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Guidelines for Measuring Household and Individual Dietary Diversity

Prepared by Gina Kennedy, Terri Ballard and MarieClaude Dop

Nutrition and Consumer Protection Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

This publication was produced with support from the European Union, through the EC-FAO “Linking Information and Decision Making to Improve Food Security” Programme.

www.foodsec.org

Reprint 2013

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Table of Contents

1.0Introduction

2.0Description of the questionnaire

2.1Differences between household and individual levels

2.2Additional considerations

3.0When to measure dietary diversity

4.0Activities to undertake before beginning data collection

4.1Translation and adaptation steps

4.2Technical issues to discuss prior to beginning data collection

4.3Training survey interviewers

5.0Instructions for administering the questionnaire

6.0Analyzing dietary diversity data

6.1The dietary diversity scores

6.2How to create dietary diversity scores

6.3Using and interpreting HDDS and WDDS

6.4Creating indicators of special interest from specific food groups

6.5Assessing dietary patterns at different levels of dietary diversity scores

7.0Conclusions

Citations

Annex 1: Reference note on deriving indicators for iron intake

Annex 2: Guidance on assigning individual foods to food groups

Annex 3: Example of a completed questionnaire

1

Introduction

Obtaining detailed data on household food access or individual dietary intake can be time consuming and expensive, and requires a high level of technical skill both in data collection and analysis. Dietary diversity is a qualitative measure of food consumption that reflects household access to a variety of foods, and is also a proxy for nutrient adequacy of the diet of individuals. The dietary diversity questionnaire represents a rapid, user-friendly and easily administered low-cost assessment tool.

Scoring and analysis of the information collected with the questionnaire is straightforward. The dietary diversity scores described in these guidelines consist of a simple count of food groups that a household or an individual has consumed over the preceding 24 hours. The guidelines describe the use of the dietary diversity questionnaire at both the household and individual level, for which calculation of the score is slightly different in each case. The data collected can also be analyzed to provide information on specific food groups of interest.

The household dietary diversity score (HDDS) is meant to reflect, in a snapshot form, the economic ability of a household to access a variety of foods. Studies have shown that an increase in dietary diversity is associated with socio-economic status and household food security (household energy availability) (Hoddinot and Yohannes, 2002; Hatloy et al., 2000).

Individual dietary diversity scores aim to reflect nutrient adequacy. Studies in different age groups have shown that an increase in individual dietary diversity score is related to increased nutrient adequacy of the diet. Dietary diversity scores have been validated for several age/sex groups as proxy measures for macro and/ or micronutrient adequacy of the diet. Scores have been positively correlated with adequate micronutrient density of complementary foods for infants and young children (FANTA, 2006), and macronutrient and micronutrient adequacy of the diet for non breast-fed children (Hatloy et al., 1998; Ruel et al., 2004; Steyn et al., 2006; Kennedy et al., 2007), adolescents (Mirmiran et al., 2004) and adults (Ogle et al., 2001; Foote et al., 2004; Arimond et al., 2010). Some of these validation studies refer to only one country while others have attempted to validate dietary diversity scores for several countries. Nevertheless, research is ongoing and there is currently no international consensus on which food groups to include in the scores at the individual level for different age/sex groups.

The rationale for these guidelines is to provide a standardized questionnaire of universal applicability from which various dietary diversity scores can be calculated. As such it is not culture, population, or location specific and therefore, prior to using it in the field, it will be necessary to adapt it to the local context.

This is a revised version of the guidelines for measuring dietary diversity. The main changes in this version are i) the proposal for a new individual dietary diversity score based on results of the Women’s Dietary Diversity Project (Arimond et al., 2010) and ii) an annex on classifying food items into food groups. Guidance is provided on how to calculate the HDDS and the Women’s Dietary Diversity Score (WDDS), but users can also calculate scores obtained from the standardized questionnaire for individuals from other age/sex groups according to the needs of the study.

The guidelines describe how to adapt and use the dietary diversity questionnaire, how to calculate each of the scores and how to create other indicators of interest from dietary diversity data.

2

Description of the questionnaire

The questionnaire can be used at the household or individual level according to the purpose of the survey. It has been adapted for ease of data collection from the FANTA Household Dietary Diversity Score Indicator Guide (Swindale and Bilinsky, 2006).

DIETARY DIVERSITY QUESTIONNAIRE

Please describe the foods (meals and snacks) that you ate or drank yesterday during the day and night, whether at home or outside the home. Start with the first food or drink of the morning.

Write down all foods and drinks mentioned. When composite dishes are mentioned, ask for the list of ingredients.

When the respondent has finished, probe for meals and snacks not mentioned.

[Households: include foods eaten by any member of the household, and exclude foods purchased and eaten outside the home]

When the respondent recall is complete, fill in the food groups based on the information recorded above. For any food groups not mentioned, ask the respondent if a food item from this group was consumed.

2.1DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOUSEHOLD AND INDIVIDUAL LEVELS

The dietary diversity questionnaire can be used to collect information either at household or individual level. The decision on which level to collect information depends in part on the purpose and objectives of the survey. If assessment of the nutrient adequacy of the diet is of primary concern, it is best to collect information at the level of the individual.

