyatis pastinaca), comprising 2 051 individuals, a species considered “vulnerable” and described as showing a decreasing trend in abundance by the IUCN Red List. The low presence of the piked dogfish (Squalus acanthias) (Annex III of the Barcelona Convention) in the subregion’s bycatch composition could confirm the recorded decrease in biomass of this species (GFCM, 2018d).

Sea turtles are incidentally caught by various types of gear (Figure 63). The highest rates of capture of these animals are attributed to fisheries operating in coastal waters or near-shore zones (potential feeding areas for sea turtles). From the analysed data, longliners (197 866 individuals) and bottom trawlers (172 089 individuals) are the vessel groups with the highest incidental catch of sea turtles. Small-scale vessels (using different types of passive gear) and pelagic trawlers are responsible for about 83 285 and 10 229 capture events, respectively. Other vessel groups seem to have a negligible impact on sea turtles. Sea turtles are so rare in the Black Sea that it was not possible to assess the impact of fishing activities there.

The analysis per GFCM subregion shows divergent impacts depending on the vessel group (Figure 64). Based on the available data, longliners (82 percent) represent the major vessel group interacting with sea turtles in the western Mediterranean and, to a lesser extent, in the central Mediterranean (around 36 percent). The current data suggest a greater importance of bottom trawlers responsible for sea turtle bycatch across all GFCM subregions, with the highest interaction rates recorded in the Adriatic (76 percent), central Mediterranean (50 percent) and eastern Mediterranean (22 percent). The bycatch from small-scale vessels is around 12 percent in all the subregions, with the exception of the eastern Mediterranean, where this fishing activity has showed the highest impact on sea turtles (44 percent).

Concerning species composition, bycatch data indicated the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) as the main species (around 99 percent, i.e. 458 084 individuals), interacting with all the different fishing activities (Figure 65). Referring to recorded data, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), comprising 5 498 individuals, and the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), at 105 individuals, represent the other impacted species.

Overall, the available data on seabird bycatch across the GFCM area of application are scarce and unequally distributed, with data mainly gathered in the western Mediterranean. No records could be found for the Black Sea or from North African Mediterranean countries. About 99 percent of the available records in the Mediterranean on seabird bycatch refer to longliners (3 212 individuals reported) and small-scale vessels (3 487 individuals). The incidental catch from purse seiners (25 individuals) and bottom trawlers (27 individuals) seems lower (Figure 66). This dynamic is consistent with the data available from other regions of the world, indicating that research effort is focused primarily on the impacts of longlines and set nets. No records of seabird bycatch were found for pelagic trawlers (using midwater pair trawls) or tuna seiners.

The data by GFCM subregion confirm that longliners and small-scale vessels are the vessel groups with the highest incidental catch in all the areas (Figure 67).

The higher incidental catch from longliners and small-scale vessels (using set longlines) could be linked to the importance of these fishing activities across the whole Mediterranean Sea and to the presence of some endemic and threatened (according to the IUCN Red List) seabird species (Figure 68), for which the western Mediterranean, in particular, represents an important breeding area, as well as a major feeding ground. This analysis seems to be confirmed by the fact that in the Mediterranean, the interaction rates between seabirds and fishing activities seem low when compared to other areas of the world, even though the available data include two of the most threatened seabirds in Europe, the Yelkouan shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan) and the Balearic shearwater (P. mauretanicus).

In Figure 68, many individuals have been aggregated as “mixed species” and reported collectively due to difficulties in species identification (levels of taxonomic expertise vary among GFCM subregions). More data and analysis are therefore needed to properly assess the degrees of impact at the species level and in the different areas.

The relationship between monk seals, cetaceans and fishing activities/fishers has been conflictual over time, more or less so depending on the historical period, type of fishing gear, species involved and socio-economic issues. Nonetheless, from a strictly numerical point of view, the datasets analysed indicate that in recent years, the incidental catch of cetaceans in Mediterranean fisheries has decreased with respect to earlier periods, when marine mammal bycatch, caused mainly by pelagic driftnets, was relevant (also for other groups of large marine vertebrate species). The use of these nets was banned in 2005, and since then, only a few studies have reported on the bycatch of marine mammals from other fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea. Over the last decade, studies conducted on incidental catch have declined considerably, while research on direct interactions (i.e. depredation) between marine mammals and fishing gear continues to increase, often with the aim of quantifying its importance and, if possible, also assessing the damage inflicted on fishers from an economic point of view.

Currently, the types of vessel groups with the greatest rates of interactions with marine mammals seem to be those using set gillnets and trammel nets in coastal areas (Figure 69).

This result is confirmed by the subregional analysis (Figure 70) as well, which clearly shows the degree of interactions between marine mammals and coastal small-scale vessels. Few data are reported from the western Mediterranean for longliners (116 individuals) and from the central Mediterranean for bottom trawlers (27 individuals).

In terms of species bycatch composition, the recorded species of cetaceans decreased considerably once large driftnets were banned and subsequently dismissed. Currently, medium-small cetacean species, such as the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) are sporadically found in bycatch reports (Figure 71).

The situation is quite different in the Black Sea, where the coastal fisheries targeting Black Sea turbot continue to have an impact on the cetacean population – which is composed of three endemic species – particularly on the Black Sea harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena relicta). The incidental catch mainly affects the Black Sea harbour porpoise, as it generally lives in coastal habitats and thus experiences an impact much greater than the other two endemic cetacean species, the Black Sea common dolphin (Delphinus delphis ponticus) and the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus ponticus) (Figure 72).

In general, it has always been difficult to make reliable estimates of the incidental catch of vulnerable species in each area and by vessel group/gear type. One of the main obstacles involves the different methods used by researchers in different countries, which are not standardized and make it extremely difficult to compare the results obtained. In fact, most of the available data on the bycatch of vulnerable species are derived from opportunistic and irregular surveys. Some of the variability between GFCM subregions and/or vessel group types may also be due to a number of shortcomings in the quality of data (lack of onboard observer programmes, species identification issues, inadequate spatial and temporal coverage, etc.), which increases uncertainty. Currently, only a few national programmes are active and major knowledge gaps persist in most of the GFCM subregions (Box 13). Improving data collection within a standardized framework therefore remains an urgent priority (FAO, 2019b). Indeed, monitoring programmes on the incidental catch of vulnerable species are essential and represent a fundamental step towards developing and implementing appropriate conservation and management measures for the protection of vulnerable species with resident populations in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the concomitant sustainability of the fisheries sector.

