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FAO and IFAD. 2022. Farmer field schools for family poultry producers – A practical manual for facilitators. Rome, FAO and IFAD. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0254en

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Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

About this manual

Module 1. Poultry farmer field school establishment and learning activities

1.1 Preparatory phase

1.1.1 Understanding the context and target community

1.1.2 Building farmer field school capacity

1.1.3 Introducing farmer field school to the target community and its leaders

1.1.4 Forming and formalizing a farmer field school group

1.1.5 Developing the farmer field school group action plan

1.1.6 Creating a participatory monitoring and evaluation plan

1.2 Farmer field school learning phase

1.2.1 Running farmer field school meetings

1.2.2 Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing

1.2.3 Undertaking awareness-raising activities

1.2.4 Planning for post-farmer field school learning: Evaluation and action plan

1.3 Post-farmer field school learning phase

Module 2. “Need-to-know” information on poultry production and health and on the facilitation of farmer field schools

2.1 Poultry production and health

2.1.1 Glossary of technical terms

2.1.2 Socioeconomic aspects of family poultry production

2.1.3 Keys to achieving good poultry health

2.1.4 Poultry diets

2.1.5 Composting of poultry manure

2.1.6 Animal welfare

2.1.7 Marketing and value chains

2.1.8 Extensive scavenging systems

2.1.9 Intensified rearing systems

2.2 Facilitation methods and non-formal education

2.2.1 Facilitation techniques for participatory learning

2.2.2 Qualities of a successful farmer field school

2.2.3 Incremental levels of achievements of farmer field school groups

2.2.4 Funding mechanisms for farmer field school activities

Annexes

Annex 1. Sample handouts for field adaptation and use

Poultry farmer field schools

Family poultry production systems

Animal and human health

Extensive family poultry systems

Intensified family poultry systems

Annex 2. Sample tools and templates for record-keeping

Annex 3. Sample tools and templates for monitoring and evaluating the poultry farmer field school

Monitoring the learning process

Evaluating the poultry farmer field school

Annex 4. Templates for the agro-ecosystem analysis sheet and comparative experiments

Agro-ecosystem analysis sheet

Comparative experiments

Annex 5. Examples of comparative experiments and agro-ecosystem analysis sheets

Other possible topics for experimentation

Annex 6. Examples of topics for demonstrations

Bibliography

Multimedia material

Foreword

The poultry sector continues to grow and become industrialized in many parts of the world. An increasing human population, greater purchasing power and urbanization have been strong drivers of growth. However, small-scale, family-based poultry systems continue to play a crucial role in sustaining livelihoods in low- and middle-income countries, supplying nutritious animal-source food to resource-poor and rural households, providing important support to women farmers, and playing specific and important socioeconomic roles.

As we move forward with the development of sustainable, resilient food systems, we must ensure that we promote poultry production that yields high-quality animal-source foods that are safe to consume while applying agroecological and other sustainable practices and ensuring appropriate animal welfare standards. Achieving sustainable family poultry production in the face of transboundary animal diseases such as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), climate change, emerging infectious diseases such as COVID-19, variable farmgate prices and antimicrobial resistance is a complex endeavour that requires feasible strategies that are appropriate to local cultural, economic and geographical circumstances.

Through the education and empowerment of farmers, the farmer field school (FFS) approach can contribute to strengthening knowledge of holistic agro-ecosystem management, improving decision-making skills, facilitating group collaboration and encouraging local innovation, particularly by women and young people. Family poultry producers, both women and men, are thereby enabled to achieve sustainable food production and livelihood and resilience improvements and to enhance their contribution to global food security and attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Over the past two decades, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) have used the FFS approach extensively to foster poultry development while facilitating the sharing of knowledge and experience. The results and impact delivered in developing countries have shown that for successful poultry FFS and long-term sustainability, it is essential to ensure good-quality facilitation and learning activities.

To enhance the contribution of poultry FFS to improving the livelihoods of family poultry producers, facilitators should be provided with information that gives them a better understanding of how best to apply the FFS approach within different family poultry systems. Through the practical activities proposed in this manual, facilitators can enable family poultry producers to learn and value new and local practices in their specific situations and environments, allowing for sustainable changes in practices and behaviours. This manual aims to fill existing knowledge gaps in order to contribute to improving the quality of the growing number of poultry FFS implemented by governments, international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders.

Acknowledgements

The document was drafted by Robyn Alders and Gertrude Buyu. Overall coordination and editing were provided by Badi Besbes (Senior Animal Production Officer), Clarisse Ingabire (Animal Production Officer) and Giacomo de’ Besi (Livestock Development Specialist) of the Animal Production and Genetics Branch (NSAG) of FAO’s Animal Production and Health Division (NSA). IFAD’s financial and technical contributions were coordinated by Antonio Rota, IFAD Lead Global Technical Specialist – Livestock Development.

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed to the preparation of the document, including Caroline Abid (Wildlife Conservation Society), Duncan Abudiku (FAO Kenya), Alban Bellingez (IFAD), Arie Bijl (Programma Uitzending Managers [PUM], Netherlands), Mark Caudell (FAO Kenya), Rosa Costa (Kyeema Foundation, Mozambique), Marjon Fredrix (FAO Rome), Lenard M. Gichana (Pwani University, Kenya), Alice Green (FAO Rome), Fallou Guèye, (FAO Djibouti), Stella Kiambi (FAO Kenya), Maiguizo Mamane Lamine (FAO Niger), Noah Maritim (Pwani University, Kenya), Ricarda Mondry (FAO Subregional Office for Eastern Africa), Paul Mutungi (FAO Kenya), Nichols Mnjala (Pwani University, Kenya), Benjamin A.M. Mweri (FFS Promotion Sevices, Kenya), Imad Nahaal (FAO Lebanon), Seyodu Ouattara (Ministère des Ressources Animales et Halieutiques, Burkina Faso), Narin Oum (Green Innovet Cam, Cambodia), Suzanne Phillips (FAO Rome) and Anne-Sophie Poisot (FAO Rome).

We also acknowledge the valuable feedback and input received from the three peer reviewers: Deborah Duveskog, Kevin D. Gallagher and Stefano Mondovi. Finally, we acknowledge the financial support from the FAO Global Farmer Field School Platform for production of the illustrations and the support of Studio Pietro Bartoleschi (Donatella Marchi and Elisa Lipizzi) for graphic design and illustrations, Jane Shaw for language editing and Antonella Falcone and Kafia Fassi Fhiri for administrative support.

Acronyms

AESA agro-ecosystem analysis

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FFS farmer field school

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

M&E monitoring and evaluation

ND Newcastle disease

NGO non-governmental organization

PRA participatory rural appraisal

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

About this manual

Guide to the guidance boxes

Boxes with chapter objectives have a green background.

Boxes with key information have an orange background.

Boxes with recommendations have a yellow background.

Who is this manual for?

The intended users of this manual are the facilitators of farmer field schools (FFS) on poultry. Poultry FFS facilitators are not teachers; their key role is to guide and accompany the learning process by creating a space where participants can learn creatively about the selected enterprise through non-formal adult learning approaches. FFS facilitators may be government staff, NGO extension workers, producer organization staff, community-based animal health workers, community leaders, or farmer role models/champions.

Key characteristics of a good FFS facilitator:

■ trained in FFS methodology by a qualified FFS master trainer;

■ has facilitation and participatory skills;

■ is available and accessible to the farmers;

■ is able to conduct peer-to-peer interactions and has a good attitude towards farmers’ opinions;

■ is creative and innovative;

■ is technically capable;

■ is resourceful;

■ is accountable to farmers.

The aim of this manual and how to use it

This manual is intended for field use by facilitators in the preparation and implementation of poultry FFS. It aims to help them prepare and implement good-quality FFS and focuses on working with women and men farmers in order to improve family poultry production under any production system ranging from extensive to small-scale intensified, in line with farmers’ aspirations and local conditions. Chickens are the most common poultry in such systems and they are therefore the focus of practical activities in this manual.

■ This manual is a collection of examples to inspire FFS facilitators. The FFS participants, with the help of the FFS facilitator, should choose and/or adapt appropriate activities and exercises that are based on their needs and relevant to the local context and environment.

■ The manual should be complemented by other FFS material. Other FFS manuals and guides that provide complementary information on the FFS approach and on what can be done in an FFS are useful resources when planning and implementing an FFS. Links and references to useful resources can be found in the section References and further reading.

■ The manual should be adapted for local use. Where necessary, contents should be tailored to the local setting and needs and to the literacy level of the facilitators by, for instance, including additional illustrations and adapting or simplifying the language.

■ In most situations, the manual should be introduced, explained and used to develop capacity during the training of facilitators or in an ad hoc training session. This will help facilitators to make the best use of the manual and to understand what content to focus their attention on, based on local conditions and needs.

■ The manual is a living document. It will be updated over time and will benefit greatly from feedback and adjustments following field testing and validation.

How was the manual developed?

The manual was developed using a participatory process involving specialists knowledgeable in FFS and family poultry practices from across the developing world. A conceptual workshop was held at FAO Headquarters in Rome from 16 to 18 August 2019, a writing team convened in September 2019, a validation workshop – including pre-testing of key components with family poultry producers near Kilifi in Kenya – was held from 22 to 24 October 2019, and the resulting draft was edited. The draft manual was also tested in a number of field projects and training events prior to publication.

Some of the exercises and activities presented were developed during the workshops in Rome and Kilifi, while others were adapted from existing manuals.

Structure of the manual

The manual comprises two modules.

Module 1: Poultry farmer field school establishment and learning activities

The first part of module 1 describes how to prepare a poultry FFS and develop a curriculum. The identification of gaps in knowledge, skills and practices that limit production and productivity is highlighted as a key element of FFS preparation. How to tailor learning and the curriculum to specific local needs and the local context are also described.

The second part of the module focuses on the implementation of a poultry FFS and activities for developing family poultry production and marketing. It provides guidance on FFS core activities. It explains how to integrate entrepreneurship and marketing, promote information exchange and dissemination through activities such as field days and exchange visits, and plan and implement post-FFS learning.

Module 2: “Need-to-know” information on poultry production and health and on the facilitation of farmer field schools

Module 2 provides technical information and reference material on poultry production and health to refresh and complement the knowledge of facilitators who already possess a sound understanding of the topics. Information on various facilitation methods and non-formal education is also provided.

The manual includes annexes with handouts, tools and templates that can be used as a reference or adapted for use in poultry FFS throughout developing regions.

The section on references and further reading aims to help facilitators by identifying complementary resources, including manuals, multimedia and technical papers.