Another important consideration for the choice between household and individual is the frequency of meals/snacks purchased and consumed outside the home. If meals/snacks are purchased and consumed outside the home on a regular basis by one or more family members, administering the questionnaire at the individual level is more appropriate as it is not possible to capture accurately meals/snacks purchased and eaten outside the home at household level.

Table 1 describes the main differences between use of the questionnaire at household and individual level.

2.2ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Reference period

FAO uses a reference period of the previous 24 hours. Using one 24-hour recall period does not provide an indication of an individual’s habitual diet, but it does provide an assessment of the diet at the population level and can be useful to monitor progress or target interventions (Savy et al., 2005). There are various other valid timeframes for recall, such as the previous 3 or 7 days, and in the case of some foods, the previous month. The recall period of 24 hours was chosen by FAO as it is less subject to recall error, less cumbersome for the respondent and also conforms to the recall time period used in many dietary diversity studies (Kennedy et al., 2007; Ruel et al., 2004; Steyn et al., 2006; Savy et al., 2005; Arimond et al., 2010). Moreover, analysis of dietary diversity data based on a 24-hour recall period is easier than with longer recall periods.

• Eating outside the home

Even in developing countries it is an increasingly common practice to consume meals and snacks outside the home. The last question of the questionnaire asks if anyone in the household at the household level, or the respondent at the individual level, ate anything outside the home. This question is included to capture information on the purchase and consumption of meals and snacks prepared outside the home. In situations where eating outside the home is very common, application of the questionnaire at the individual level may be preferred over the household level.

• Atypical consumption

Consumption patterns can be atypical during festive periods. It is recommended not to use the questionnaire during national holidays/celebrations or during periods such as Ramadan, in which it is likely that food consumption does not reflect a typical diet. Questions related to atypical days can be added to the questionnaire either to screen out households or individuals, or to use in analysis as appropriate for the purposes of the survey.

A question of this type can be worded in the following way “Was yesterday a celebration or feast day where you ate special foods or where you ate more, or less than usual?”

• Primary source of food procurement

Sometimes it is advantageous to know the primary source of food procurement for the entire diet or for certain food groups (cereals, fruits or vegetables). If it is desirable for the purpose of the survey to collect this type of information, the following type of question and coded responses can be added to the questionnaire:

“Could you please detail the primary source for obtaining food (the below responses can be listed for each food group of interest) for your household” (example codes below)

1= Own production, gathering, hunting, fishing

2= Purchased

3= Borrowed, bartered, exchanged for labour, gift from friends or relatives

4= Food aid

5= Other

• Consumption of fortified foods

Fortified foods are not taken into consideration in the questionnaire. However, it can be useful to obtain information on the local availability and use of fortified foods, particularly those fortified with iron or vitamin A.

• Nutrition and food biodiversity

Food biodiversity is defined as the diversity of plants, animals and other organisms used as food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems (FAO, 2010). Information on food biodiversity can be collected by expanding one or more of the dietary diversity food groups of the questionnaire.

3

When to measure dietary diversity

The optimal time of year to measure dietary diversity of households or individuals depends on the objective of the survey or monitoring activity. The following table describes several scenarios to assist potential users in planning surveys.

4

Activities to undertake before beginning data collection

Prior to beginning data collection the questionnaire needs to be adapted to the local survey context and a series of decisions need to be made by the survey planners or survey team members.

4.1TRANSLATION AND ADAPTATION STEPS

The standard English version of the questionnaire is not intended to be translated literally and used directly. Appropriate translation into local languages and adaptation of the food lists to reflect locally available foods is necessary. It is also necessary to agree on a common meaning and translation of terms used to describe key concepts (such as household, meal and snack).

Below is a list of the main steps that were included in adaptation and field-testing exercises in Mozambique, Malawi and Kenya[6] for the dietary diversity questionnaire.

The following steps should be undertaken by the survey team prior to beginning data collection.

a. Basic translation

The questionnaire is translated literally from English into the most appropriate major language as a starting point.

b. First review

The translated questionnaire is reviewed by the survey team, including the interviewers conducting the fieldwork. The team should agree on the appropriate wording of the questions and fill in the food group lists with all locally available foods, translated into commonly used, locally recognized names for each. Italicized phrases in the questionnaire should be replaced by the names of locally available foods. If questions arise about how to categorize a certain food or whether it is considered, for example, a “vitamin A rich food”[7], it may be necessary to consult food composition tables or nutrition experts. Guidance on assigning individual foods to food groups is also provided in Annex 2 of this manual.

It is very important that the team discuss definitions of key terms such as “household”, “meal” and “snack”, and then decide on the most appropriate local terms to reflect a consistent meaning. In most cases, the most appropriate term for “household” should be sought to reflect a group of persons living under the same roof and sharing the same food pot.

c. Key informant and community meetings to refine the food lists and translations

The survey team should organize a series of meetings with key informants in each survey locality.

Typical key informants:

- Experts at national level if the work is not restricted to a single locality.

- Community leaders, agricultural or health extension workers at community level.