The number of non-deprecated validated stocks increased progressively between 2006 and 2018, peaking in 2018 with 85 in total; of these, since 2016, more than 60 percent were carried out in the terminal year (i.e. less than 40 percent of the assessments used are more than one year old) (Table 12). Following a significant surge of validated assessments between 2010 and 2016, the percentage of catch assessed by the SAC and the Working Group on the Black Sea further increased in 2017–2018 (Figure 73). This situation is indicative of both an increase in the number of stocks validated and the fact that stocks with significant catch are being currently assessed – e.g. the Black Sea anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus ponticus), whose annual landings are in the range of 200 000 tonnes. The dip in the percentage of landings assessed in 2014 (Table 12) is linked to fluctuations in the catch of the small pelagic stocks assessed, particularly the Black Sea anchovy, which contribute importantly to total landings (Figure 73). The number of stocks for which advice was provided on a qualitative (precautionary) basis increased importantly in 2017–2018, from under 10 percent in 2016 to over 20 percent in 2018 (Figure 73). Contrary to what may be expected, this shift occurs in parallel with an improvement in the quality of advice and in the standards adopted by the Working Groups on Stock Assessment and the Subregional Group on Stock Assessment in the Black Sea in evaluating the presented assessments, based on a number of factors, mostly related to the quality of input data.

Coverage varied geographically for the different priority species. For European hake (Merluccius merluccius) and red mullet (Mullus barbatus), recent assessments exist for most management units, with coverage having improved since 2016, although it is still incomplete for European hake in the eastern Mediterranean. Deep-water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) also experiences excellent coverage in those subregions where it is a priority species, with few exceptions. While the number of assessments carried out for the main small pelagic species has increased, the coverage in the eastern and central Mediterranean, with the exception of the Aegean Sea, should be improved. Other species that could benefit from an increase in assessments (Table 13) include the two deep-water red shrimp species (the blue and red shrimp, Aristeus antennatus, and the giant red shrimp, Aristaeomorpha foliacea), towards which work is being currently carried out in the central and eastern Mediterranean subregions.

Most stocks for which validated assessments are available continue to be fished outside biologically sustainable limits (Figure 76). Nevertheless, recent trends continue to show a consistent decrease of stocks in overexploitation, especially since 2014, when the percentage of stocks in overexploitation was 88 percent (in 2018, they were estimated at 75 percent) (Figure 76). The increased scrutiny applied to the relevant input data and the assessments themselves, following the introduction of the benchmarking process (Box 14), has led to a decrease in the number of assessments providing quantitative advice. At the same time, these assessments have experienced improvements in quality and have been accompanied by an increase in precautionary advice based on the trends observed. This result, coupled with the increase in the overall number of stocks assessed, is reflected in an apparent stabilization of the declining trend in the percentage of stocks in overexploitation, as shown in the data analyses carried out on fishing mortality and biomass below (Figure 77 and Figure 78).

Biomass reference points are not commonly available for assessed stocks; therefore, the percentage of stocks fished outside biologically sustainable limits is mainly estimated from the level of fishing mortality in relation to the fishing mortality reference point.

Overall fishing mortality for all species and management units combined is around 2.5 times higher than the reference point (Table 14). A clear, though not significant, decreasing trend has been seen in their average exploitation ratio (current fishing mortality over target fishing mortality, F/F_MSY) since 2012 (Figure 77). A wide range of exploitation ratio estimates are observed around the average and are trending towards lower values in recent years (Figure 77). The highest maximum values of exploitation ratios are found with European hake, followed by blue and red shrimp and Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus), while in terms of highest average values, European hake and blue and red shrimp are followed by sardine (Sardina pilchardus) (Table 14). Nevertheless, European hake provides the strongest indication of improvement in both maximum and average exploitation ratios, showing a 30 percent decrease since the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018). Stocks fished within biologically sustainable limits (i.e. with exploitation ratios below 1) include anchovy, common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), Norway lobster and red mullet, as well as deep-water rose shrimp in certain GSAs (Table 14).

As in previous years, although continuing to improve, scientific advice on the status of resources in relation to biomass is scarcer than advice with respect to fishing mortality. This difference is mainly due to a lack of biomass reference points, which in turn reflects an uncertainty in the absolute values of recruitment and/or biomass provided by some of the stock assessment models. In the case of the Mediterranean, recent advice on biomass was provided for a total of 82 stocks, representing a 30 percent increase compared with 2016. With few exceptions, the biomass of all demersal species is classified as high, intermediate or low by comparing the current estimate with the 66th and 33rd percentiles of the available time series. For red mullet in GSA 20 (eastern Ionian Sea) and GSA 22 (Aegean Sea), caramote prawn (Melicertus kerathurus) in GSA 17 (northern Adriatic Sea), Norway lobster in GSAs 17–18 (northern and southern Adriatic Sea) and common pandora (Pagellus erythrinus) in GSA 25 (Cyprus), current biomass estimates were compared to the biomass at MSY (B_MSY) reference point. For European hake in GSAs 17–18 (northern and southern Adriatic Sea) and giant red shrimp in GSA 19 (western Ionian Sea), as well as for all small pelagic species except sardine in GSA 3 (southern Alboran Sea), the comparison was made with respect to the B_PA (precautionary reference point). For sardine in GSA 3 (southern Alboran Sea), B_MSY was used.

Advice in relation to biomass in the Black Sea was only provided on a regular basis for turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), for which B_PA was used and which resulted in an intermediate state of biomass in the most recent assessment year.

The analysis of the current biomass levels of Mediterranean stocks presents a striking improvement compared to 2016, with only 36 percent of the stocks considered to be at low biomass (11 percent decrease), 19 percent at intermediate biomass (12 percent decrease) and 46 percent with high biomass (23 percent increase) (Figure 78, Table 15).

At the GFCM subregional level, it is evident that though the western Mediterranean still shows a prevalence of stocks with low biomass, its percentage of stocks with high biomass has increased at the expense of those with intermediate biomass and it represents the subregion with the highest number of stocks whose biomass can be assessed (n = 40). The percentage of stocks with high biomass increased significantly in all other subregions, particularly in the central Mediterranean, where the percentage of stocks with low biomass is around 5 percent, based on assessments of the biomass of 20 stocks. Sixteen stocks provided biomass information in the Adriatic Sea, of which 50 percent were considered to be at high biomass. The coverage in the eastern Mediterranean in terms of biomass remains low (five stocks), with 80 percent of them at high biomass levels (Figure 79, Table 15).

A more in-depth analysis of this overall improvement in biomass levels compared to the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018) revealed that of the 18 stocks common to both reviews, ten remained at the same level of biomass, while for six (mostly red mullet and blue and red shrimp), biomass levels had improved and for two, they had declined (Figure 80; top). A large number of stocks analysed for biomass in the last two years were analysed in only one of the reviews; of these, the number of high biomass stocks was strikingly greater in 2020 (Figure 80; bottom).