Understanding key concepts and terms

Family poultry production

“Family poultry” refers to the full variety of poultry production systems that are practised by individual families as a means of obtaining food security, income and gainful employment. The poultry raised include a wide range of birds from indigenous to commercial breeds, and from chickens to Muscovy ducks, mallard ducks, pigeons, quails, guinea fowls, geese, pheasants, turkeys and ostriches.

Family poultry accounts for up to 80 percent of poultry stocks in low-income, food-deficit countries where small-scale farmers raise poultry in small numbers, ranging from a single bird up to several hundred (FAO, 2014).

See (module): Socioeconomic aspects of family poultry production (2.1.2)

Family poultry can play a crucial role in supporting the lives and well-being of many poor households, and FFS facilitators can:

■ assist family poultry producers in increasing productivity, production and household incomes;

■ help family poultry producers to move from subsistence to market-oriented enterprises;

■ bridge gaps in food and nutrition security;

■ facilitate women’s empowerment and gender equity as women are commonly in charge of this sector and often have inadequate access to skills development.

Production systems

To assist facilitators in tailoring their work according to local family poultry production systems, information in this manual is separated according to whether it applies to extensive production, comprising small-scale extensive scavenging and extensive scavenging, or intensified production, comprising semi-intensified and small-scale intensified (Table 1). This classification highlights the characteristics of each production system not only in terms of breeds and husbandry inputs, but also in terms of market characteristics that are essential to a successful poultry business.

The spectrum of production systems from extensive to intensified is diverse, especially in areas where the reliable input supply that is essential to intensified production is absent. Extensive production systems with birds of indigenous breeds are low-input and are often part of mixed farming enterprises, whereas intensified production systems with commercial breeds are high-input and often the household’s only business enterprise.

See (annex): Family poultry production systems (Annex 1)

Poultry farmer field schools

What are poultry farmer field schools?

The FFS approach is a form of non-formal adult education. An FFS is best described as a “school without walls” where groups of 20–25 farmers learn through observation and experimentation. In the process, group members acquire technical skills, strengthen group cohesion and design strategies for improving livelihoods through better understanding of value chains, while also defining opportunities for business and enterprise development.

In poultry FFS, activities are designed to enable participants to learn by doing and to drive innovation by building on local knowledge while testing, adapting and validating practices and scientific concepts developed elsewhere. Exchange of information and generation of knowledge are fostered through sharing of observations, brainstorming on corrective measures, and facilitated discussions that lead to decision-making. The FFS process follows systematic steps of problem and solution analysis rather than standard recommendations or learning packages. During each learning cycle, farmers test two or three prioritized possible practices/technology options such as promising research findings or local innovations developed by farmers. In this way, farmers become active learners and independent decision-makers promoting what works in their local context. This is a process of participatory and inclusive learning.

See (annex): Poultry farmer field schools (Annex 1)

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a)

Poultry FFS phases

The preparatory and implementation activities for a poultry FFS can be grouped into the three phases described in the following.

Appropriate and efficient planning and implementation of an FFS initiative is critical in enabling communities increasingly to take the lead in developing and expanding their poultry enterprises and in stimulating lasting improvements in production, consumption and marketing.

Phase 1: Preparatory phase

The preparatory phase involves all the activities that must be carried out before FFS meetings can be started: baseline studies, selection and training of facilitators and beneficiaries, awareness-raising meetings with communities and their leaders, development of a group action plan, and design and setup of experiments, for example. This phase generally requires between one and three months in countries or areas where master trainers and facilitators exist, but may take longer in environments without sufficient local capacity.

See (module): Preparatory phase (1.1)

Phase 2: FFS learning phase – production and entrepreneurship/marketing learning stages

The poultry production learning stage begins when the FFS meetings start. It should last for an entire production cycle – from batch to batch in intensified systems and from egg to egg in extensive systems.

The entrepreneurship/marketing learning stage may run in parallel with the production learning stage or start later on during the learning phase. It aims at strengthening the marketing abilities and entrepreneurial skills of FFS group members, thereby helping them to better leverage market opportunities.

See (module): Farmer field school learning phase (1.2)

Entrepreneurship is a key component of a poultry FFS

FFS can help poultry producers to become more entrepreneurial in running their farms. Producers are helped to leverage market opportunities more effectively and to produce more for markets and profits. A successful poultry FFS will:

■ enable participants to exploit economic opportunities created by their improved knowledge, skills and networks;

■ facilitate savings, cost sharing, access to microcredit, marketing, job creation and livelihood diversification;

■ help participants to understand market and price dynamics, and key actors and their roles and interests;

■ create linkages among different value chain actors;

■ create wealth, promote social cohesion and build resilience. Entrepreneurship and marketing activities are particularly important in attracting and engaging participants, especially young people.

See (module): Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing (1.2.2)

Phase 3: Post-FFS learning phase

During the post-FFS learning phase, participants implement what they have learned during the learning phase and try to find new ways of learning as a group, including participating in coordinated FFS cluster meetings that support networking and facilitate the start-up of new FFS, hosting visiting groups, and undertaking marketing and value addition that give sustainability to the practices learned in the poultry FFS. The group can continue working together to define other challenges for which new knowledge and skills need to be mastered.

See (module): Post-farmer field school learning phase (1.3)

1.1 Preparatory phase

Chapter objectives

■ To describe the role and responsibilities of facilitators during the preparatory phase.

■ To guide facilitators in the successful implementation of key preparatory activities and provide practical recommendations.

The preparatory phase is key to the success of a poultry FFS. Ensuring high-quality learning requires thorough planning and the participation of family poultry producers and the community to provide a better understanding of the local context, constraints, priorities and needs. A facilitator should work in close collaboration and consultation with the project team during this phase.

Main activities of the preparatory phase

■ Understanding the context and target community:

– pre-condition survey/assessment;

– baseline studies.

■ Building FFS capacity:

– selection and training or refresher training (if previously trained) of master trainers;

– selection and training of facilitators.

The FFS facilitator takes up his/her role

■ Introducing the FFS to the target community and its leaders:

– awareness-raising meeting.

■ Forming and formalizing an FFS group:

– FFS group formation and organization;

– selection of the learning activity/enterprise;

– identification of the learning site/host farm.

■ Developing the FFS group action plan:

– identification of key problems and possible solutions;

– design of comparative experiments;

– preparation of an enterprise curriculum.

■ Creation of a participatory monitoring and evaluation plan.

1.1.1 Understanding the context and target community

1.1.1.1 Pre-condition survey/assessment

Prior to implementing a poultry FFS in a new area, a pre-condition survey/assessment should be carried out by an experienced FFS specialist or master trainer using participatory tools. This activity has the following aims: assessing local practices and opportunities, identifying preliminary objectives, identifying stakeholders, identifying alternative solutions, assessing the suitability of the FFS approach, assessing lessons learned, and identifying any FFS specialists or master trainers in the region.

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a)

1.1.1.2 Baseline studies

Information and data collected during the baseline surveys before implementation are crucial for assessing the performance and impact of an FFS. Baseline information helps to define indicators for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and allows comparisons to be made between local knowledge and practices before the start of an FFS and after its implementation. It also helps establish priorities and identify entry points for the field school curriculum. Finally, it provides information about the social context, gender dynamics and potential social vulnerabilities in the community.

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a)

1.1.2 Building farmer field school capacity

Any poultry FFS initiative, whether part of a small project or a larger national programme, needs to ensure that a sufficient pool of competent and experienced master trainers and facilitators are available for the intervention. Building adequate FFS capacity will involve organizing training and/or refresher training events.

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a)

1.1.3 Introducing farmer field school to the target community and its leaders

Any new initiative will be better received if its aims and objectives are presented to and discussed with community leaders and members from the outset. Local protocols should be observed to ensure that this introduction runs smoothly and that meetings are held in the most appropriate order.

Before you start working with the local community, as a facilitator you should gain a broad understanding of the community and its poultry production practices, including:

■ intensified and/or extensive poultry production systems;

■ major poultry diseases;

■ marketing opportunities for existing poultry farm produce;

■ opportunities for value addition for poultry produce;

■ risks involved in poultry farming and how to mitigate them;

■ poultry species and breeds kept;

■ existing output markets;

■ availability of input and service providers.

ACTIVITY 1. Community awareness-raising meeting

As a facilitator, you should run the community awareness-raising meeting with the assistance of project staff. The following actors should be invited to the meeting:

■ local leaders/chiefs and village elders;

■ poultry producers who share common facilities (such as an output market);

■ civic leaders, opinion leaders and local government representatives.

Local leaders/chiefs and village elders can assist in gathering poultry producers.

Objectives

■ To present the FFS approach and explain the mode of learning in an FFS.

■ To seek suggestions from community leaders on how to identify poultry FFS participants.

■ To assess the interest of local farmers.

■ To gather information about poultry production in the area and the general problems faced.

Steps

1. Introduce yourself and provide general information about your project/organization.

2. Explain why you are in the community.

3. Give a short history of FFS. What are the origins of the approach? How did it evolve over the years? Where have FFS been implemented?

4. Explain the approach and its objectives.

The following are some of the key elements that can be mentioned:

– Learning approach: adult learning, participatory approach, building skills and knowledge, entrepreneurship.

– Learning cycle: normally the length of a production cycle, but in poultry the FFS is often repeated for at least two production cycles.

– FFS mission: safe, high-quality food and non-food poultry products produced from healthy birds using safe and socially, economically and environmentally sustainable practices.

– Main concepts to be covered through experimentation: good management, sustainable nutrition, health care, participatory decision-making, agro-ecosystem management.

– Design: groups of 20–25 participants divided into subgroups of 5–6 people with 1 or 2 facilitators.

– Target group: female and male family poultry producers, including young people and people with low levels of literacy.

– Value adding: FFS enables participants to develop specializations and market-led production.

■ Use photos and schematic charts to help community members visualize the FFS and its activities.

■ Be careful not to raise the wrong expectations. Poultry producers need to know why they are joining the FFS so that they do not become frustrated or disappointed. If necessary, discuss expectations with the producers who would like to become FFS participants and explain which are reasonable.

5. Answer any questions from the community.

1.1.4 Forming and formalizing a farmer field school group

The formation and formalization of the FFS group is a crucial step and should not be rushed.

1.1.4.1 FFS group formation and organization

Once the programme has been introduced to the community, potential FFS participants should be identified.

Identification and selection of participants

As a facilitator, you should select FFS participants by working together with local leaders/government authorities, farmer representatives and a representative of the project that is funding the FFS.

Where possible, use an existing group registered with the relevant authority.