- Women in the community who are responsible for food planning and preparation for the household.

This phase of adaptation is used to gather several critical pieces of information, including to:

- Review and add locally available food items to the food groups.

- Identify appropriate local terms for “food” and “meal”.

- Discuss issues of food availability (such as season for consuming a particular fruit, insect or other food item) during the season when the questionnaire will be administered.

- Identify availability of red palm oil or palm nuts.

- Gather information on ingredients used in local dishes, and local meal customs and terminology; for instance it will be useful to know if a dish is usually prepared with oil so that the respondent can be prompted for this ingredient if he/she did not mention it spontaneously.

This information will be very useful for the interviewers to help facilitate respondent recall. It will also supply context for interpreting the results across locations where customs may differ.

Information can also be obtained from the community on the frequency with which people eat meals/snacks outside the home, and which household members are more likely to do so. This will help the team to decide whether it is appropriate to use the household level.

d. Final translation of the questionnaire

A final version of the questionnaire in the official national language should be created once key informants from each locality have been visited, the food group lists have been completed and appropriate terminology has been agreed on.

This final version of the questionnaire in the official national language should then be translated into local dialects. It is recommended that the survey enumerators do not translate “on the spot” from one language to another, but that the questionnaire is translated and printed for each local language to be used.

4.2TECHNICAL ISSUES TO DISCUSS PRIOR TO BEGINNING DATA COLLECTION

There are a few technical issues that the team should discuss prior to beginning data collection.

- Minimum quantities: the team will have to decide prior to data collection, whether or not to include foods consumed in very small quantities.

When information is collected at the household level, there is no need to set minimum quantities below which foods are not considered, so even small amounts of foods (for example, a very small portion of meat included in a mixed dish) will be counted. This is because the score is designed to reflect economic access to food, and therefore even small quantities of a food item reflect some ability to purchase that item.

For women aged 15-49 years, dietary diversity scores were more strongly correlated with micronutrient adequacy of the diet when food quantities of approximately one tablespoon or less (<15g) were not included in the score (Arimond et al., 2010). For example, a dash of milk just to lighten the coffee may be considered too small an amount to include in the “milk and milk products” group, or a small amount of fish powder added to the cooking pot for flavouring should not be counted in the “fish and seafood” food group.

- Individual food items that could be classified into more than one food group: the team will have to decide on the most appropriate food group classification for foods which can be classified into more than one food group.

Some common examples of food items that can be classified in more than one food group are hot pepper, which could be classified as “other vegetables” or “spices, condiments and beverages”, and fish powder, which could be classified as either “fish and seafood” or “spices, condiments and beverages”.

These decisions are best made after taking into consideration the particular local context, including the typical amount of the food consumed. For example, many cultures use hot pepper as a spice or condiment added to meals. Depending on the context, this may mean that one small spoonful of dried hot pepper flakes is added to an entire dish, or that several spoonfuls of fresh hot pepper are eaten as an accompaniment to the meal. In the first case, the dried pepper is best included in the “spices, condiments and beverages” food group, while in the second case, as a larger quantity of fresh hot peppers is consumed, it is more appropriate to include this in the “other vegetable” food group.

Once the decisions have been made, each individual food item for which there was uncertainty can be listed under the most appropriate group so that all enumerators are consistent in assigning this food item to the agreed upon food group.

- Mixed dishes: the team will need to agree on a way to disaggregate mixed dishes in order to record all of the individual components in their respective food groups.

As a rule, some basic foods are listed only under their main ingredient. For example, bread is put into the cereals group even if oil, eggs or sugar are added in small amounts during the making. However, many cultures commonly prepare and eat mixed dishes (such as casseroles or sauces that accompany a staple). Particular attention should be given to certain ingredients that may not be spontaneously recalled, such as added fats or oils, or secondary ingredients such as small amounts of meat or vegetables. Prior to beginning data collection the team should identify commonly consumed mixed dishes and practise probing for and recording all ingredients in the mixed dish.

Fasolada, pancit and seafood stew are examples of some traditional mixed dishes which contain ingredients belonging to different food groups. For these types of dishes, it is necessary to ask the respondent for information on the ingredients that went into the dish, in order to record correctly all of the food groups represented in the dish.

- Red palm oil: Another important issue to monitor in the community, area or country where the survey is taking place is whether red palm oil or palm nuts are consumed, as these are extremely good sources of vitamin A. When these foods are part of the culture, even if only used by a small percentage of persons, it is important to ask about them. The following line should be inserted into the questionnaire in areas where red palm products are available:

4.3TRAINING SURVEY INTERVIEWERS

Once translation and adaptation of the questionnaire are completed, interviewers should be trained to conduct the interviews in the households. This includes classroom instruction, discussion and field practice. This will allow the interviewers to familiarize themselves with the food groups and the individual foods in each group in order to place recalled food accurately into the correct food groups. Role playing is an ideal method for familiarizing interviewers with the procedure for completing the questionnaire in simulated circumstances.

Time should also be set aside as part of a field testing day for a debriefing session to answer any final questions and discuss any problems with the questionnaire. Supervisors should always check over the questionnaires with the interviewers to ensure that all concepts covered during training are understood.