Among pelagic stocks, the anchovy shows stability across the region, with a steady average since 2016 and a decrease (by 24 percent) in the maximum exploitation ratio in 2018 (Table 14, Figure 81). The average exploitation ratio of sardine, on the contrary, has been steadily increasing since 2010, even if the decrease in the maximum values recorded offers some optimism (Figure 81); the overall catch of this species has been decreasing since the mid-1980s but has stabilized around average to low levels in the past decade or so (see Figure 25). Among demersal species, decreasing trends in exploitation ratios by species are evident for European hake, red mullet, common sole and Black Sea turbot (Table 14, Figure 81), all of which provide evidence of a marked reversal in the negative trends previously observed. The catch of these four species shows that recent years have been characterized by relative stability (see Figure 25 and Figure 26). For European hake and red mullet, the maximum ratio recorded has also decreased importantly since 2016, by 30 percent and 26 percent respectively. Deep-water rose shrimp, like anchovy, shows a stability across the region (Figure 81), despite an impressive increase in the catch of the former, likely resulting in a change in availability of the species (see Figure 25). In contrast, blue and red shrimp (with increasing catch) and Norway lobster (with decreasing catch) show rather significant increases in their exploitation ratio over time, particularly since 2015 (Figure 81).

When the exploitation ratio and biomass level are combined for the main stocks of the two iconic species European hake and turbot, different pictures emerge. For European hake in the Tyrrhenian Sea (GSAs 8–11) and in the Strait of Sicily (GSAs 12–16), the overall decreasing trend in the exploitation ratio (F/F_MSY) is confirmed, while the expected corresponding increasing trend in biomass (B/B_PA) is less clear, suggesting some delay in the response of the stock to decreasing pressure. On the other hand, for turbot in the Black Sea (GSA 29), the promising trend observed up to 2016 is confirmed, with a continued steady decrease in F/F_MSY since 2014 and a marked increase in B/B_PA since 2014 (Figure 82).

The percentage of stocks with validated assessments has continued to increase in recent years, particularly in the western Mediterranean, as have the geographical coverage of assessments and the percentage of catch being assessed. As a result of the introduction of the benchmarking process in 2017, the quality of assessments has improved owing to greater scrutiny of the input data and the adoption of more stringent standards. Although this development has resulted in more assessments failing to meet standards, it has led to more advice being provided in qualitative terms. In parallel, significant work has been and is being carried out towards assessing data-limited stocks, as well as towards data collection. Nevertheless, efforts are still required to extend assessment coverage to all GSAs, particularly the eastern Mediterranean.

While most stocks remain in overexploitation, the number of stocks in overexploitation has further decreased, as has the overall exploitation ratio for the whole Mediterranean and Black Sea region. This dynamic is reflected in marked improvements for a number of demersal species in terms of fishing mortality and, in some cases, of biomass too. Notable examples are provided by European hake and Black Sea turbot, as well as red mullet and common sole, most likely demonstrating the effectiveness of national and regional management measures, including overall effort reduction and the protection of coastal areas from trawlers. Conversely, sardine and blue and red shrimp have shown opposite trends: the reasons may lie in the overall lack of coverage and management measures for the former and the extremely high prices fetched by the latter, which sustain the incentive to overexploit it (see also the trends in catch shown in Chapter 2).

Interestingly, there is evidence that the improvement in the exploitation ratio observed for Black Sea turbot is matched by an increase in biomass, which was also predicted by the simulations performed within a management strategy evaluation framework summarized in the previous edition of The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018). In contrast, the decrease in the exploitation ratio observed for a number of hake stocks (e.g. in the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Strait of Sicily) are not matched so closely by corresponding increases in biomass; this situation not only reflects the different biological characteristics of the two species but also serves as an important reminder that early signs of reversing the trend should not be taken for granted.

The positive signs provided by this overall analysis are indicative of an inversion in the trend of overexploitation in the Mediterranean and Black Sea, particularly for demersal resources. Both an increase in quality and coverage of stock assessments and reversals in the trends in stock status are found within the main objectives of the mid-term strategy (2017–2020) towards the sustainability of Mediterranean and Black Sea fisheries. In line with the conceptual framework of the strategy, the increase in coverage and quality of advice, including a reduced time lag between the reference year of the data and its corresponding advice, has been accompanied by the adoption of a significant number of national and regional management measures in the past five years or so (see Chapter 7). These measures include the adoption of incipient plans leading to improvements in the management of fishing activities, including through effort control and/or the introduction of quota-based management for some species, as well as the establishment of fisheries restricted areas and spatio-temporal measures to protect essential habitats and life-stages. It will be crucial to maintain this reversing momentum through a synergy of effective harvest control rules, other measures for the management of catch and fishing effort (in numbers, in space and over time) and a reinforcement of the self-control already demonstrated by some fisheries.

After its initial development, the monitoring framework was subject to a participatory consultation process in order to provide an opportunity for all relevant stakeholders, including fisher representatives, to provide further input and contribute to refining its contents. The monitoring framework was presented to, and discussed by, relevant GFCM technical bodies, namely, at the second meeting of the Working Group on Small-Scale Fisheries (WGSSF) (GFCM, 2019b) and subsequently at the subregional committees and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Fisheries. It was also discussed during a workshop on “Advancing social development for the future of small-scale fisheries in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea” (GFCM, 2019c), as well as shared widely among relevant stakeholders, allowing for inputs to be submitted electronically. A revised version of the monitoring framework was then presented to the forty-third session of the GFCM, where it was endorsed. Noting that, for certain indicators proposed within the monitoring framework, little information was available at the regional level to assess the baseline status of implementation, the GFCM also endorsed a questionnaire to assess the status quo and gaps in knowledge (RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire; Box 17).

Recognizing that a common and region-wide definition of SSF does not currently exist in the GFCM area of application, the RPOA-SSF called for an improved characterization of the sector to be adopted as soon as possible, in order to better inform policy interventions. Such a characterization, according to the RPOA-SSF, should reflect the socio-economic relevance and specificities of SSF in this region on the basis of a dynamic set of indicative criteria (such as vessel size, gear used, duration of fishing trips, non-vessel-based fishing activities, etc.) (GFCM, 2018b).

Through the information gathered from the RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire, 16 out of the 22 responding contracting parties and cooperating non-contracting parties (CPCs) (73 percent) reported to have a legal definition of SSF. Of these countries, six European Union member countries reported that, while a definition was not enshrined within their national legislations, they were nevertheless subject to the legally recognized definition of small-scale coastal fishing of the European Union: “fishing carried out by vessels of an overall length of less than 12 m and not using towed fishing gear”. Similar to the definition of the European Union, most national definitions are based on vessel length (most commonly length overall (LOA) less than 12 m, although in select cases, less than 7 m) and gear characteristics (most commonly passive gear). However, other countries also consider horsepower (e.g. < 75 HP), tonnage (e.g. < 3 gross tonnage (GT)) and/or ownership characteristics (e.g. “individual property”) as part of the national definition.

Regardless of whether a legal definition exists, most countries (82 percent, i.e. 18 out of 22), reported having at least an informal SSF characterization. Similar to the existing legal definitions, this characterization is primarily based on vessel length and gear used. However, other characteristics were also considered, as outlined in Table 16.