For each poultry FFS, 30–35 participants should be selected as groups tend to shrink to 20–25 after the first few sessions. If a larger list of farmers is initially identified, the number should be reduced through well-established and agreed criteria, which could include length of experience in family poultry production, proximity among potential participants, accessibility of markets and other locations, the willingness and motivation of farmers, etc.

Participants must…

■ be interested in learning and not expect material benefits from the FFS;

■ share a common enterprise interest (such as broiler production, poultry breeding, extensive poultry production);

■ live within a relatively short distance of the FFS learning site (preferably in the same village);

■ not have any conflicts among each other;

■ be willing to attend all meetings during the FFS cycle;

■ be willing to work in a team and share ideas with other farmers, including those who are not FFS participants;

■ be willing to invest time in the poultry FFS work and to adhere to requirements for vaccination against Newcastle disease and the protection of chicks from predators.

Creation of FFS subgroups (five to six people)

For some FFS activities, you will have to split the FFS group into smaller subgroups. A number of criteria can be used to identify the members of each subgroup, such as living within walking distance of each other; having at least one person who can read and write and serve as the subgroup’s secretary; local sociocultural factors and dynamics – for example, in some settings subgroups of only men or women might have to be formed; and being willing to support each other with a shared production plan and common production goals.

ACTIVITY 2. Gender analysis

Objectives

■ To evaluate how poultry ownership, husbandry and marketing are divided within households in the area.

■ To gain a better understanding of gender roles and responsibilities in poultry production.

Examples of questions for stimulating discussion:

■ What are the roles of men/women/young people in poultry production?

■ Which of the household’s livelihood needs are met for different members of the household as a result of keeping poultry?

■ Who:

– controls the income from family poultry production?

– is a hindrance to family poultry production (if anyone)?

– makes decisions about poultry production?

■ What positive and negative trends encourage family poultry production?

Participatory rural appraisal tools

Each poultry FFS should be adapted to poultry producers’ needs and the poultry production calendar in its local setting. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools are designed to increase the facilitator’s and producers’ understanding of local problems and to help them make decisions regarding FFS implementation. PRA tools also give poultry FFS participants a greater sense of ownership of the learning process.

Objectives

■ Determine farmers’ needs.

■ Establish priorities for poultry FFS activities.

■ Set indicators for comparative experiments.

■ Monitor implementation of the poultry FFS.

■ Investigate special topics.

■ Enable participation of people with low literacy levels.

Examples of PRA tools

ACTIVITY 3. Understanding learning through a poultry FFS

Objective

To help farmers understand the FFS approach and its learning process and objectives.

Steps

1. Divide the participants into subgroups of five or six and share out the tasks. For example, if six subgroups are created, four will discuss the objectives and two the principles of poultry FFS.

2. Distribute the handouts for the session to the subgroups, and explain their contents to people with low literacy levels.

See (annex): Poultry farmer field schools (Annex 1)

3. In their subgroups, let the participants read aloud the objectives of the session, and assign an objective to each subgroup. Ask participants to focus on their objective, identify key words and synonyms related to the objective, and translate them into a local language wherever possible.

4. Ask the subgroups working on the principles to make an illustration of each principle.

Guiding questions

■ In what ways does the FFS differ from three to five days in a training workshop?

■ What are the main immediate and short- and long-term results of a successful poultry FFS?

Next steps/reflection for action

Recall the principles and summarize ways in which participants of a poultry FFS obtain new knowledge.

Develop the FFS group constitution

The FFS constitution should be prepared together with FFS participants and should list the core principles of each poultry FFS group. It can cover such issues as:

■ the responsibilities of FFS participants; the FFS group leader, secretary and treasurer; and FFS sub-groups, host teams and their leaders;

■ the rules for:

– selecting group leaders, a secretary and a treasurer;

– managing FFS meetings;

– managing FFS funds and grants;

– managing FFS assets, including assets used in comparative experiments;

– excluding participants from the poultry FFS, if necessary;

– dealing with possible disputes, disagreements and conflicts among participants or sub-groups;

– how and when the FFS group may be dissolved.

1.1.4.2 Selection of the FFS enterprise/main learning activity

The selection of the FFS focus enterprise[1] depends entirely on the needs and interests of FFS participants in their specific local natural, economic and sociocultural environments.

It generally takes two half-day sessions to complete the profiling of a selected enterprise, with members of the group collecting data between the two sessions. The purpose of the second session is to finalize the selection of the enterprise(s) to be considered and define in detail the cost, income and other aspects for which additional information will be needed.

■ The selection of the enterprise should be part of the FFS learning process. Do not advise which enterprise to select.

■ The selection should be based on the merits of collective learning, and should not be for the benefit of the host farmer or opinion leaders.

ACTIVITY 4. Global situation assessment

Objective

To help identify what to emphasize during the FFS, what kind of poultry production system is practised, the reasons it is practised, and the outputs it produces.

Steps

1. With participants, discuss the characteristics of the four different family poultry production systems:

See (about this manual): Production systems (About this manual)

2. In subgroups, ask participants to arrange 100 stones among sections in a table showing the various types of poultry production system according to how well each system reflects the participants’ own situation – extensive or intensified.

Example of a table that can be used to assess the situation

3. Ask the subgroups to explain the results (including the reasons why such systems are practised, and their outputs) and to suggest what would be a feasible focus enterprise for the FFS.

ACTIVITY 5. Dream envisioning exercise – developing options for the future

Objective

To provide an in-depth review of enterprises from which to select.

Steps

1. Brainstorm a list of possible enterprises.

2. Review the enterprises, following the example outlined below.

Example

3. Each subgroup is allocated an enterprise to discuss and for which to prepare a presentation that identifies the type of enterprise, the size of the investment needed, the availability of a suitable site, the budget, and the expected benefits.

4. During plenary, ask participants to make clarifications and suggestions for improving each of the listed enterprises.

5. Agree on expectations and on what makes one of the enterprises more feasible than the others.

6. Select that enterprise to be the focus of the group’s learning enterprise.

Transformation of family poultry enterprises

The transformation of family poultry enterprise from one production system to another should take into consideration several key factors. Transformation will also require greater investments from the farmers in terms of time and financial investment. It will also require the development of knowledge and a set of skills.

Overview of key factors for farmers to take into account when considering transforming their poultry enterprise from one production system to another

1.1.4.3 Identification of the learning site/host farm

The poultry FFS group will select a poultry production site where FFS meetings will be held. A field may also be needed as a study plot/object (such as a kitchen garden).

The site can be hired or donated by one of the FFS participants or the community/local authorities. It must be suitable and equipped for learning.

The host farm/learning site should

■ be centrally located, accessible and safe;

■ have adequate facilities/resources (including basic facilities for appropriate hygiene and biosecurity practices such as hand-washing);

■ be a location that participants feel they can enter freely;

■ be selected democratically;

■ be spacious enough to hold the FFS group;

■ possibly have indoor facilities in case of harsh weather;

■ have facilities and poultry that are suitable for each cycle of the learning enterprise;

■ be representative of poultry production sites (including their problems) in the area;

■ if privately owned, the host farmer should be:

– present most of the time (including between poultry FFS sessions so that non-FFS participants can visit);

– friendly, reliable, accommodating and readily available;

■ have at least one field suitable for cropping (for example, for setting up a kitchen garden).

■ Ideally, FFS participants should provide the necessary inputs and equipment. When provided by the project, the costs of the items should be communicated so that participants know what is needed to replicate the enterprise.

■ To avoid conflicts of interest once the enterprise has been established, it is recommended that verbal or written agreements be put in place on the sharing of inputs and outputs.

ACTIVITY 6. Resource mapping

Objectives

To gain a clear understanding of the resources and service providers that are available in a community, and of what can be used to implement the planned measures. Specifically, the map can:

■ be used as a guide for identifying problems and opportunities;

■ aid discussion on the location and type and quantities of resources needed;

■ serve as a monitoring tool for demonstrating the situation before and after the intervention;

■ remind participants of changes that have taken place, serving as a self-evaluation tool for individuals and groups;

■ help check that the chosen poultry FFS enterprise is realistic and sustainable given the local resources available in the community;

■ form part of a proposal when sourcing external funds.

Steps

1. Ask participants to discuss and list the natural resources in their village.

2. Ask participants to draw a map of the natural resources in their community (natural vegetation, water sources, insects, animals, etc.). From this map, have the group discuss how these resources help to support livelihoods.

3. Discuss the condition of these natural resources, and how they can be used to support poultry-related activities; resources to be looked at include natural vegetation, insects and animals.

4. Focus on crop farming. Discuss which crops the participants can plant and show the location of different types of farm, such as sorghum farms and kitchen gardens. These can be potential sources of feed for poultry or a cause of conflict, particularly in extensive production systems.

5. Ask the group to locate the host farm/learning site and have them explain why they picked that location.

6. Summarize the problems:

a.List the problems in the village as presented by farmers.

b.Separate the problems according to whether they are technical or social.

c.Draw a symbol for each problem.

7. Reflect on what service and input providers the group may need (such as vaccinators and agrovet agents) and where they can be found in the community.

1.1.5 Developing the farmer field school group action plan

Once the FFS participants, learning site and enterprise have been selected, the next critical step is the joint development of a feasible group action plan.

Five half-day sessions spread over two weeks are generally required for developing a group action plan. Where appropriate, you can help participants to finish formalizing their group during this period, for example, by helping them to open a bank account.

ACTIVITY 7. Estimating the performance of poultry production parameters

Objective

To estimate the current and desirable performance of the FFS poultry enterprise.

Steps

1. Discuss each of the parameters of poultry production.

2. Guide the farmers in estimating the current and the desirable performance of the poultry production system of interest to the FFS.

Example

3. Discuss and reflect on the findings with the group.

ACTIVITY 8. Collaborative inquiry

Objective

Participants see the issues discussed during Activity 7 (Estimating the performance of poultry production parameters) from a positive perspective.

Steps

1. Ask participants to discuss the successes they have achieved for each parameter.

2. Ask participants to describe what the ideal situation should be.

3. Ask participants to share information on their constraints (gaps).

4. Invite participants to explain their strategies and plans for achieving their ideal situation.

Example of summary table

5. In subgroups, help participants to discuss their vision of an FFS. Ask questions such as:

– What do we want to see when we visit a poultry FFS group?

– What does an effective FFS look like?

6.Using cards to capture the points made, ask each subgroup to summarize the outcome of their discussions.

7. Have all groups present their cards (with writing, or drawings for groups of low literacy) and attach them to a board.

8. In subgroups analyse:

a.innovations/adaptations possible for the production systems of subgroup members;

b.experiences and lessons learned from elsewhere;

c.characteristics of the strategies and plans that distinguish the FFS.