5

Instructions for administering the questionnaire

The approach for collecting information on dietary diversity described in these guidelines is a qualitative 24-hour recall of all the foods and drinks consumed by the respondent (individual level) or the respondent and/or any other household member (household level).

Individual level

To administer the questionnaire at individual level, the population of interest (for example, a woman of reproductive age) should be chosen prior to the start of the data collection. The respondent is asked about all foods he/she consumed the previous day, inside and outside the home.

Household level

If the questionnaire is administered at household level, the respondent should be the person who was responsible for meal preparation for the household the previous day. The respondent is asked about all foods eaten inside the home during the previous day and night, by ANY[8] member of the household.

It was found through fieldwork in three countries that the most effective way to elicit the information on dietary diversity was to allow the respondent to freely recall what was eaten the previous day[9]. This can be done as described below:

- Ask the respondent to mention all the foods (meals and snacks) eaten yesterday during the day and night. Start with the first food/drink consumed the previous morning. Record these items in the spaces provided at the top of the questionnaire.

- After the respondent recalls all the foods and beverages consumed, underline the corresponding foods in the list under the appropriate food group and write “1” in the column next to the food group if at least one food in this group has been underlined. If the food is not listed in any group, write it in the margin and discuss it with the supervisor.

- Probe for snacks eaten between main meals.

- Probe for special foods given to children or lactating/pregnant women.

- Probe for added foods such as sugar in tea, oil in mixed dishes or fried foods.

- If a mixed dish was eaten, ask about and underline all the ingredients of the dish.

- Once the recall is finished, probe for food groups where no food was underlined. It is not necessary to read out to the respondent the exact name of the food group, but simply ask (for example) about fruits, vegetables or tubers if these groups were not previously indicated. Write “0” in the right hand column of the questionnaire when it is certain that no foods in that group were eaten.

There are several advantages of the recall method compared with reading out all the foods in each group from the questionnaire and asking the person if these foods were eaten:

1)It takes less time.

2)It is less tedious for the respondent rather than having to saying Yes or No to each food.

3)It actively involves the respondent in the interview process.

4)It facilitates consideration of the ingredients used in mixed dishes.

6

Analyzing dietary diversity data

The data collected with the dietary diversity questionnaire can be analyzed in several ways. A dietary diversity score can be created, which is the sum of the different food groups consumed. The scores for different sub-populations, such as urban or rural, can then be analyzed to provide more information on the diets of sub-populations with different demographic or economic characteristics. The population can be stratified according to an indicator of vulnerability, such as categories of a wealth index, and the scores of each group compared.

It also useful to focus on individual food groups of interest in addition to using the information as a score. For example, the proportion of households or individuals consuming vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables can be calculated. Information on consumption of individual food groups can also be used to investigate dietary patterns. For example, the population can be divided into quantiles for an indicator of interest (e.g. wealth) or by quantile of the dietary diversity score (e.g. tertiles or quintiles) to identify different dietary patterns across the population subgroups.

6.1THE DIETARY DIVERSITY SCORES

The proposed numbers of food groups to be included in the HDDS and WDDS are based on synthesis of currently available research results. The HDDS is based on the food groups proposed by FANTA (Swindale and Bilinsky, 2006). There is no international consensus on which food groups to include in the scores and the results of new research could justify changing the groups proposed in theses guidelines.

The HDDS and WDDS are calculated based upon different numbers of food groups because the scores are used for different purposes. The HDDS is meant to provide an indication of household economic access to food, thus items that require household resources to obtain, such as condiments, sugar and sugary foods, and beverages, are included in the score. Individual scores are meant to reflect the nutritional quality of the diet. The WDDS reflects the probability of micronutrient adequacy of the diet and therefore food groups included in the score are tailored towards this purpose.

Previous research has shown that the fats and oils food group does not contribute to the micronutrient density of the diet and this food group is not part of the WDDS. However, it is important to calculate the proportion of individuals consuming fats and oils as a separate indicator because oil is an important contributor to energy density and improves the absorption of plant source carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins.

Twelve food groups are proposed for the HDDS, while nine food groups are proposed for the WDDS. The food groups used to calculate HDDS and WDDS are listed in Table 3 and Table 4. For both scores certain food groups in the questionnaire are aggregated.

Note for Tables 3 and 4: Some food groups in the dietary diversity questionnaire are combined into a single food group to create the HDDS and WDDS. The potential score range is 0-12 for HDDS and 0-9 for WDDS (not 0-16 which is the number of questions in the questionnaire before aggregation into groups to create each score).

The food groups considered in the score for the WDDS put more emphasis on micronutrient intake[10] than on economic access to food. A score based on nine food groups was chosen (see Box 3).

6.2HOW TO CREATE DIETARY DIVERSITY SCORES

Dietary diversity scores are calculated by summing the number of food groups consumed in the household or by the individual respondent over the 24-hour recall period.

The following steps are included in creating either the HDDS or WDDS:

1.Create new food group variables for those food groups that need to be aggregated[11].