Further work is needed to standardize a regional characterization of SSF in the Mediterranean and Black Sea area, dynamic enough to encompass the different national and subregional specificities, while offering more than a rigid characterization based only on vessel length and gear variables. Building on work initially developed through the FAO Fisheries Division, the GFCM has been testing a “matrix for the characterization of fishing activities” in coordination with the Friends of SSF platform (GFCM, 2019b). Preliminary results have shown the matrix to be a transparent and objective tool for assessing the scale of fisheries and identified vessel length, type of gear used, size of crew, ownership characteristics, length of fishing trip and disposal of catch as key variables for an SSF characterization. Box 18 provides further details on the preliminary testing of the matrix, based on information collected through the GFCM socio-economic survey. Expanded testing of the matrix is underway in the GFCM area of application to refine these results.

The RPOA-SSF underlines the need to strengthen scientific knowledge of SSF, while at the same time engaging fishers in monitoring activities in order to capitalize on their local ecological knowledge and facilitate participatory management processes. These themes are stressed throughout the various sections of the RPOA-SSF, but particularly in sections: A. Scientific research; B. Small-scale fisheries data; C. Small-scale fisheries management; and I. Climate and environment.

The RPOA-SSF calls for filling gaps in available knowledge, ensuring appropriate monitoring of SSF activities, including monitoring of catch and effort, as well as of other biological, ecological and socio-economic impacts of SSF. It also calls for reinforcing the body of knowledge on select topics, such as the interactions of SSF with recreational fisheries (Box 19) and with vulnerable species, as well as the potential effects of climate change and non-indigenous species (NIS) on the sector.

On the basis of improved scientific knowledge, the RPOA-SSF foresees strengthening the science-policy interface to facilitate evidence-based and participatory decision-making for the sustainability of the SSF sector. It also advocates for fisheries management favouring low-impact, selective SSF activities in coastal waters. Furthermore, beyond calling for the engagement of fishers in the design, implementation and enforcement of management measures, the RPOA-SSF also calls for their engagement in projects such as the development of climate change adaptation and mitigation plans, finding innovative solutions for the disposal and recycling of marine litter, and developing improved and participatory surveillance in order to monitor fishing activity and reduce illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) activity.

The second meeting of the WGSSF (GFCM, 2019b) discussed the priorities for research and data collection to support SSF management. The working group underlined that the basic requirements to ensure adequate data collection for SSF consist of a fleet registry containing all SSF vessels and their characteristics and a clear obligation to report landings from SSF, including through adequate monitoring at designated landing points or through self-reporting tools such as logbooks, as well as specific actions to compile social and economic information.

Through the RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire, the status of these basic requirements was assessed. While 95 percent of responding CPCs (i.e. all but one) indicated they have fleet registers accounting for all SSF vessels, in some cases there is a need to ensure fleet registers are more complete or more regularly updated in order to facilitate accurate data collection. All countries include the vessel name, port of registration and the LOA in their registry, and most also provide a registration number, the year of construction, the vessel’s GT, the vessel’s horsepower and the main type of gear used. About half of the responding CPCs also included the vessel’s authorized port(s) of landing (should it/they differ from the port of registration) and some gave information on the vessel’s owner or ownership characteristics. Other information included in the fleet register by select CPCs consisted of fishing license information, operator license information, vessel identifiers (e.g. international radio call signs), vessel monitoring system, place and material of construction, authorized number of days at sea and/or engine power (kW).

While most countries have fairly complete information on the number of SSF vessels in their fleet, more work is needed to ensure adequate monitoring of the catch from these vessels. Only half of CPCs require all SSF vessels to report landings at designated landing ports (Figure 83) and only 40 percent require all SSF to use self-reporting tools such as logbooks (Figure 84). These limitations in monitoring ultimately contribute to uncertainties regarding the relative importance of SSF landings by volume (see Figure 18) and by value (see Figure 41) and hinder assessments of the impacts of SSF on certain coastal species. Many countries require some, but not all, SSF to report landings, as is the case in the European Union, where only vessels over 10 m LOA are obligated to report landings.

Most SSF data collection is, however, focused on vessel-based activities, while non-vessel-based fishing – such as the work of shore-based fishers and gleaners – is often unaccounted for. Such data collection is particularly important when assessing the social and economic impacts of the SSF sector, since non-vessel-based SSF activities provide an important source of livelihoods, particularly for women. A similar limitation is shared by the GFCM Data Collection Reference Framework (DCRF) (see Box 1), which only requires the submission of data for employment onboard SSF vessels (and does not require gender-disaggregated data), meaning that all SSF livelihoods are not captured in official statistics. As such, ad hoc studies are needed to collect this information.

As shown in Figure 85, based on the results of the questionnaire carried out, all but one country (i.e. 95 percent) collect data on vessel-based SSF employment, while a majority also collect gender-disaggregated data. However, only 30 percent of countries collect data on employment in non-vessel-based SSF activities, such as gleaning. On the other hand, half of all countries collect information on the post-harvest sector, although no clear definition exists to distinguish small-scale post-harvest work from more industrial post-harvest activities.

In order to address many of these gaps in the data needed for SSF monitoring, the RPOA-SSF encourages data collection systems that are participatory and engage stakeholders. While half of all respondents indicated that models for participatory data collection existed in their country, guidance is needed on what constitutes participatory data collection and how to engage fishers in meaningful ways.

Also discussed during the second meeting of the WGSSF (GFCM 2019b) was the need for a more holistic approach to the management of SSF, one that does not only consider restrictions, but also measures reinforcing sustainable fishing behaviour and promoting the profitability of the sector. While 47 percent of countries reported having fisheries management plans focused on or including SSF, it is important to note that most of these management plans are not specifically directed to SSF, but are rather species-specific. Similarly, 41 percent of countries have specific plans for the adaptation to, and mitigation of, the effects of NIS of relevance to SSF. Therefore, efforts should be made to ensure that SSF are appropriately considered within existing and future species-specific management plans. However, a few countries did report having specific management plans engaging SSF in a more meaningful way, including within the context of marine protected areas and through local co-management arrangements.

With regard to fisheries management, the RPOA-SSF stresses the importance of secure tenure and access rights to fishery resources for SSF. Within this context, the RPOA-SSF underlines the importance of guaranteeing small-scale fishers good and fair access to landing sites adequately equipped for their activities. As far as the services to be provided within these designated landing sites (Figure 86), 74 percent of CPCs require the availability of moorings, while 58 percent require serviced docking areas for SSF vessels. Other common requirements include access to ice machines and drinking water (53 percent of CPCs) and access to refrigerated warehouses (42 percent). Other services required by select countries include safe access, equipment for electronic recording of fishing activities and for measuring catch, fish markets, administrative services, health services, gear storage and scales. However, 21 percent of CPCs do not satisfy any minimum requirements for services to be provided at designated SSF landing sites.