9. Summarize the state of production, knowledge and skills.

1.1.5.1 Identification of key problems and possible solutions

Before designing the curriculum and comparative experiments for the poultry FFS, the key problems and potential solutions should be identified with the group.

Identify problems

Involving FFS participants in problem identification will help to ensure that the solutions tested in the comparative experiments and activities planned for the FFS are relevant to the farmers’ circumstances.

ACTIVITY 9. Seasonal calendar

Objectives

By compiling a seasonal calendar the facilitator and FFS participants will improve their understanding of:

■ seasonal variations in feed, markets, disease incidence, labour needs, parasite occurrence, poultry demand, etc. – a seasonal calendar is a useful tool for planning activities that ensure peak farm production to match periods of high demand (such as cultural or religious festivals or other events);

■ the key activities carried out by women and men in each season, clearly outlining tasks and workloads;

■ the extent of problems such as feed shortages or outbreaks of the most common diseases, and when they occur;

■ trends in crop production and economic upturns and downturns – for example, in an area where farmers produce maize or another staple or cash crop, consideration should be given to adjusting the FFS activity plans during periods of peak labour demand in the planting and harvesting seasons so as to ensure high participation in FFS activities without compromising essential on-farm activities.

Steps

1. Construct a one-year calendar.

2. Ask how many seasons are recognized in the area and mark them along the horizontal axis of the calendar.

3. On the vertical axis, add the patterns of the main events and major household activities in each season, such as:

a.expected rainfall patterns (this should be the first element mapped);

b.periods of high risk for major diseases;

c.household consumption patterns, such as the number of meals consumed each day in the different seasons, and the type(s) of food consumed;

d.composition of the scavenging feed resource base;

e.main community or household celebrations;

f.planting times for core crops;

g.harvesting times for core crops.

■ As you will probably be working with low-literacy groups, add simple illustrations for each event/activity so that the whole group can understand.

■ You might consider forming subgroups of only men or only women to better understand gender roles and responsibilities.

Example of a seasonal calendar with guiding questions

Examples of questions to ask for improving understanding of the events and activities included in the seasonal calendar:

■ Poultry disease challenges:

– You have shown me that disease YY is seen mainly in the wet season:

– Why does disease YY occur mainly in the wet season?

– When is the best time to prevent this disease?

– What is being done to control the disease, and if nothing, why?

– Why do you see disease ZZ in the dry season?

■ Household poultry consumption and income:

– Are the patterns of income shortage related to the number of poultry? If so, why?

– When is the best time for consumption and sale of surplus birds? Is this when you actually consume and sell surplus birds? What can we change to improve poultry income?

Participatory methods such as seasonal calendars can be conducted using no written material in order to reach and involve people with low levels of literacy.

ACTIVITY 10. Pairwise ranking

Objective

To enable the group to prioritize problems (including diseases) and identify which are the most relevant to group members.

Steps

1. List all the problems identified in previous exercises. If the group can think of any additional problems, add them to the list.

■ Pairwise ranking works better when there are no more than five problems to be ranked.

■ Look only at existing problems, and not those that do not yet affect the group.

■ Focus on problems that are relevant to most/all members of the group.

■ In order to carry out pairwise ranking effectively and collect the appropriate information, it is critical that you first review and gain a good understanding of Activity 11. Problem tree or causal diagram.

Examples of questions for stimulating discussion:

■ What problems are missing from the list?

■ Which problems on the list are closely related or can be considered similar?

■ Which problems are specific to a certain area or group of farmers (such as intensified poultry producers)?

■ Does the final list of priority problems reflect what the group would like to learn about and plan experiments for?

■ Do the group members agree about the final list of priorities?

■ Which problems are relevant to everyone in the group, and which are relevant to different farmers?

2.Conduct pairwise comparisons:

a. Draw the problems in a table. Write the problems along the top row of the table and down the left-hand column. (Block out cells to avoid duplication.)

b.Starting with the top row, ask the group to compare each of the problems with each of the other problems:

– Which is more important of each pair?

– The group can vote by raising their hands. Write the more important problem in the appropriate place in the matrix.

c.When you have finished the first row, go to the second row, then the third and fourth, until you reach the bottom.

d. Add up the number of times the group thought each problem was more important. The most important problem overall will have the highest score.

e.The problem that appears most frequently as “more important” in pairwise comparisons is the most important problem.

f.List the problems in order of importance on a new sheet of paper.

When there are high numbers of people with low levels of literacy, ask the group to indicate the main problems and select a symbol for each one. Draw the symbols on a flipchart and give an equal number of locally available materials (such as sticks, leaves, stones or pebbles) to each group member. Ask the group members to distribute their materials in the table according to how important each problem is to them, then prioritize the problems based on the amount of material they put in each cell of the table.

Example of pairwise ranking

Analyse the production problems

Once key problems have been identified, discuss with the FFS participants what they think is causing them. Encourage the participants to think broadly and identify a wide range of issues that contribute to the problems that they are facing.

ACTIVITY 11. Problem tree or causal diagram

Objectives

■ To learn to relate problems to their underlying causes.

■ To identify topics for the learning programme. Facilitators should identify knowledge gaps that when addressed will improve family poultry production.

Steps

1. Ask a participant to draw a tree (with roots, a trunk and branches) on a flipchart or on the ground. Each production problem should be thought of as a trunk.

2. Guide the participants in identifying the direct causes of their production problems and the impacts/effects of each cause. Factors causing the problem should be thought of as the roots of the tree, and the effects as the branches.

3. Review the problem tree and make any necessary changes.

4. Ask the participants to consider what can be done to address the causes of each problem.

Identify potential solutions

Once key problems have been identified by the FFS participants, ask them to identify which problems they can address practically on their farms and in their areas. Once again, encourage participants to think broadly and be innovative in relation to suggesting potential solutions.

ACTIVITY 12. Problem/solution analysis

Objectives

■ To help the group decide the most appropriate solutions to their problems.

■ To reveal whether people have a specific strategy (coping) for solving a particular problem, and the extent of the strategy’s success in their view.

Steps

1. List three or four common problems faced by poultry producers in a table.

2. Ask the participants to add the indicators of each problem. What are the signs that show it is a problem?

3. Ask the group to indicate the root cause of each problem.

4. Ask the group to identify what they are currently able to do to cope with problems and to list these coping strategies in the relevant column of the table.

5. Guide discussions on possible long-term solutions (i.e. what can be done) that address each problem.

Example

ACTIVITY 13. Option assessment

Objective

■ To rank and choose the solutions/options that can be tested and evaluated through comparative experimentation.

Steps

1. Develop an options assessment table for each of the key problems.

2. Write all of the solutions identified in the previous exercise (Problem/solution analysis) in the first column.

3. Read out each criterion (e.g. sustainable, productive, culturally appropriate) and have the participants agree or disagree to it. Using a predetermined scale (such as 1–5 where 1 is “strongly disagree” and 5 is “strongly agree”, or of 1–3 where 1 is “disagree”, 2 is “not sure” and 3 is “agree”), guide the participants in deciding on the value of each solution.

4. For each solution (including the experiences of the farmers and the solutions that are generally promoted by extension workers in the area – the latter is added by the facilitator), calculate the total score to see how acceptable it is to the group of poultry producers.

5. Repeat this exercise for each of the key problems.

6. List the solutions with the highest scores. These will form the basis of the learning programme and will be pursued in the poultry FFS.

Example

1.1.5.2 Develop an FFS learning programme

As a facilitator, you should develop a farmer field school learning programme that lasts throughout the production cycle and is season-based (the FFS curriculum) together with the group, based on the learning enterprise selected and the gaps identified.

The FFS curriculum should reflect existing gaps in the community’s knowledge and skills and show what aspects to improve. The knowledge that poultry producers requires differs from place to place and is becoming more complex because of issues such as climate change, (re-)emerging infectious diseases and changing customer needs. Enabling producers to take charge of their learning process will help them to adjust better to these changing situations.

The group’s learning programme should be flexible and inclusive. If necessary, topics may be added or changed during an FFS cycle according to changing environmental conditions and other factors (such as disease outbreaks) that affect the poultry or plants being studied.

The curriculum should cover the full duration of the FFS, with a period that allows testing of new technologies/practices and successful activities for marketing the product/poultry.

■ If you do not have past experience, you should seek the help of an experienced master trainer for developing the FFS curriculum.

■ Poultry FFS should have at least 12 to 15 meetings. In general, the longer the production cycle, the longer the time between meetings.

■ Although some poultry enterprises allow an FFS of a few months, in most cases it is advisable to run the FFS learning phase for at least a year. Learning how to anticipate changes in weather and peaks in demand during the farming calendar requires meetings throughout the different seasons in order to discover how to adapt.

Duration of the FFS learning phase

As shown in the figure below, the duration of a poultry FFS is mainly driven by the type of enterprise being undertaken as the FFS should run throughout the production cycle. Two key factors affecting duration are poultry species and the problems to be solved: topics such as breeding require more time to yield significant results. The average knowledge/skill levels of participants and the group’s gender composition might also affect duration.

Minimum duration of a poultry FFS enterprise cycle

ACTIVITY 14. Curriculum development

Objective

To structure, with the poultry FFS participants, the activities for FFS meetings throughout the FFS cycle, and to define the external assistance needed.

Steps

1. Ask participants to list priority problems in a seasonal calendar.

2. Encourage discussion of each problem in the order of the seasons/calendar. The FFS group, in collaboration with the facilitator, decides which activities need to be undertaken for further exploring the problem and testing the solutions.

Example: turning problems into topics to be covered during the FFS cycle

3. Each core activity is discussed and the group decides in which FFS sessions to cover a particular poultry topic (as a technical special topic) and topic of socioeconomic interest (as a socioeconomic special topic). Field days, exchange visits, invitations to farmers/experts, etc. should also be planned.

4. To develop the learning programme further, the dates of FFS sessions and the topics to be addressed then need to be written on a flip chart and made accessible to all (see the example below). The programme should indicate when the FFS will start and when the graduation will take place; when (in which production period/season) an experiment or practical exercise will begin and end; the dates of sessions (weekly sessions are recommended); and when each host team will be on duty.

Example of an FFS curriculum template that can be used for developing a workplan and core activities

Poultry/management needs according to the stage of the birds’ life cycle and market demand

Poultry needs and management of housing, feeding, animal health, etc. will vary greatly depending on the stage of the birds’ life cycle and on market demand (see table). These aspects should be duly considered during FFS preparation (particularly curriculum development) and implementation.