For example in the WDDS the food group “Starchy staples” is a combination of “Cereals” and “White roots and tubers”. A new variable termed “Starchy staples” should be created by combining the answers to “Cereals” and “White roots and tubers”. This can be done using the following type of logical syntax:

Starchy staples = 1 if q1 (Cereals) =1 or q2 (White roots and tubers) = 1 Starchy staples = 0 if q1 (Cereals) = 0 and q2 (White roots and tubers)=0

As a check, run a “frequencies” test on all newly created variables and make sure that all values are either 0 or 1. There should be no values > 1 for the newly created variable.

2.Create a new variable termed either HDDS or WDDS.

3.Compute values for the dietary diversity variable by summing all food groups included in the dietary diversity score (either 12 food groups for household or nine for women - see above for food group definitions).

As a check on the creation of the variables, all scores should be within the following range:

• HDDS (0-12)

• WDDS (0-9)

6.3USING AND INTERPRETING HDDS AND WDDS

There are no established cut-off points in terms of number of food groups to indicate adequate or inadequate dietary diversity for the HDDS and WDDS. Because of this it is recommended to use the mean score or distribution of scores for analytical purposes and to set programme targets or goals.

Looking at the percentage of households or individuals consuming individual food groups is another important analytical strategy. Dietary diversity scores and percent households consuming each food group can be used as a one-time measure or for on-going monitoring.

Dietary diversity scores can be used to assess changes in diet before and after an intervention (improvement expected) or after a disaster such as crop failure (decline expected). The mean dietary diversity score allows comparison of sub-populations; for example, communities undergoing a nutrition intervention compared with control communities, or HIV-affected households compared with others.

When interpreting the dietary diversity score, it is important to keep in mind that:

- The dietary diversity score does not indicate the quantity of food consumed.

- Diet varies across seasons and some foods can be available in large quantities and at low cost for short periods.

- There may be urban/rural differentials in dietary diversity. Variety is often much greater in urban and peri-urban centres where food markets are adequately supplied and easily accessible.

6.4CREATING INDICATORS OF SPECIAL INTEREST FROM SPECIFIC FOOD GROUPS

At the population level, proportions of households or individuals who consume food groups that are good sources of individual micronutrients, such as vitamin A or iron can be calculated. It is also useful at the individual level to include an indicator on percentage of individuals consuming fats/oils as this food group is not part of the women’s dietary diversity score.

Table 5 itemizes key food groups of interest when investigating consumption of vitamin A[12] or haem-iron rich foods.

The following indicators can be derived for consumption of vitamin A rich food groups:

- Percentage of individuals/households consuming plant foods rich in vitamin A (vitamin A rich vegetables and tubers, dark green leafy vegetables, or vitamin A rich fruits).

- Percentage of individuals/households consuming vitamin A rich animal source foods (organ meat, eggs or milk and milk products).

- Percentage of individuals/households consuming either a plant or animal source of vitamin A (vitamin A rich vegetables and tubers or dark green leafy vegetables or vitamin A rich fruits or organ meat, or eggs, or milk and milk products).

The following indicator can be derived for consumption of haem-iron rich food groups:

- Percentage of individuals/households consuming organ meat, flesh meat, or fish[13].

The indicators above are calculated by summing the number of households or individuals who consumed ANY of the food groups listed in the questionnaire and then dividing by the total sample size of the survey.

Example: The percentage of households or individuals that consumed plant foods rich in vitamin A during the last 24 hours is calculated using the following formula:

Using qualitative dietary diversity data it is not possible to establish thresholds below which populations do not consume sufficient vitamin A or iron. In general, low percentages of households or individuals consuming food groups containing these micronutrients on a given day may be indicative of seriously inadequate diets that lead to morbidity related to micronutrient deficiencies.

As with the dietary diversity mean score, percentages of those consuming micronutrient rich food groups can be used as one-time measures of a population or sub-populations, for ongoing monitoring or to assess changes in diet such as before and after an intervention. Sub-groups can also be compared, for example communities undergoing a nutrition intervention compared with control communities.

6.5ASSESSING DIETARY PATTERNS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF DIETARY DIVERSITY SCORES

In addition to calculating mean dietary diversity scores, it is also important to know which food groups are predominately consumed at different levels of the scores. This provides information on the foods that are eaten by those with the lowest dietary diversity, and which foods are added by those with a higher score. Dietary patterns are analyzed in this example by looking at the food groups consumed by at least 50% of households in each tertile. Table 6 shows what diets look like in central Mozambique during the mango season.

Dietary patterns can also be used for comparisons across countries. The example in the table below comes from results of the Women’s Dietary Diversity Project in Bangladesh (Arimond et al., 2009), Mozambique (Wiesmann, Arimond and Loechi, 2009) and the Philippines (Daniels, 2009).

7

Conclusions

Dietary diversity as a measure of household food access and food consumption can be triangulated with other food-related information to contribute towards providing a holistic picture of the food and nutrition security status in a community or across a broader area.

Dietary diversity questionnaires are increasingly included in food and nutrition security surveys to provide indicators of household food access or individual dietary quality.

Some examples of where dietary diversity questionnaires could be included in the context of food and nutrition security assessment are:

- Baseline and impact assessment in the framework of nutrition and food security programmes.