Finally, the RPOA-SSF emphasizes that an essential part of SSF management lies in ensuring proper compliance with management measures and avoiding IUU fishing practices. To this end, the active engagement of small-scale fishers in participatory monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) is encouraged. Only 33 percent of countries currently report having participatory MCS programmes in place. Therefore, further efforts are needed to disseminate best practices in participatory MCS and to scale up successful examples.

In order to promote the sustainable management of SSF, the interface between science and policy must be strengthened; central to this reinforcement is the robust engagement of fisher stakeholders. Gaps in data collection and scientific advice should also be addressed. As a short-term priority, efforts are needed to ensure that all CPCs have the capacity to monitor their SSF, including through complete and up-to-date fleet registers, as well as accurate catch, effort and socio-economic data collection in line with DCRF requirements. Important progress in this area has been made in the context of the GFCM mid-term strategy through socio-economic surveys and other ad hoc work, though continued efforts are needed. Furthermore, there is a need to identify and assess key coastal species of particular importance to SSF. To support these efforts, the network of researchers and other stakeholder organizations working in this area is being strengthened to ensure relevant research is carried out and the results widely disseminated. At the same time, prompt action is needed to empower fishers to engage in these processes through, for example, hands-on workshops and the dissemination of practical tools in order to facilitate participatory data collection, co-management and participatory MCS, as shown in Box 21, which provides more information on related ongoing initiatives.

Small-scale fisheries are important in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea not simply because they make up a significant portion of the fleet but also because of their social and economic roles. While other blue economy sectors may provide a larger contribution to national economies, SSF provide crucially important jobs and food security precisely where they are needed most: to vulnerable populations, particularly in rural coastal communities. This essential role of SSF is recognized within the RPOA-SSF, which underlines the need to valorize the SSF sector, maximizing social and economic benefits to SSF and SSF communities. These themes are stressed throughout the various sections of the RPOA-SSF, but particularly in sections: D. Small-scale fisheries value chain; G. Decent work; and H. Role of women.

In particular, the RPOA-SSF calls for strengthening SSF value chains, improving market access for SSF products and increasing the profitability of the sector. Relevant actions promoted by the RPOA-SSF include supporting SSF producer organizations in shortening value chains, facilitating legal frameworks for the direct selling of fresh, local and sustainably fished products, and providing training on catch handling to encourage food safety and to reduce waste. At the same time, the RPOA-SSF reinforces the need to build consumer awareness of the importance of responsible consumption, including by improving product traceability to allow consumers to make informed decisions. The RPOA-SSF recognizes that women play an essential role in SSF value chains and, as such, their efforts should be better accounted for and considered within any development plans.

Coupled with efforts to improve the profitability of the SSF sector, there is also a need to promote the sector’s social development, addressing vulnerabilities and removing barriers that may prevent fishers from escaping the poverty cycle. To this end, the RPOA-SSF promotes efforts to ensure decent working conditions, adequate social protection coverage, access to financial services and more, so as to encourage long-term planning, facilitate resilience in the face of crises and reduce negative coping mechanisms. Particular attention should be paid to women working in the sector, in order to ensure their needs are recognized and their work fairly compensated.

To strengthen livelihoods in SSF and better understand gaps in the knowledge needed to work towards the above-mentioned objectives, the RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire also surveyed countries to understand the status of select topics in relation to value chains, decent work and the role of women.

Limited work has been carried out to date in the region specifically focusing on SSF value chains, with only 26 percent of CPCs indicating in the questionnaire that a value chain analysis had been carried out for the SSF sector at either the national, subnational or local level. However, the European Union has noted that a study on SSF supply chains at the European level is currently under preparation. Similarly, only 20 percent of the countries reported having provided training or assistance to the SSF sector on catch handling and preservation. Six countries (i.e. 35 percent) have, however, indicated that they have plans in place for the valorization or utilization of NIS caught by SSF.

To assess access to social protection for small-scale fishers, the RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire asked countries to indicate the percentage of small-scale fishers covered under national health services or health insurance programmes, the percentage of small-scale fishers covered by unemployment insurance or other unemployment schemes and the percentage of small-scale fishers with access to old-age pensions. Health insurance coverage was common, with 72 percent (i.e. 13 out of the 18 countries that responded to the question) indicating that all fishers were covered under national or private schemes, an additional 17 percent (i.e. three countries) indicating that a majority (but not all) were covered and only 11 percent (i.e. two countries) indicating that small-scale fishers did not have access to health insurance coverage (Figure 87). Similarly, access to old-age pensions was relatively high in the region (Figure 88), with 76 percent (i.e. 13 out of the 17 countries that responded to the question) indicating that all fishers were covered under pension schemes, 6 percent (i.e. one country) indicating only some had access and 18 percent (i.e. three countries) indicating that small-scale fishers did not have access to old-age pensions. The relatively high coverage of both health insurance and old-age pensions is promising, considering that GFCM studies have shown these two social protection programmes to be the most highly valued by small-scale fishers (Box 20). On the other hand, the questionnaire results indicated low coverage of unemployment insurance (Figure 89), with only 50 percent (i.e. five out of the ten countries that responded to the question) providing access to unemployment insurance for all small-scale fishers, 10 percent (i.e. one country) indicating that some had access (i.e. fish workers only), and 40 percent (i.e. four countries) indicating that small-scale fishers did not have access. However, in the wake of the COVID-19 crisis, countries have responded by activating a number of social protection measures, of which unemployment benefits have been some of the most common. Many of these measures, however, are temporary ad hoc measures and it remains to be seen whether longer-term social protection programmes will continue.

As previously noted, gender-disaggregated data are not collected in all countries and many do not collect information on non-vessel-based fisheries or on the pre- and post-harvest sectors where many women work. As a result, women are often underrepresented in official statistics, potentially undermining their access to social protection programmes or resulting in their marginalization in decision-making processes. The RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire therefore attempted to assess the engagement of women in SSF decision-making processes, both within SSF organizations and within fisheries administrations. With regard to SSF organizations, many countries did not have this information available, though, among the eight responding countries, half noted the presence of women within leadership roles (bureau positions) in SSF organizations in their country. On the other hand, the number of countries with senior positions in fisheries administrations filled by women was much higher (77 percent, i.e. ten out of the 13 countries that responded to the question).

In order to continue strengthening the role of SSF as an essential component of a sustainable blue economy and, in particular, as a source of resilient and sustainable livelihoods, efforts are needed to unlock economic opportunities for SSF by both enhancing SSF value chains and reinforcing social and economic support to the sector. Priority RPOA-SSF actions that have been identified include: enhancing the body of knowledge on SSF value chains, including by providing guidance and sharing best practices for value chain assessment, as well as improving information about workers along the value chain; advocating for decent work in SSF, including ratification of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Work in Fishing Convention C188 (ILO, 2007); supporting specific interventions to improve coverage of crucial social insurance programmes (e.g. health insurance, pensions and unemployment insurance) for SSF, particularly in light of the risks presented by the ongoing COVID-19 crisis and looming climate change impacts; and assessing the role of women in Mediterranean and Black Sea SSF, including providing guidance on improving gender-disaggregated data collection along the value chain.