Poultry/management needs in extensive and intensified systems (scale 1–5)

See (module): Poultry production and health (Module 2.1)

1.1.5.3 Design safe and effective comparative experiments

Experimentation is a follow-up process to the problem diagnosis stage in an FFS process, with the main objective being to address the constraints selected by poultry producers. The poultry FFS can now frame a clear problem statement and a title for each experiment, in close consultation with local researchers/extension workers.

■ It is advisable to agree on some guiding principles for the success of experiments; for example, the poultry included in the experiments should not be sold prior to the completion of the trial (unless necessary).

■ At the end of the learning phase, the FFS participants should summarize and analyse the financial costs and benefits of the options tested. The cost– benefit analysis is critical in helping FFS participants to:

– be aware of the cost implications and profit of an enterprise;

– understand the importance of analysing expenditure and profit;

– appreciate the reasons for following a business strategy;

– list and analyse any other (positive or negative) changes observed.

■ The financial cost–benefit analysis should be integrated with analysis that accounts for other (environmental, social, etc.) costs and benefits related to the different options tested. Choices are made based on not only economic aspects, but also other criteria, such as being easy to manage, culturally appropriate and safe for the household members involved.

Basic principles of experimentation

It is important to follow the basic principles of experimentation in order to avoid making wrong conclusions or decisions from this activity and to ensure that solutions can be widely shared in the future. The principles include:

■ The experiment is justified by the background work done by the group.

■ The experiment can be managed by the FFS participants and facilitators in close coordination and in consultation with extension workers and researchers providing technical backstopping.

■ The key factors are standardized.

■ The experiment is designed to give reliable and tangible results.

■ All appropriate biosecurity measures are implemented.

■ The rules/factors agreed to prior to implementation are not changed during the experiment.

■ The experiment has been repeated, if possible. Replication reduces the effects of uncontrollable factors in the environment and helps to ensure that the results obtained can be repeated in the future.

■ If different groups are involved in the experiment, birds are allocated to each group randomly.

■ Emerging innovations/solutions are promoted widely in the community, for example, by including field days once experimental results have been obtained.

■ All birds should be vaccinated against key endemic diseases (which will vary by production system).

Types of comparative experiment

In poultry FFS, field comparative experiments involving test and control groups can only be used for low-risk and ethically acceptable experiments that can yield tangible results within the FFS cycle, such as measuring the impact of supplementary feeding on poultry in extensive systems. The use of such experiments in poultry FFS is limited by factors that include: i) possible irreversible loss of productivity; ii) risk implications for poultry health and welfare; iii) cost and availability of inputs; and iv) availability of birds.

Examples of safe and risky experimentation practices/units of observation

All experiments in a poultry FFS should be simple so that they can be managed and evaluated by the poultry producers themselves and yield reliable results. Any type of risk should be avoided. The following are considerations to be taken into account in order to ensure producers’ ownership of the experiment and to minimize risk:

■ The birds involved in the experiments should at no time be under any health risk. This precludes the use of control groups if control conditions will put animals at risk.

■ Always consult with a local veterinarian, researcher or colleague on the design of an experiment. Any animal health treatment should be carried out only after diagnosis by a professional.

■ Tasks and any benefits accrued from the experiment should be shared among all FFS participants.

■ Only one specific question/local problem at a time should be addressed during trials.

■ Producers should mobilize most of the inputs themselves. This fosters ownership of the process and results.

In poultry FFS, novel types of comparative experiment have been developed in order to avoid causing risks to animal production and health and to reduce costs (Groeneweg et al., 2006). These novel types of experiment include:

1. Comparison of ongoing practices in the same production unit. This type of comparative experiment is used when adapting and adopting a new practice implies high risks to poultry health or productivity, or high costs. It can also be used in situations where misconceptions have been held for a long time.

2. Comparison with past experience or the practices of non-FFS participants. FFS participants’ birds are given a beneficial treatment (such as vaccination) and results are compared with past experience or with the results for non-FFS poultry producers in the same area who are not using the same treatment.

3. “Stop-and-go” trials. The poultry under study receive a beneficial treatment that is interrupted several times, meaning that the birds themselves provide their own control group. The experiment can be used to demonstrate the effect of a single treatment that does not affect the health of the birds.

See (annex): Annex 5. Examples of comparative experiments and agro-ecosystem analysis sheets

Example of a stop-and-go trial

ACTIVITY 15. Introducing and developing the agro-ecosystem analysis format

Objective

■ To make participants understand the agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA) format and decide the parameters to be observed.

Steps

1. Ask the poultry FFS participants what needs to be observed and what information needs to be collected for measuring performance and comparing the various technologies/practices tested in the comparative experiment with each other.

2. Based on this discussion, the AESA format is developed by asking participants what they need to know to enable them to make appropriate management decisions.

3. The parameters should be categorized according to the AESA template in Annex 4.

4. Ask the FFS participants to develop the AESA format on a flipchart, including the parameters defined earlier in this activity and a drawing that represents the topic under study.

AESA records should suffice for interpreting the results of the comparative experiments. When fully discussed, the findings give insights into ecological interactions and the ranking of technologies according to how promising they are for adoption. New problems can be noted for consideration in successive experiments.

1.1.5.4 Develop a budget

As soon as the curriculum and experiments of the FFS are determined, it is important to identify the main budget needs for running the poultry FFS learning programme.

Various options for grants, loans (including from the private sector) and/or self-financing should always be considered. As a facilitator, you should explain the advantages and disadvantages of each option.

■ The FFS should use locally available materials as much as possible, to reduce costs and increase sustainability.

■ Self-financing mechanisms should be put in place from the start of the FFS. Income-generating activities such as selling some of the eggs produced are a good example. Contributions from individual FFS participants are also useful for self-financing activities.

Examples of items for budget allocation

Grants and loans

A grant or loan is often made available by the funding agency to enable the FFS group to test alternative solutions and to cover the risks of experimenting with new poultry production practices/technologies. Through this strategy, FFS may develop financial empowerment, group cohesion and understanding of the costs of the technologies that FFS participants find suitable.

As an FFS facilitator you should:

■ arrange a meeting for open and participatory planning of how to use the grants;

■ observe the requirements for ensuring access to funds at the right time;

■ lead the group in thinking about ways of sustaining learning and the challenges faced after donor-funded projects end.

If available, grant funds can be allocated as follows:

■ Experimentation 30–40 percent.

■ Income-generating activities 20 percent (when undertaken), for establishing the group’s income-generating enterprises/self-financing activities.

■ Facilitation expenses 40–50 percent, for transport, mobile communication and meal allowances.

The first instalment of 80 percent could be released on receipt of a comprehensive proposal, and the last 20 percent on receipt of a progress report, holding of a field day or on planning for the next learning cycle.

See (module): Funding mechanisms for farmer field school activities (2.2.4)

Even when a grant is received through the FFS project or programme, the FFS should look for additional sources of funding.

Dimitra Clubs: a community engagement approach for people’s empowerment and gender equality

Dimitra Clubs are informal groups of rural women and men who come together on a voluntary basis to discuss and implement solutions to community problems by using local and collective efforts and resources. To facilitate communication and access to information, Dimitra Clubs partner with rural community radios and are equipped with wind-up and solar-powered radios, and sometimes with mobile phones.

In several sub-Saharan African countries, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, the Niger and Senegal, FFS and Dimitra Clubs have joined forces and developed a methodological alliance, mainly in the framework of adaptation agriculture for climate change and resilience projects. This alliance has led to promising results in improved access to information and knowledge, dissemination of adapted agricultural practices and innovations, and enhanced leadership from and empowerment of rural women.

Depending on the context, the establishment of the Dimitra Clubs might start before the creation of an FFS or vice versa. In both cases the alliance is promoted through at least four elements:

■Sharing knowledge in an inclusive way: Dimitra Clubs discuss the themes that emerge in the FFS, thereby facilitating access to information and the adoption of improved practices by a larger audience, particularly rural women, young people and the most marginalized groups in the community.

■Advancing gender equality: In Dimitra Clubs, rural women improve their capacities to speak up in public, analyse problems and identify solutions. As the gender dimension is inherent to the Dimitra Clubs’ approach, the methodological alliance with FFS enables rural women farmers to enhance their capacities and knowledge on improved agricultural techniques, including in poultry production, so that they can become better farmers and entrepreneurs while also enhancing their leadership and organizational capacities, which are crucial to their influence in decision-making.

■Capitalizing on experiences: The clubs ensure not only greater access to information and knowledge, but also the possibility of adopting, adapting and owning the practices of the FFS. As both groups share their members, there is cross-fertilization throughout the process.

■Partnering with rural community radio stations: Dimitra Clubs share their experiences with the clubs of other villages through community radio broadcasts. In this way the benefits of the learning-by-doing exercises of the FFS are replicated in other villages and communities.

1.1.6 Creating a participatory monitoring and evaluation plan

Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is needed to ensure that the objectives of the FFS group are met and progress is tracked. As a facilitator, you will be reporting on your group’s performance to supervisors, colleagues, donors and community leaders.

What makes M&E participatory?

■ Objectives are set jointly.

■ Beneficiaries and facilitators are fully involved.

■ The activities and tools to be used are selected and planned together.

■ The delivery plan, in terms of where and when M&E will be conducted, is agreed and targets are set together.

How can we monitor?

■ by setting performance standards;

■ by selecting specific, measurable, achievable/attainable, relevant and time-bound (SMART) indicators;

■ through roll calls/registers;

■ from available records;

■ through personal/group interviews;

■ by using questionnaires.

It is important to set key indicators for regular/weekly monitoring that identifies changes that could negatively affect the enterprise. These could be indicators of:

■ health – chicken mortality, responsible use of antibiotics and anthelminthics, implementation of individual and community-based biosecurity plans;

■ incomes – sales of poultry and poultry products;

■ collective action – group cohesion, cooperatives and farmer associations, access to finance.

What can we evaluate?

■ adoption of good practices – performance;

■ progress towards objectives and targets;

■ stage in implementation and tasks remaining;

■ resource utilization versus implementation stage;

■ finances.

■ Record the data generated in the problem analysis carefully as it will provide baseline information for the evaluation.

■ Always include a question related to mortality such as “What mortality rate is reported today and what does it mean?”

■ Assess progress in entrepreneurship with appropriate questions such as “Which aspect of entrepreneurship should we learn about next?”

ACTIVITY 16. Selecting indicators (what to monitor)

Objective

To select what to monitor during FFS implementation.

Steps

1. In plenary, ask participants to discuss one or more of the following questions with the participant sitting next to them:

– What aspects need to be considered when assessing the performance of the tested practice/technology? How can these aspects be measured or monitored? When can they be monitored (throughout the production cycle or at a specific time/the end)?