- National surveys.

- Surveillance systems.

- Monitoring and evaluation[14] of programmes and policies.

- Emergency or routine food security analyses.

- Phase classification for identifying emergencies.

Citations

Arimond, M., Wiesmann, D., Becquey E., Carriquiry, A., Daniels, M., Deitchler, M., Fanou-Fogny, N., Joseph, M., Kennedy, G., Martin-Prevel, Y. & Torheim, L.E. 2010 Simple food group diversity indicators predict micronutrient adequacy of women’s diets in 5 diverse, resource-poor settings. Journal of Nutrition (forthcoming).

Arimond, M., Torheim, L.E., Wiesmann, D., Joseph, M. & Carriquiry A. 2009. Dietary Diversity as a Measure of the Micronutrient Adequacy of Women’s Diets: Results from Rural Bangladesh Site. Washington (DC): Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance II Project, Academy for Educational Development; 2009. (available at http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/WDDP_Bangladesh_Dec09.pdf)

Daniels, M. 2009. Dietary diversity as a measure of the micronutrient adequacy of women’s diets: Results from Metropolitan Cebu, Philippines Site. Washington (DC): Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance II Project, Academy for Educational Development, (available at http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/WDDP_Philippines_Dec09.pdf).

FANTA. 2006. Developing and Validating Simple Indicators of Dietary Quality and Energy Intake of Infants and Young Children in Developing Countries: Summary of findings from analysis of 10 data sets. Working Group on Infant and Young Child Feeding Indicators. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, Academy for Educational Development (AED), Washington, D.C.

FAO. 2010. Expert Consultation on Nutrition Indicators for Biodiversity 2. Food consumption. FAO. Rome, Italy (available at http://www.fao.org/infoods/biodiversity/index_en.stm)

FAO. 2006. Baseline Survey Report Protecting and Improving Household Food Security and Nutrition in HIV/AIDS Affected Areas in Manica and Sofala Province, Maputo, Mozambique. (available at http://www.foodsec.org/tr/nut/baseline_june07.pdf)

Foote, J., Murphy, S., Wilkens, L., Basiotis, P. & Carlson, A. 2004. Dietary variety increases the probability of nutrient adequacy among adults. Journal of Nutrition 134: 1779-1785.

Hatloy, A., Hallund, J., Diarra, M.M. & Oshaug, A. 2000. Food variety, socioeconomic status and nutritional status in urban and rural areas in Koutiala (Mali). Public Health Nutrition 3: 57-65.

Hatloy, A., Torheim, L. & Oshaug, A. 1998. Food variety--a good indicator of nutritional adequacy of the diet? A case study from an urban area in Mali, West Africa. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52(12):891-8.

Hoddinott, J. & Yohannes, Y. 2002. Dietary diversity as a food security indicator. FANTA 2002, Washington DC. (available at http://www.aed.org/Health/upload/dietarydiversity.pdf)

Hunt, J. 2001. How important is dietary iron bioavailability? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 73: 3-4.

Kennedy, G., Pedro, M.R., Seghieri, C., Nantel, G. & Brouwer, I. 2007. Dietary diversity score is a useful indicator of micronutrient intake in non breast-feeding Filipino children. Journal of Nutrition 137: 1-6.

Latham, M. 1997. Human Nutrition in the Developing World. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.

Mirmiran, P., Azadbakht, L., Esmaillzadeh, A. & Azizi, F. 2004. Dietary diversity score in adolescents- a good indicator of the nutritional adequacy of diets: Tehran lipid and glucose study. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13(1): 56-60.

Ruel, M., Graham, J., Murphy, S. & Allen, L. 2004. Validating simple indicators of dietary diversity and animal source food intake that accurately reflect nutrient adequacy in developing countries. Report submitted to GL-CRSP.

Savy, M., Martin-Prevel, Y., Traissac, P., Emyard-Duvernay, S. & Delpeuch, F. 2006. Dietary diversity scores and nutritional status of women change during the seasonal food shortage in rural Burkina Faso. Journal of Nutrition 136: 2625-2632.

Savy, M., Martin-Prevel, Y., Sawadogo, P., Kameli, Y. & Delpeuch, F. 2005. Use of variety/ diversity scores for diet quality measurement: relation with nutritional status of women in a rural area in Burkina Faso. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59: 703-716.

Steyn, N.P., Nel, J.H., Nantel, G., Kennedy, G. & Labadarios, D. 2006. Food variety and dietary diversity scores in children: are they good indicators of dietary adequacy? Public Health Nutrition 9(5): 644-650.

Swindale A. & Bilinsky, P. 2006. Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) for measurement of household food access: indicator guide, Version 2. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development, Washington, D.C.