A transversal thread throughout the different thematic topics of the RPOA-SSF is the importance of engaging stakeholders, specifically small-scale fishers and fisher representatives, through participatory processes and ensuring that stakeholders have a voice in decision-making. To this end, considerable capacity-building initiatives are prescribed within the RPOA-SSF. These themes are stressed throughout the various sections of the RPOA-SSF, but particularly in sections: E. Participation of small-scale fisheries in decision-making processes; and F. Capacity building.

In particular, the RPOA-SSF calls for fishers to engage in fisheries management, including through participatory data collection and within co-management bodies. The RPOA-SSF also calls on national administrations to reinforce the legislative and institutional mechanisms necessary to recognize SSF organizations and facilitate their inclusion in decision-making processes. Finally, the RPOA-SSF calls for a stronger network of SSF organizations at the regional level in order to promote cooperation and synergies, share knowledge and disseminate best practices. In particular, specific capacity-building initiatives are foreseen to empower stakeholders through learning exchanges and other training opportunities on relevant topics.

In order to better understand the status of SSF stakeholder engagement in decision-making processes, the RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire surveyed countries to determine how they engage with SSF organizations. Almost all countries (85 percent, i.e. 17 out of the 20 that responded to the question) reported having mechanisms for participatory decision-making in place for SSF. In most countries, these mechanisms consisted of advisory or consultative bodies providing input to national or provincial fisheries administrations, in which small-scale fishers and/or fish workers participated. However, small-scale fishers also engaged in decision-making processes by contributing to data collection and research, and to fisheries management at the fishery level. In a few countries, fishers were also involved in local development councils, in participatory MCS schemes, or in other ways, such as through public consultations and technical working groups (Figure 90). More information would be needed, however, to better understand the extent to which such participatory processes are effective and representative of all SSF stakeholders.

The RPOA-SSF monitoring framework questionnaire also assessed the types of training and capacity-building programmes offered to SSF in Mediterranean and Black Sea countries (Figure 91). Eleven out of 18 countries (i.e. 61 percent of respondents) reported providing training programmes, with the most common topics concerning safety at sea through the use of communication and navigation equipment, as well as professional training for young people entering the sector.

In order to further strengthen the engagement of a wide range of SSF stakeholders at the regional level, efforts are needed to identify and reinforce links with the main actors in the region. This process is foreseen to be achieved by providing increased opportunities for SSF organizations to participate in GFCM events, including, but not limited to, the SSF University (Box 21). In this context, consultations with key stakeholder organizations are envisaged in order to assess needs and identify key entry points for engagement (e.g. co-management committees, fisher exchanges, pilot studies, training workshops, etc.). In particular, efforts are needed to ensure that such programmes reach a wider number of stakeholders, including young fishers and women.

Importantly, the recommendation also outlines the provisions to be taken when the catch reaches 90 percent of the quota and when the quota is exhausted, including closure of the fishery and a payback scheme.

For the first time in the GFCM area of application, this recommendation also advocates for the implementation of a traceability mechanism for turbot catch (Box 23).

With the overall goal of reaching MSY by 2026, this multiannual management plan is based on a two-step approach applicable to fleets fishing more than a certain number of days per year. It foresees an initial transitional fishing effort regime in 2020–2021 aimed at decreasing effort by set percentages (12 percent for otter trawls and 16 percent for beam trawls compared to the annual effort of 2015 or the average of 2015–2018), followed by yearly fishing effort quotas in 2022–2026. This process is coupled with corresponding fleet management measures aimed at restricting and controlling fleet capacity with respect to the same reference period (Table 17).

Recommendation GFCM/43/2019/5 also sets minimum conservation reference sizes for the key species: 20 mm carapace length (CL) for deep-water rose shrimp; 20 mm CL or 70 mm total length (TL) for Norway lobster; 20 cm TL for common sole and 11 cm TL for red mullet. Specimens measuring less than these sizes will neither be retained onboard, transshipped, transferred, landed, stored, sold, displayed nor offered for sale. The management plan further foresees that the status of these key stocks should be assessed yearly, along with the biological, economic and social implications of implementing alternative management scenarios. In the absence of such advice, the precautionary approach shall be adopted and management measures determined accordingly.

Additionally, the recommendation encourages the establishment of FRAs for demersal fishing, particularly in the northern and southern Adriatic, and offers several options for spatiotemporal restrictions of coastal/territorial waters.

Finally, the implementation of specific measures addressing illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities (e.g. designated landing and transshipping times and locations, electronic catch declarations, authorized vessels, use of VMS) is prescribed, as well as the establishment of an observation and inspection programme to ensure compliance with the conservation and management measures contained in the recommendation.

The GFCM, at its forty-third session (FAO, 2020b), adopted Resolution GFCM/43/2019/6 on the establishment of a set of measures to protect vulnerable marine ecosystems formed by cnidarian (coral) communities in the Mediterranean Sea. This resolution establishes a direct link between fisheries and the conservation of biodiversity by encouraging CPCs to implement transitional measures aimed at preventing significant adverse impacts (SAI) on deep-sea VME. These measures involve regulating the activities of large vessels (> 15 m length overall) operating bottom contact gear (e.g. bottom trawls) deeper than 300 m or on seamounts, particularly of those targeting deep-water shrimp species, with the aim of preventing or reducing their impact on the coral communities protected under Annex II of the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPA/BD Protocol) of the Barcelona Convention (1992) (Box 24). Three examples of near threatened coral species, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List Category for Mediterranean corals (IUCN, 2020), are shown in Plate 1.

Such measures should be in line with the protocols for the protection of VME endorsed by the forty-second session of the GFCM (FAO, 2019c), which include the observation of encounter rules, whereby deep-sea fishing vessels should report the details (position, taxon and weight) of any encounters with VME indicator taxa (see here), and the application of an exploratory deep-sea bottom fishing protocol by deep-sea fisheries vessels operating in previously unfished areas.

In all cases, the core principle is to take full advantage of ongoing research at the country level by providing a platform for coordination and filling the gaps with new activities and/or capacity-building support, generally aimed at providing the scientific basis for the determination of the most appropriate management measures.

The research programme is designed to address the above-mentioned objectives through six main aspects corresponding to six work packages:

• Work Package 1. Biology and ecology, including studies on size, genetics, density, abundance, biomass, recruitment, growth, reproduction, physiology and interactions with other species, environmental parameters influencing its lifecycle, preferred habitats and feeding behaviour.

• Work Package 2. Fishery-independent data collection: carried out through biannual standardized beam trawl surveys-at-sea collecting information on biomass and abundance indices and on the size/age distribution in all Black Sea countries. The first standardized beam trawl survey was completed in October 2020 by six partners in five countries (Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Turkey and Ukraine).