– What other factors are likely to influence the outcome of the experiment?

2. Ask a few of the pairs to share their responses with the larger group. Write or draw the responses on a flip chart.

3. Summarize the exercise and explain the results, and the purpose and use of the indicators.

See (annex): Annex 3. Sample tools and templates for monitoring and evaluating the poultry farmer field school

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a)

1.2 Farmer field school learning phase

Chapter objectives

■ To provide guidance on how to hold successful poultry FFS meetings and learning activities.

■ To provide practical information for adaptation and use in the field.

Once all the preparatory activities described in the previous section have been successfully completed, the learning phase with FFS meetings and comparative experiments can start.

Main activities of the FFS learning phase (production and entrepreneurship/marketing learning stages)

■ Running farmer field school meetings (1.2.1.)

■ Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing (1.2.2.)

■ Undertaking awareness-raising activities (1.2.3.)

■ Planning for post-farmer field school learning: evaluation and action plan (1.2.4.)

1.2.1 Running farmer field school meetings

In poultry FFS meetings, core activities (AESA, special topics, group dynamics, and participatory monitoring and evaluation) are generally carried out in the order shown in Table 2.

1.2.1.1 Agro-ecosystem analysis

This section includes practical information on how to run AESA in poultry FFS. As a facilitator, you will have to work with members to identify the various enabling and constraining factors that make up their poultry ecosystem.

See (annex): Annex 4. Templates for the agro-ecosystem analysis sheet and comparative experiments and Annex 5. Examples of comparative experiments and agro-ecosystem analysis sheets

Tagging and examining the study poultry

At the start of FFS activities, as a facilitator you should help the group identify which birds will be monitored regularly.

At least two or three birds in a cage, unit or treatment group are selected to be measured and observed. The birds to be examined should be selected randomly. Regular monitoring and recording of the required information should be carried out until the end of the FFS. If the selected study birds are lost or injured, sample others using the same methods.

Random sampling

There are several methods of sampling, including the following:

■ Selection based on a predetermined number: Randomly pick a number and count the birds in the flock. If the number randomly selected is “4”, for example, select every fourth bird.

■ Selective sampling from high-, medium- and low-performing populations: for example, pick one bird that is growing well, one that is growing poorly and one that is between these two extremes.

Steps

During the early stages of the FFS, demonstrate how to facilitate AESA in a subgroup. Then hand over the facilitator role to a literate member of one of the subgroups. This lead role should be rotated among the participants to encourage everyone to get involved, including any members of the group with low literacy levels.

AESA is a four-step process with distinct activities carried out in subgroups:

1.Recording observations on the flock/field and the poultry/crop ecosystem:

a. Ask the host team to assign (or directly assign) to each subgroup a study unit based on the design of the experimentation activities. Poultry producers make observations based on agreed monitoring indicators and the AESA table.

b. Each subgroup then records measurements, field observations and changes. The subgroup should carry a notebook to the field for recording the data. Every week, the facilitator should assign each group a different study unit to observe. In this way, all FFS participants will be exposed to the various study units in the experimentation.

2.Processing information:

All subgroup members should sit together to reflect on their findings and opinions regarding the AESA. Together they should review their observations and write down the results of their analysis. They should also make a drawing of the field situation on the AESA flipchart for later presentation.

3.Presenting AESA and receiving feedback:

In a plenary meeting, each subgroup presents its observations, monitoring results and recommendations and the other FFS members are invited to give honest reviews of the work presented.

Every week, the presenter role should be rotated among the members of the subgroup to ensure the participation of all members, particularly women and people with low literacy levels, as they tend to be more timid than other members.

Criteria for judging a good presentation:

■ How well are all sections of the AESA format addressed?

■ Was the presentation understood by all members?

■ Was the main message of this particular AESA stated clearly?

■ How colourful is the presentation?

■ How legible is the writing?

■ What links have been made between the observations and indicators and the recommendations?

■ To what extent does the drawing represent the true situation?

■ How did the presenter behave?

■ To what extent does the activity involve all subgroup members?

■ How involved in the question and answer session were subgroup members?

4.Discussing action (synthesis):

a. After subgroup presentations are over, you should guide a final discussion to decide on the actions to be taken.

b. Wrap up the session by highlighting the lessons learned and the immediate actions that will improve the management of the enterprise.

c. The main poultry/farm management lesson is part of the recap session in the following meetings.

All the AESA charts should be stored securely. The information will be used when sharing lessons with the community during field days or graduation ceremonies.

1.2.1.2 Special topics

This section outlines some of the key themes that form the basis of successful poultry enterprises and how they can be addressed as special topics. Special topics can be classified as follows:

Technical. During most meetings, discussions of special topics focus on core technical subjects related to the poultry enterprise at a particular phase of production. They will touch on aspects such as animal health (disease recognition, prevention and control), breeds and breeding, feed resources, feeding and nutrition, water and poultry watering, housing and environment, poultry enterprises and marketing, and cooperative management.

Socioeconomic. At some point during the FFS, poultry producers will benefit from knowledge about issues of socioeconomic interest. For example, during a malaria outbreak within the community of the FFS, the FFS participants might want to know the reasons for the upsurge of malaria and how they could control its spread, avoiding misdiagnosis or the incorrect use of drugs. Special topics of socioeconomic interest are linked to, for instance, public health, family planning, human nutrition, gender dimensions, water resource management, responsible antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance, disaster preparedness and management, and conflict resolution.

See (module): Facilitation techniques for participatory learning (2.2.1)

■ You can deliver sessions on special topics directly or ask a technical specialist (such as a public health officer, animal scientist or animal health officer). However, as with other FFS activities, they should be undertaken in a participatory, interactive and inclusive way.

■ You can lead dialogue by asking three or four questions to be explored in subgroup discussions with outcomes shared in a plenary presentation. Examples of well-framed questions include:

a.What types of equipment are used to clean a poultry house?

b.Explain the daily activities that maintain good hygiene.

c.How do you store your cleaning detergents?

d.Explain the reasons for all of the answers to the previous questions; for example, why does the farm owner use a foot bath at the entrance of the poultry unit?

■ Discuss one subject at a time.

■ Answer farmers questions with more than yes/no replies.

■ Use sentences that begin with what, where, how, why or when.

■ Ask some participants to explain, summarize, define and generalize the messages from the session and to plan how to test and possibly illustrate them.

Poultry production

This section covers some key special topics related to poultry production, including housing, husbandry, manure management and the environment.

SPECIAL TOPIC 1 (TECHNICAL)

Feed, feeding, water and drinkers using locally available resources

Background

For poultry to grow well and remain healthy, access to nutritious feed appropriate to the birds’ age, sex and reproductive status (laying hen, brooding hen, adult rooster) is essential. In intensified production systems, feed costs are the largest component of input costs and if the feed is not appropriately balanced or contains toxins, it will prevent your enterprise from being successful. Extensive production systems enable poultry to scavenge for their own feed from the local environment. The nutrient content of the environmental vegetation varies throughout the seasons. Providing supplementary feed to enable birds to consume nutrients that are lacking in their environment will help them to grow well and be healthy.

See (exercise): Handout 15. How to provide supplementary feed (Annex 1) and Handout 16. How to provide supplementary feed via the cafeteria approach (Annex 1)

See (modules): Poultry diets (2.1.4) and Feed and water (2.1.8.1)

Objectives

■ To understand local feed and water availability across the seasons.

■ To discuss how to match bird numbers with available feed and water resources.

■ To understand the specific feed and water requirements of different categories of birds.

■ To discuss how best to provide birds with feed and water to improve their consumption and reduce waste.

Facilitation techniques

■ Demonstrations.

Questions for discussion

■ What are the best feeds and which ingredients are used to make a complete feed?

■ How can differences in the performance of available feed and feed delivery methods be measured?

■ How do you measure bird efficiency?

■ How do you recognize birds that are better at scavenging? What do you do with birds that do not scavenge well?

■ Have you ever heard of cafeteria feeding?

■ What can you use as a protein source? a carbohydrate source? a source of minerals, especially calcium?

■ What, how much and when should you feed indigenous birds?

■ Do birds have nutrient deficiencies? How can they be recognized? How can they be managed?

Next steps/reflection for action

■ If the scavenging feed resource base is limited and the cost (in financial or labour terms) of supplementary feeding is too high, producers should discuss options for reducing their flock size. This may involve selling male growers and/or eggs instead of hatching new chicks.

■ Discuss efficient marketing options for sales of excess male growers or eggs.

SPECIAL TOPIC 2 (TECHNICAL)

Management of cross-contaminants in poultry production

Background

Poultry interacts with the natural and household environments in various ways, some good and some potentially harmful. In extensive poultry systems, birds can help by eating plant and animal pests, so reducing pest numbers. On the other hand, poultry manure may contaminate the environment with harmful bacteria and viruses if not properly inactivated by composting. Excessive manure from intensified poultry systems can also contaminate water sources.

See (module): Composting of poultry manure (2.1.5)

Objectives

■ To discuss how poultry contribute to pest control.

■ To discuss how composting can contribute to crop production and farm income.

■ To discuss any possible negative impacts of raising poultry in extensive systems.

■ To discuss possible groundwater contaminants.

Facilitation techniques

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Brainstorming.

Questions for discussion

■ Have you observed any benefits to your local environment when you raise chickens?

■ Have you observed any negative effects on your local environment when you raise chickens?

■ What do you do with your poultry manure?

Next steps/reflection for action

After your initial discussions, you may wish to seek more detailed information from your local poultry extension officer or local government authorities, including public health clinics and veterinary services.

SPECIAL TOPIC 3 (TECHNICAL)

Matching access to affordable inputs (materials and services) with beneficial household utilization of production

Background

Successful poultry production depends on access to appropriate, good-quality material and service inputs including vaccinations, feed, housing, and marketing and technical advice.

See (module): Marketing and value chains (2.1.7)

Objectives

■ To optimize the financial, labour and material resource inputs appropriate to your poultry production systems such that you achieve a positive return on investment.

■ To establish relationships with reliable suppliers.

■ To link investments in resources to efficient household utilization, including through sales, home consumption and other activities.

Facilitation techniques

■ Guest lectures (including from private operators such as feed millers, processors and retailers).

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Demonstrations.

■ Feasibility exercises for the proposed enterprises, led by the facilitator.

Questions for discussion

■ What inputs are required for your proposed production system and how do you assign value to them in terms of money, time or other criteria (such as need for assets)?

■ What is your understanding of good-quality inputs and the characteristics of a reliable supplier?