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Wiesmann, D., Arimond, A. & Loechi, C. 2009. Dietary diversity as a measure of the micronutrient adequacy of women’s diets: Results from rural Mozambique site. Washington (DC): Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance II Project, Academy for Educational Development, (available at: http://www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/WDDP_Mozambique_Dec09.pdf)

ANNEX 1

Reference note on deriving indicators for iron intake

Dietary iron is found in both plant and animal foods. Haem iron, found only in animal source foods is absorbed more easily into the body than non-haem iron, which is found in both animal and plant foods (Tseng, M. et al., 1997). There are several dietary factors that influence the uptake of iron by the body. Consuming vitamin C, or a haem iron source increases the bioavailability of non-haem iron consumed in the same meal. Conversely, phytate (found in grains and legumes), polyphenols (found in coffee and tea), calcium and egg have an inhibiting effect on non-haem iron uptake when consumed during the same meal (Latham, M., 1997). However, recent studies established that individual iron status has a much more profound effect on iron uptake than dietary inhibitors and enhancers of iron (Hunt, J., 2001).

The choice of indicators recommended for reporting purposes is driven by the following main factors: i) the questionnaire does not collect information at the level of the meal, where the effect of iron inhibitors and enhancers occurs, therefore it is not possible to take into consideration these effects ii) the unknown iron status of the individual has a larger effect on iron absorption than do any dietary factors.

ANNEX 2

Guidance on assigning individual foods to food groups[15]

CEREALS

Include products and foods derived from cereal crops. Any staple dishes or products such as breads (e.g. bagels, rolls, scones, chapatti, roti, tortillas), savoury biscuits (buttermilk biscuits, cheese biscuits), porridge (ugali, nsima/nshima, posho, sadza, mealies, dalia, muesli, papilla, grain fufu), and noodles (pasta, soba, spaghetti, vermicelli) made from the grains listed below, and from flours of these grains, should be included in this category. Local names should be used (see Box 2). Sweet biscuits and cakes should not be included.

WHITE ROOTS AND TUBERS

Include non-pigmented items mainly providing carbohydrate. This group includes all non-grain-based starchy staples. Any staple dishes/casseroles and pastes made from roots, tubers, and plantains should also be included in this category.

VITAMIN A RICH VEGETABLES AND TUBERS

Include only roots, tubers, and other red/yellow/orange vegetables that are sources[16] of Vitamin A (see Box 1 of this Annex). Several items that are botanically fruits but are typically used as vegetables for culinary purposes are also included here.

DARK GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES

Include in this category only medium to dark green leafy vegetables that are a source of Vitamin A. Vitamin A values for leafy vegetables vary widely across various food composition tables. In general medium to dark leafy green vegetables will meet the criterion to be considered sources of Vitamin A (see Box 1 of this annex for definition of Vitamin A source).

OTHER VEGETABLES

VITAMIN A RICH FRUITS (DARK YELLOW OR ORANGE)

Include locally available dark yellow or orange fruits that are sources of Vitamin A (see Box 1 for definition of Vitamin A source).

OTHER FRUITS

This group includes various parts of a plant; leaves, stem, fruit and flowers.

ORGAN MEAT

This group includes different types of red organ meats that are usually rich in haem iron. Any processed/cured products made from these organ meats should also be included in this group.

- Liver, kidney, heart, gizzard, lung, blood-based foods such as blood pudding

FLESH MEAT

This group includes flesh foods. Any processed/cured products made from the meats listed below (sausages, salamis, etc.) should also be included in this group.

- Beef, goat, lamb, mutton, pork, rabbit, yak, deer, antelope, buffalo, or other large wild (bush meat) or domesticated mammals

- Chicken, duck, goose, guineafowl, turkey, pigeon, or other wild or domesticated birds.

- Cane rat, guinea pig, rat, agouti, opossum, cat, dog, anteater, or other small wild (bush meat) or domesticated mammals

- Frogs, snakes, and other reptiles

- Insects are included in this group

EGGS

This group includes all kinds of bird eggs.

- Chicken eggs

- Duck eggs

- Guinea fowl eggs

- Quail eggs

FISH AND SEAFOOD

This group includes all types of fish and seafood. Any processed food made from these should also be included in this category.

- Fresh or dried fish

- Canned fish (anchovies, tuna, sardines)

- Shark, whale

- Roe/fish eggs

- Clam, crab, lobster, crayfish, mussels, oysters, shrimp, or other shellfish

- Octopus, squid

- Sea snails

LEGUMES, NUTS, SEEDS

Include beans, dried peas, lentils, nuts, or seeds, and also products made from these. Seeds should not be included on the list if they are used in very small quantities or if chewed as a digestive; in these cases seeds should be listed as condiments. Include seeds here if they represent a substantial ingredient in mixed dishes, or if they are eaten as a substantial snack or side dish.

Pulses, legumes, beans

Tree nuts

In addition to the legumes, nuts and seeds in the tables above, this group also includes:

- Sprouted pulses

- Seeds and kernels (sesame, sunflower, pumpkin, pine nut).

- Soy products (edamame, tofu, tempeh, soy paste, soy milk, texturized vegetable protein, soy cheese, soy yogurt, frozen soy yogurt)

- Other pulse products (hummus)

- Nut and seed products (peanut butter, tahini paste, “milks” made from nuts and seeds)

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Include all food items in this group that are made from dairy, with the exception of butter and sour cream. Due to their high fat content and most typical culinary uses, these are classified with fats and oils.