• Work Package 3. Fishery-dependent data collection: biological sampling of catch, bycatch and fishing effort, carried out at landing ports and through onboard observers.

• Work Package 4. Stock assessment: investigation of the methodologies used for assessing the status of rapa whelk, including through the compilation of historical data.

• Work Package 5. Socio-economic elements: socio-economic survey carried out to develop economic indicators and understand external aspects affecting the fishery and its economic sustainability.

• Work Package 6. Management proposals: testing the effects of possible management measures through management strategy evaluation (MSE).

The research programme has five specific goals, each corresponding to a work package, within which research teams share methodologies, data and expertise, as follows:

• Work Package 1. Identify and evaluate management and protection measures for stock recovery.

• Work Package 2. Establish a common framework for long-term monitoring of the European eel in the Mediterranean.

• Work Package 3. Collect, collate and update data concerning eel fisheries, eel habitats, biological and ecological features of local eel stocks and eel trade across the Mediterranean region, including in all coastal, transitional and inland waters.

• Work Package 4. Establish a common framework for assessing European eel stocks at different scales in the Mediterranean.

• Work Package 5. Establish a coordination framework and a national and international network of European eel experts and projects around the Mediterranean for future interactions, involving the transfer of knowledge through capacity-building activities.

The research programme was launched in June 2020 and is expected to last 21 months. It is managed by the GFCM Secretariat and includes researchers and national administrations from Algeria, Albania, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey, as well as two external, internationally renowned scientific experts forming the core of an advisory board.

The implementation of a GFCM research programme on red coral was first proposed by experts in early 2014 in order to fill gaps in the knowledge of different traits of red coral life history in various countries and to support fisheries management. The results of such a research programme were considered instrumental for the SAC to provide further advice on the status of red coral populations and on the management of its fishery. A first concept note was thus developed in late 2014 by independent experts in coordination with the GFCM Secretariat; it was finalized and approved in 2019. The research programme consists of five main actions, as described below:

• Action 1. Fishery dependent/independent data acquisition and data compilation: aimed at investigating harvested red coral populations by means of data collected through fishing activities by onboard scientific observers and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) surveys (or deep-sea diving).

• Action 2. Pilot phase for traceability, certification and monitoring, control, surveillance (MCS) systems: aimed at compiling information on existing traceability mechanisms for fishery products in Mediterranean countries and at providing the basis for the implementation of a pilot project on the traceability of coral colonies collected within the GFCM area of application, from the landing point to the dealer (see Box 23).

• Action 3. Ex-situ laboratory analyses based on the collection of samples of live red coral: aimed at performing studies on reproduction, genetics and growth using small portions of non-commercial red coral fragments collected by the onboard observers (or deep-sea divers) in Action 1.

• Action 4. Stock assessment and recovery dynamics: aimed at developing suitable stock assessment models for red coral, as well as studying the dynamics and timing of the recovery of harvested populations, including from MPAs and no-take areas.

• Action 5. Socio-economic analysis of the red coral fisheries in the GFCM area of application: aimed at carrying out a study to define the socio-economic structure of red coral fisheries across the GFCM area of application while considering the wide heterogeneity of Mediterranean countries.

The research programme was launched in October 2020 with an online coordination meeting that aimed at consolidating the network of experts and discussing the methodology for data collection to be used during the programme. Its first phase involves the collaboration of researchers and national administrations from Algeria, Croatia, France, Greece, Spain and Tunisia, as well as of independent experts.

1. Work Package 1. Biology and ecology, including the collection of information on biological, ecological and behavioural characteristics of the two species of blue crab across their geographical distribution ranges.

2. Work Package 2. Fishery-independent data collection: carried out through at least annual surveys-at-sea to collect information on biomass and abundance, as well as on size composition, ideally including also environmental information not usually available from fisheries data, such as water temperature and salinity.

3. Work Package 3. Fishery-dependent data collection: collection of information, such as landings, landing composition by target species, size structure of landings, effort (number of boats and their characteristics, number of days/hours worked, etc.) and gear used, through onboard sampling by observers, sampling at landing ports or self-reporting.

4. Work Package 4. Stock assessment, aimed at establishing common stock assessment methods to be applied throughout the distribution area of blue crab; this work package is a priority for the long-term monitoring of stocks, making use of the information collected within other work packages.

5. Work Package 5. Blue crab fisheries, fishing technology, socio-economic elements and value chain: seeks to determine the basic elements guiding the evolution of fishing gear used for this species and to improve gear selectivity, while taking into account socio-economic aspects and the value chain.

6. Work Package 6. Management proposals: seeks to involve all relevant actors in a review of current local management measures towards setting common management objectives in line with relevant regional frameworks and implementing decisions based on local/regional biological characteristics.

The research programme on blue crab will be launched in 2021 and is expected to feature the collaboration of partners from all Mediterranean subregions, particularly from those countries where blue crab fisheries are already developed to various degrees, such as France, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Tunisia and Spain.

Current spatial management measures

The GFCM has been promoting the establishment of a series of spatial fisheries restrictions and regulations within well delimited areas of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (GFCM, 2012, 2014, 2015). To date, nine FRAs have been established by the GFCM, including one large deep-water FRA below 1 000 m. Fisheries restricted areas aim to protect EFH and/or sensitive habitats of high ecological value, such as VME, from any SAI of fishing activities (FAO, 2009) (Figure 92, see also detailed description in FAO, 2018). Spatial fishing restrictions addressing more coastal areas have also been implemented, often in conjunction with temporal ones, and included in multiannual management plans (Table 17), which often also encourage CPCs to establish temporal or permanent FRAs in their territorial waters as a measure towards assisting the recovery of stocks in overexploitation.

Monitoring of fisheries restricted areas

The importance of establishing proper scientific monitoring plans to assess the effectiveness of existing and future FRAs, both inside the FRAs and in adjacent areas, has recently been underlined in relevant GFCM meetings. In order to secure evidence for the contribution of closures such as FRAs to overall conservation and sustainability objectives, it is essential to set up adequate and tailored scientific monitoring plans from the outset. With this aim, the most recent meeting of the Working Group on Marine Protected Areas (WGMPA) in 2019 recommended that any future FRA proposal include a clear description of the objective(s) of the FRA and a scientific monitoring plan to evaluate the progress made towards its/their achievement, ideally included within the framework of a multiannual management plan as well.

Regarding already established FRAs for the protection of EFH, the assessment of their efficacy should focus on key affected priority species, and monitoring should be based on stock assessment and simulation tools such as MSE.