■ What value would you expect from the various forms of utilization of your poultry production (for sale, consumption, gift giving, ceremonies, barter/exchange, etc.)?

Next steps/reflection for action

■ Select FFS representatives to visit and profile possible input suppliers.

■ Consider entering contractual relationships with reliable suppliers of good-quality, affordable inputs.

■ Share experience of improved management techniques such as local ration formulation, group approaches to marketing when key markets are remote from the area of production, etc.

SPECIAL TOPIC 4 (SOCIOECONOMIC)

Conservation of environmental resources – water harvesting (rain and groundwater)

Background

In poultry FFS, sessions on this topic often focus on rainwater harvesting because groundwater harvesting usually requires high capital expenditure and can be difficult to sustain over the long term.

Objectives

■ To discuss options for sustainable rainwater harvesting.

■ To understand the best means of conserving and protecting harvested water for use by households and livestock (including poultry) in the long term.

■ To explore options for involving young people in generating income by constructing rainwater harvesting systems.

Facilitation techniques

■ Guest lectures.

■ Demonstrations.

Questions

■ How do you obtain water? Do you have water harvesting structures in place?

■ Do you have separate points for collecting water for household use versus watering livestock, including poultry, and cleaning livestock facilities?

■ How can water be used responsibly in households and the community?

■ How can we involve young people in constructing and maintaining water harvesting systems?

Next steps/reflection for action

■ FFS participants may wish to consider contributing funds for establishing improved community water harvesting and/or storage facilities.

■ Establish a water users’ association to manage responsible water use and maintenance.

Animal and public health

This section includes special topics related to ensuring the health of poultry and people, including producers and consumers.

SPECIAL TOPIC 5 (TECHNICAL)

Disease prevention, detection and response

Background

Successful poultry enterprises require cost-efficient prevention and control of diseases. Prevention of disease is much more cost-effective than control after a disease occurs. Prevention can be achieved through effective biosecurity (good sanitation and hygiene) and effective vaccination. Vaccination can prevent infectious diseases, including viral diseases such as Newcastle disease and bacterial diseases such as fowl cholera.

See (module): Keys to achieving good poultry health (2.1.3) and Flock management (2.1.8.3)

See (annex): Handout 18. How to prevent the entry of infectious disease into extensive systems (Annex 1) and Handout 20. How to prevent the entry of infectious disease into intensified production units (Annex 1)

Objectives

■ To prevent the entry of infectious diseases into the village.

■ To detect disease and develop village-level biosecurity plans for preventing and controlling disease spread.

■ To ensure that infectious disease events are reported to the relevant authorities.

■ To control and recover from infectious diseases.

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Guest lectures.

■ Visits to local market to observe sanitation and discuss disease spread and control with traders (early warning for predictive action).

Questions for discussion

■ How do you confirm that your flock is experiencing an infectious disease outbreak?

■ Have you previously observed a disease outbreak at a household in your village? How does it spread? What do you do?

■ Are there times during the year when infectious disease is more likely to be introduced from outside the village or market? How do you manage this situation?

■ What do you do when a bird dies of disease? What are the consequences of the actions you take? What could be done differently?

Next steps/reflection for action

Agree acceptable and feasible village-level biosecurity and vaccination plans with households.

SPECIAL TOPIC 6 (TECHNICAL)

Causes of disease

Background

Learning on this topic will be effective if it promotes a preventive approach to managing the health of poultry. Disease can be defined as any change or impairment of normal body function that affects the birds’ ability to survive, grow or reproduce. Many diseases – called infectious diseases – are caused by organisms that can be transmitted from one bird to another. Some of these organisms are too small to be seen without the assistance of special equipment. Such organisms include viruses (such as ND virus), bacteria (such as salmonella), mycoplasmas, fungi and small parasites called protozoans (such as coccidia). Other infectious organisms such as parasites – which can be external (lice, fleas and ticks) or internal (roundworms, tapeworms, flukes) – are easier to see.

Other diseases can be caused by poor nutrition or husbandry practices, or they are inherited. These diseases do not spread from one bird to another and affect only single birds or flocks.

In many cases, disease results from a combination of factors. Husbandry, nutrition, environmental factors and flock management all have a direct and important influence on the health and productivity of chickens. A well-nourished chicken kept under good husbandry conditions can fight diseases better and is less likely to suffer from many infectious diseases.

See (module): Keys to achieving good poultry health (2.1.3) and Flock management (2.1.8.3)

See (annex): Handout 10. Factors influencing the health status of birds (Annex 1)

Objective

To limit the occurrence of a disease by increasing consideration of all the various components of poultry management and focusing more on disease prevention than cure.

Facilitation techniques

■ Guest lectures.

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Focus group discussions.

■ Brainstorming.

Questions for discussion

Handout 10. Factors influencing the health status of birds (Annex 1) illustrates how various elements are interlinked. Using the interlinking circles, you can ask questions that encourage critical observation and analysis of the condition of the animals and their environment. Examples of questions you can ask are:

■ What is the effect of weather?

■ What are the main enemies/pathogens/pests/vectors observed?

■ Where are pests originating from in the environment of this animal?

■ What is the condition of other animals (in this area, on this farm)?

■ What is the effect of feed management on the body condition and health of birds?

■ What is the likelihood of disease attacking these birds?

■ Discuss immediate actions.

Next steps/reflection for action

■ What are the most important endemic poultry diseases in the area?

■ Which of these diseases can be prevented by vaccination and where can the vaccines be sourced?

■ What biosecurity measures need to be implemented to stop the introduction of disease?
Can these be implemented effectively by individual poultry producers or is a community-wide biosecurity plan required?

SPECIAL TOPIC 7 (SOCIOECONOMIC)

Antimicrobial resistance: matching diseases with cost-effective, safe prevention and control practices

Background

Disease occurs when the environment facilitates the entry of a pathogen (a virulent virus, bacteria, protozoa or a parasite) into a susceptible host. The cost-effective methods for preventing and treating disease vary depending on the type of pathogen, the type of animal or bird and the production system under which the animals/birds are raised.

The first antibiotic was developed in the late 1940s and since then, antibiotics have been used to treat, prevent and control bacterial diseases and to promote the growth of animals for many decades. For these antibiotics to work well, the bacteria concerned must be susceptible to the active ingredient in the antibiotic and the antibiotic must be handled properly in terms of storage and indications for use and administered only when really needed. Viral and protozoal diseases cannot be controlled by antibiotics.

The widespread and inadequate (e.g. without expert oversight or prescription, incorrect storage, use beyond expiry date) use of antibiotics and limited and/or inappropriate biosecurity and production practices have enabled bacteria to survive in the presence of various types of antibiotics, becoming resistant to these medicines. These antibiotic-resistant bacteria are now infecting people, animals and birds and causing serious, untreatable illness that can result in death.

People and animals have lived for many centuries without using antibiotics and FFS facilitators and participants can also consider whether the earlier, inexpensive practices used by livestock producers in the past can still help to reduce disease risks. These older practices include regular cleaning of living quarters and use of non-commercial disinfectants such as sunlight and wood ash. Traditional animal health care (also known as ethnoveterinary medicine) encompasses the knowledge, skills, methods, practices, and beliefs about animal health care found among community members (McCorkle, 1986). It plays an important role in health management of family poultry as shown by a high percentage of producers that use it, especially in resource-limited settings. Many traditional remedies widely used by producers to control diseases and parasites of poultry have not been formerly tested. FFS groups may wish to compare the impact of traditional remedies in some flocks with other flocks that do not receive the remedy. Ensuring that other management practices are similar across all flocks would be important to help interpret the results.

See (module): Keys to achieving good poultry health (2.1.3)

See (annex): Handout 9. Key actions that farmers can take to ensure that antimicrobials continue to function and that animals and the community remain healthy (Annex 1)

See (external): How to reduce the use of antibiotics in poultry production (FAO, 2021)

Objectives

■ To understand the correct use of antibiotics in animals and the appropriate time between use and sale/utilization of animals.

■ To discuss experiences with the changing effectiveness/power of medicines used to treat people when they are sick.

■ To identify and profile diseases that drive antimicrobial resistance and discuss how they can be prevented and/or controlled.

Facilitation techniques

■ Visits to observe agro-veterinary shops, which should be inspected by government officials to assess standards and certify accordingly.

■ Focus group discussions.

■ Demonstrations (such as of appropriate and safe use of drugs).

■ Guest lectures.

Questions for discussion

■ How can you clean and disinfect your farm? How do disinfectants work?

■ What are the different types of cleaning? What dry and wet cleaning techniques are available in your community?

■ What practices were used to control diseases prior to the development of antibiotics?

■ Where do you get your antibiotics? Where do you store them at home? Identify suppliers. Agree a list of reliable service providers.

■ What is the cost of incorrect use of antibiotics?

■ In the week before the session on the use of antibiotics, it would be helpful to speak with key individuals at the local human health clinic and the community radio station to encourage them to share information about antimicrobial/antibiotic resistance so that the topic will not be completely new to FFS participants.

■ When speaking with farmers about medicines used in the care of animals, use terms that accurately describe specific products. So instead of referring to “medicine” or “injection” talk about “antibiotics”, “vitamin supplements”, “deworming products” and “vaccines”. Ensuring that farmers understand which medicines to use to prevent and treat specific diseases will help them to make informed decisions and save them wasting money on inappropriate medicines.

Next steps/reflection for action

Seek inputs from local public health and veterinary services for answering any questions that remain uncertain after your discussions.

SPECIAL TOPIC 8 (TECHNICAL)

Differences in flock health management in extensive versus intensified production systems

Background

Selecting a poultry production system that is based on the inputs available from the local environment or at an affordable price is key to establishing and running an economically viable poultry enterprise.

See (annex): Handout 6. Differences in flock health management between extensive and intensified chicken production systems (Annex 1)

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Question and answer sessions.

Questions for discussion

■ In your experience, what are the advantages and disadvantages of extensive and intensified production systems? The facilitator should mention any points missed during this discussion.

■ What are the risks involved with each type of production and which risks can be easily managed under your conditions?

SPECIAL TOPIC 9 (SOCIOECONOMIC)

Food safety issues arising from poultry

Background

There are risks of human exposure to pathogens originating from poultry slaughtering, processing, storage, handling and preparation practices. Poultry can be contaminated with harmful infectious agents, and raw poultry products can cause human food poisoning.

Objective

To know what practices can reduce the food safety issues associated with poultry slaughtering, handling and consumption.

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Guest lectures.

Questions for discussion

■ What do you do if your animals become sick and show unusual symptoms?

■ What precautions should you take when slaughtering your birds?