- Whole, low-fat and skimmed milk

- Infant formula

- Custard (milk based)

- Hard cheese (cheddar, Swiss, parmesan)

- Soft cheese (ricotta, mozzarella, cottage, paneer)

- Processed cheese

- Ice-cream (dairy-based)

- Kiefer

- Yogurt/Curd

OILS AND FATS

Include all food items in this group that have visible fat. Do not include vitamin A rich red palm oil.

- Butter

- Ghee

- Lard, suet, tallow (animal fats)

- Margarine

- Mayonnaise

- Palm oil (not red palm oil)

- Shortenings

- Sour cream

- Vegetable/nut oils (made from almond, avocado, canola, coconut, cottonseed, groundnut, maize, olive, rapeseed, safflower, sesame, soybean, sunflower, walnut, etc.)

SWEETS

Include food items with a high content of different sweetening agents (for example, sugar, corn syrup, other syrup, honey, molasses, or jaggery, sweetened beverages).

- Baklava

- Biscuits (sweet) or cookies

- Cakes

- Candies

- Chocolates

- Halwa

- Hard candies

- Honey

- Jam or marmalade

- Pastries, pie

- Sweetened sodas, sweetened fruit juice and sugary drinks

- Any other sweets

SPICES, CONDIMENTS AND BEVERAGES

Include items commonly used in small quantities and mainly used to enhance the flavour of the dish. This list may include many additional items, including various flavouring pastes and seeds, depending on local knowledge of their uses. Include beverages such coffee, tea and alcoholic beverages.

Some examples of condiments, spices and beverages:

- Chilies

- Fish powder, fish sauce

- Ketchup, mustard

- Herbs

- Maggi cubes

- Soya sauce

- Spices

- Tea, coffee

- Beer, wine, hard spirits

ANNEX 3

Example of a completed questionnaire

DIETARY DIVERSITY QUESTIONNAIRE

Please describe the foods (meals and snacks) that you ate or drank yesterday during the day and night, whether at home or outside the home. Start with the first food or drink eaten in the morning.

Write down all food and drinks mentioned. When composite dishes are mentioned, ask for the list of ingredients. When the respondent has finished, probe for meals and snacks not mentioned.

[Household level: consider foods eaten by any member of the household, and exclude foods purchased and eaten outside the home]

When the respondent recall is complete, fill in the food groups based on the information recorded above. For any food groups not mentioned, ask the respondent if a food item from this group was consumed.

Example of calculation of WDDS for this individual:

[1]There is some evidence that women’s dietary diversity also reflects household economic access to food.

[2]Those foods are not included because the respondent may not know which other household members purchase and eat outside the home.

[3]In this case, the best time should be determined through interviews with key informants.

[4]Availability of wild foods may vary according to the traditional seasonal agricultural cycle, for example, wild food availability may be greatest during the rainy season, which occurs before harvest of main cereal crops

[5]One study in Burkina Faso found women had higher dietary diversity during the ‘hungry’ season due to harvest of wild foods (Savy et al., 2006).

[6]Mozambique in March 2006, Malawi in July 2006, and Kenya in August 2006. Activities were implemented within the EC/FAO Programme “Food Security Information for Action”.

[7]Vitamin A rich fruits, vegetables and tubers contain at least 120 Retinol Equivalent / 100 g (60 RAE / 100g) where 1RE = 6 µg β-carotene and 12 µg of all other provitamin A carotenoids.

[8]In this questionnaire food consumed by only one member of the household and not by the others is still recorded. For example if a child was given a piece of fruit to eat as a snack, this is recorded as ‘yes’ for fruit even if no other members of the household ate fruit.

[9]For an example of this method see Savy et al. (2006).

[10]Research in infants and young children showed that the fats and oils food group did not contribute to the micronutrient density of the diet. Based on this, the WDDS also excludes fats/oils from the score, but for many projects it will be important to continue to monitor consumption of items in this food group.

[11]The number of food groups included in each score differs from the total number of food groups in the questionnaire.

[12]The term vitamin A is used in this section for simplicity. It indicates foods containing retinol and foods of plant origin that contain retinol precursor carotenoids

[13]These three food groups all contain food sources of haem iron, which is more bioavailable than non-haem iron and also enhances the absorption of non-haem iron present in the same meal. Organ meats are the richest source of haem iron.

[14]In the case of evaluation of a programme, dietary diversity will be used as an outcome indicator. Examples of programmes where dietary diversity questionnaires could be used are those that aim to improve crop diversity or market availability of certain foods, and nutrition education projects to improve dietary quality.

[15]This section is adapted with permission from Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices Part 2: Measurement (WHO, 2010).

[16]For definition of “source” refer to: Codex Alimentarius Commission, Guidelines adopted 1997, revised 2004; for definition of Nutrient Reference Values: Codex Alimentarius Commission, Guidelines adopted 1985, revised 1993.

[17]Various varieties of young bean pods are eaten as vegetables. All the varieties of bean and pea consumed as a young pod should be included in the group “Other vegetables”. When mature seeds are eaten (mainly as dried) they should be listed under group “Legumes, nuts and seeds”.