In order to facilitate the evaluation of FRAs protecting EFH, the following elements should be included in prospective monitoring plans:

• regular collection of fishery-independent data, by means of surveys-at-sea, with a focus on the key stocks protected by the FRA;

• regular collection of fisheries-related data, in accordance with the GFCM Data Collection Reference Framework, with a focus on the key stocks protected by the FRA;

• comprehensive socio-economic data collection aimed at assessing the effects of changes in the volume and composition of the landings of the fisheries affected by the FRA;

• collection of local ecological knowledge from fishers and stakeholders directly affected by the FRA; and

• formulation of regular advice on the status of fisheries affected by the FRA by the existing expert groups (e.g. the Working Groups on Stock Assessment and the Working Group on Management Strategy Evaluation), based on the information above.

The scientific monitoring plan in place in the Jabuka/Pomo Pit FRA (see also here) can be considered exemplary for its assessment of the effectiveness of FRAs in protecting EFH and in improving the status of priority species (Box 26).

Assessing the effectiveness of VME-FRAs established to protect different types of sensitive benthic habitats (e.g. cold-water coral assemblages, sponge fields, chemosynthetic communities) is particularly challenging, especially if monitoring plans were not foreseen from the start. For future FRAs, it will be important to plan specifically for the biological and ecological characteristics of the benthic habitat subject to protection, giving priority to non-destructive survey methods, such as those relying on the use of ROVs or gliders. Nonetheless, for VME-FRAs, adequately enforced compliance and MCS measures provide the most critical contributions to ensuring that FRAs are effective in their primary conservation objective, i.e. preventing SAI of fisheries to sensitive benthic habitats, such as VME.

When a particular FRA is established with more than one goal in mind, a combination of monitoring approaches should be pursued, taking into account the relative importance of the different objectives and potential tradeoffs.

In order to assess the level of implementation of any decision concerning FRAs at the national level and to ensure compliance and the prevention of IUU fishing, the GFCM, through its Secretariat, regularly enquires about the monitoring and supervision of FRA-related measures carried out by CPCs, through the use of questionnaires. A first questionnaire was shared with CPCs in 2013 when four FRAs existed and results were presented at the WGMPA (2014); a second questionnaire was submitted to CPCs in early 2020 and the results are currently being compiled and analysed.

The GFCM database of sensitive benthic habitats and species was developed and launched in 2020 as a scientific tool to support the work carried out on deep-sea benthic ecosystems and EFH. The development of such a database represents one of the steps taken by the GFCM towards improving the management of deep-sea fisheries and preventing any potential adverse impacts that they may have on VME (See also here; Box 24).

The database was conceived as an online platform to showcase information on the distribution of VME indicator taxa, habitats and features in the Mediterranean Sea (GFCM, 2017b, 2018c), with the additional important aim of facilitating data analysis to identify possible priority areas for conservation purposes and to provide the SAC with scientific advice on VMEs. The database is hosted in a password-protected environment where data consultation dashboards and data diagnostic instruments are made available to experts, including through advanced filters and search criteria, providing basic geographic information system features and allowing for the analysis of aggregated data outputs and representations (Figure 93). Integrated instruments facilitating data consultation, visualization and analysis exist for users familiar with data analysis tools, allowing online execution of R code for advanced map plotting and spatial analysis of datasets present in the database.

VME indicator taxa (see also the protocols for the protection of VME in the GFCM area of application; FAO, 2019c) include soft and hard corals, sponges, echinoderms, molluscs and other benthic organisms, most of which are included in relevant conservation lists, e.g. the IUCN Red List. At present, the database of sensitive benthic habitats and species includes only records (numbering almost 600) on the distribution of the alcyonacean bamboo coral (Isidella elongata), gathered by means of different types of surveys (ROV campaigns and fishery-independent surveys) between 1974 and 2018 across different Mediterranean subregions (Figure 93).

Data on other benthic species potentially forming VME will be added in the future, as they become available within the context of relevant GFCM technical bodies dealing with VME- and EFH-related issues.

Significant advances have been made by the GFCM in the past six or so years in terms of managing fisheries resources in its area of application. Since the last issue of The State of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries (FAO, 2018), in particular, five new management plans have been approved, four existing ones have been revised, and four recommendations outlining new management measures or updating existing ones have been adopted. The effectiveness of these management plans is beginning to show for some fisheries, a notable example being turbot in the Black Sea. To a certain extent, the same is also true for the European hake in the Mediterranean, an iconic species and one exhibiting some of the highest exploitation rates in the region (see Chapter 5). Although some important stocks of this species are showing signs of improvement, additional measures are required to ensure their sustainability, including through a dedicated regional management plan and the further implementation of spatial measures (notably EFH-FRAs), as highlighted by the four most recent annual sessions of the GFCM. Piked dogfish (Squalus acanthias) in the Black Sea was similarly highlighted at the last session of the GFCM as also requiring urgent implementation of management measures. For this species, the WGBS advised implementing a recovery plan in order to reverse the alarming trend in stock status shown by recent assessments, with a priority given to improving the information available on the stock, both fisheries-independent and fisheries-dependent (e.g. bycatch rates). Simulation tools, such as MSE, have been useful in assessing alternative management measures in order to set the most appropriate ones, as well as in understanding the resilience and potential recovery timeframes of specific resources under different management conditions. Since the technical and data requirements to obtain the best results from these tools are high, significant effort should be devoted to both facilitating the enhancement of capabilities across the region, as well as exploring the use of less data-thirsty, and thus more widely applicable, methodologies.

In order to provide a comprehensive scientific basis for the adoption of long-term management plans for some priority species, three GFCM research programmes were launched in 2020 to fill information gaps on rapa whelk, European eel and red coral, the latter two being of regional relevance. A fourth programme on blue crab is under way and a fifth, on common dolphinfish, has been requested. These programmes extend beyond merely the collection of additional or missing information; they provide a solid platform of cooperation and networking within the GFCM area of application on issues of common importance and facilitate the transfer of knowledge where needed, paving the way for effective cooperative management of shared resources.

The effective implementation of spatial management measures addressing vulnerable or sensitive habitats and ecosystems is of prime importance within the GFCM, as expressed in the Agreement for the establishment of the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM, 2016). In this context, further work is required to expand existing measures, including those geared towards the consolidation of a network of EFH, as proposed in Resolution GFCM/41/2017/5, in order to provide protection that could also help to increase the production of species such as European hake. Important steps have already been taken towards this goal, with FRA monitoring plans put in place, and work in progress on the determination of the fishing footprint of certain fisheries, as well as on the identification of VME and detecting the presence of VME indicator species hotspots. Data availability, collection and collation are of paramount importance for the GFCM to continue advancing in this direction.

Interactions between fisheries and the environment are evermore critical in the face of climate change. Biodiversity and the distribution of fisheries resources are changing, non-indigenous species are becoming established and, in some cases, supporting large fisheries. Meanwhile, the vulnerability of fisheries and fishers to these changes in the surrounding environment (Box 27) and to the management measures adopted is increasing. All these dynamics need to be accounted for in the form of new and improved adaptive multiannual management plans incorporating not only socio-economic aspects, but also aspects related to the constantly changing climate.