■ How can we make sure that meat and eggs are safe to eat?

See (annex): Handout 11. Safe disposal of sick birds or birds that died of disease (Annex 1); Handout 12. Safe poultry slaughtering and cooking practices (Annex 1); and Handout 13. Signs that poultry meat and eggs are safe to eat (Annex 1)

SPECIAL TOPIC 10 (SOCIOECONOMIC)

Consuming poultry meat and eggs for better household nutrition

Background

Raising poultry is a good way to generate income and it also improves access to high-quality nutrition that can contribute to the health of families and communities.

Objective

To improve knowledge about the benefits of consuming eggs and poultry meat for different household members and the options for cooking various poultry products.

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Question and answer sessions.

■ Guest lectures.

Questions for discussion

■ What are the health benefits of eating poultry meat and eggs?

■ What parts of the poultry carcass are most nutritious?

■ Who in your household would benefit most from eating poultry meat and eggs?

See (annex): Handout 14. Nutritional benefits of consuming poultry meat and eggs (Annex 1)

Entrepreneurship/marketing

Special topics on entrepreneurship and marketing are key for helping poultry producers become more successful in the way they run their farms.

See (module): Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing (1.2.2)

SPECIAL TOPIC 11 (TECHNICAL)

The importance of record keeping for economic analysis and decision-making

Background

Poultry producers rarely record how much money they spend and earn. This is often owing to a lack of knowledge about how good records can help farmers to take better management decisions. No matter what type of production system is practised, record keeping is central to success.

See (annex): Annex 2. Sample tools and templates for record-keeping

Objectives

■ To enable poultry producers to be aware of how much money they spend and earn and of whether the family poultry enterprise activity is being conducted at a profit or a loss.

■ To understand which practices bring about losses or profits and to facilitate comparisons among practices.

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Focus group discussions.

Questions for discussion

■ Why is record-keeping important?

■ What problems can you have without proper record-keeping?

■ How do you calculate whether you are making a profit or a loss?

■ Who keeps the records in your household? For how long do you retain your records?

■ Could young people help their parents to keep and make sense of records?

Record-keeping should be carried out daily or weekly for each activity, from input sourcing to selling. In poultry enterprises, two types of records need to be kept. The records required for:

■ financial management, for business and taxation purposes;

■ efficient management of the enterprise.

If records are to be of use in the management of an enterprise, they must be complete, current and accurate, be reviewed and analysed, and be used in decision-making processes. When records are not used, the effort of gathering the information will have been wasted and performance will not be monitored. As a result, many problems that could have been resolved before causing major harm, will not be identified until it is too late.

SPECIAL TOPIC 12 (TECHNICAL)

Advantages and disadvantages of extensive and intensified family poultry production systems

Background

For producers to run a successful poultry enterprise, the production costs must be significantly lower than the income from sales and the value of any poultry products consumed within the households. It is important for producers to consider which poultry production system is likely to be most economically and environmentally sustainable under their local conditions. The choice should be based largely on the local situation and access to markets and services, including vaccination, health and credit.

There are a range of advantages and disadvantages for each poultry production system. Producers need to think carefully regarding which system best suits their current circumstances.

See (annex): Family poultry production systems (Annex 1)

See (about this manual): Production systems (About this manual)

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Focus group discussions.

Questions for discussion

■ Why would a farmer decide to specialize as an extensive or intensified family poultry farmer?

■ What can we do to improve our system?

■ Where can we find similar concepts/situations?

■ Where does this idea lead?

■ Where can we get more information and support?

Any changes to extensive family poultry production that suddenly and drastically raise labour costs or financial risks should be generally discouraged.

SPECIAL TOPIC 13 (TECHNICAL)

Comparison of indigenous and commercial chicken breeds

Background

Indigenous and commercial breeds of poultry have different characteristics that make them appropriate for different production systems; for example, indigenous breeds perform efficiently in extensive production systems and commercial breeds perform better in intensified production systems. Although the output from extensively raised indigenous chickens is low in terms of weight gain and number of eggs per hen per year, it is obtained with minimal labour and other inputs. This factor of low inputs and, consequently, low risk is one of the major advantages of extensive poultry production.

See (annex): Handout 7. Differences between indigenous and commercial chicken breeds (Annex 1)

Facilitation techniques

■ Brainstorming.

■ Focus group discussions.

■ Question and answer sessions.

Questions for discussion

■ What types of poultry have you raised in the past? What was your experience with these?

■ If you are a farmer engaged with a range of on- and off-farm activities, how much time do you have to devote to your poultry raising activities?

■ If you would like to increase your flock size, do you have ready access to affordable, good-quality inputs such as feed and vaccines?

■ What prices are paid for various types of poultry in your local markets? Will these influence your thinking about your future poultry enterprise?

■ What are the consumer preferences in your locality?

1.2.1.3 Group dynamics

Group dynamics create a pleasant learning environment, facilitate learning and make space in which to reflect and share.

■ Be clear about what you want to achieve with the exercise.

■ Be aware of the appropriate moment for an exercise; for example, use an exercise that energizes people when they are feeling tired, or an exercise that tackles conflict if you see it arising.

■ Plan and prepare the exercises (reserve time for them in the FFS programme) and always add a “head” and a “tail” (an introduction and a follow-up analysis).

■ Good exercises involve everyone in the group.

■ Exercises should be adapted to local and cultural conditions and should not offend people or make them feel embarrassed.

■ Vary the type and use of the exercises; for example, do not always do exercises that energize.

■ Treat group dynamic exercises as a toolbox – do not get trapped in a fixed formula. Each FFS is unique and the exercises should be modified for each specific FFS.

Entrepreneurship/marketing

Some group dynamic exercises can be used specifically to improve the entrepreneurial and marketing skills of poultry producers.

See (module): Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing (1.2.2)

GROUP DYNAMICS

A knotty problem

Objectives

■ To demonstrate that groups that are empowered to solve their own problems are much more successful than those instructed by outsiders.

■ To strengthen participants’ confidence in their abilities to solve problems themselves.

Steps

1. Select one, two or three participants to act as facilitators. Ask them to leave the room.

2. Ask the remaining participants to hold hands in a circle and to form themselves into an entangled knot by changing positions in the circle without letting go of each other’s hands.

3. Once the knot is complete, the facilitators who left the room return and are asked to unravel this knotty problem within three minutes, using verbal instructions only. They should hold their hands behind their backs, so that they are not tempted to touch the others.

4. The participants entangled in the knot are asked to follow the facilitators’ instructions literally and not to make it easier for the facilitators by doing anything that they have not been told to do.

5. The attempt is generally not very successful and sometimes even produces a more complex knot. Now repeat the exercise with the facilitators participating in the knot. When the knot is ready, simply ask the participants to get out of the knot themselves. This untying process is usually much quicker.

6. Ask the participants to comment on the differences between the first and the second time that the knot was unravelled and why these differences occurred.

Questions to ask during the debriefing session

■ What does the game tell you about the role of outsiders/facilitators and insiders (in the knot and in other problems in general)?

■ What does the exercise tell you about the effectiveness of outsiders and managers in organizing people?

■ Who were most successful in solving problems and why?

■ Taking the example of looking for a community-based sustainable plan for the control of Newcastle disease, ask participants what aspects of the plan they consider to be knotty issues.

■ What lessons can participants draw from this game to find lasting solutions to problems?

GROUP DYNAMICS

Business management simulation game

Background

The facilitator explains that without reflection on experiences, people do not learn from them and cannot glean lessons from their actions for informing their future efforts.

Simulation games in poultry FFS are useful for this purpose. A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of a real-life situation or process. In simulations, participants usually play roles that involve them in interactions with other people and/or with elements of the simulated environment.

Objectives

■ To help participants understand the effects of their behaviour on other people and the effects of other people’s behaviour on them.

■ To increase participants’ knowledge of how and why people at work behave as they do.

■ To increase participants’ skills in working with other people and getting work done through other people.

Steps

1.In plenary, the facilitator and the group review their commitments, investments and indicators of success as they report on their experiences of:

– production levels;

– amounts of offtake;

– consumption;

– sales;

– post-harvest activities;

– total current costs;

– total current income.

2. The facilitator explains what “contract renegotiation” means.

3. A subgroup takes up the role of production manager for the poultry FFS host farm. The subgroup members prepare for the session by collecting the production data recorded during AESA. This information includes elements that show the high value of the farm products, the type of birds and the costs of feeding.

A second subgroup acts as the supermarket sales team.

The production manager team reflects on current business conditions and convincingly negotiates a new market price contract with the supermarket sales team. A member of each team is chosen to lead the negotiation.

The supermarket sales team should try to find a compromise rather than accepting the price first requested by the farm manager team.

4. Ask for feedback in a plenary session. The feedback may be oral or written, but it should promote reflection. Summarize the lessons that came out through the game.

Debrief by asking: looking at the following parameters, what hidden theories, misconceptions and oversimplifications did you discover that could limit the group’s business negotiation skills?

– Core values of the business, for example, safe food from healthy birds.

– Time/season of production, for example, off-season.

– Contract conditions, for example, produce 200 birds every month.

– Group/individual enterprise, for example, group enterprise.

– Medium- to long-term plan, for example, construct a slaughter slab and install cold storage.

– Target and size of production, for example, 30 birds per month.

– Buyer base, for example, restaurants.

– Resources available for investment, for example, grain crops from the group garden.

– Costs of the machinery owned, for example, grain crusher and mixer.

– Costs of borrowed/hired machinery, for example, incubator.

– Government taxes and licences.

– Location and infrastructure.

– Transportation.

– Source of market information, for example, individual survey, radio, text message.

– Finances to be used, for example, group savings.

– Source of funds.

– Amount of funds received.

5. Identify the topics for the following FFS meetings based on the outcomes of this exercise.

1.2.2 Strengthening entrepreneurship/marketing

When embarking on entrepreneurship and marketing activities for enhancing market-oriented poultry production, the facilitator should consider several factors that reduce the risks for poultry producers and increase the chances of success of poultry FFS activities:

■A reliable market: Is there a shortage of a certain product in the community but a strong demand for it? For example, if only one person in the community sells eggs and frequently runs out, there is room for egg production.

■Profitability: Can the product be sold at profitable prices?

■Capital requirements: Is starting the enterprise too expensive? If start-up costs are high, a group can run out of money midway through implementation. Such an enterprise would have to be part of a longer-term plan.

■Availability of resources: Does the group have the resources it needs to run the enterprise properly? If not, are these resources easy to attain?

■Location: Is the area suitable for the selected poultry enterprise?

■Risks: What are the risks involved? Is the group comfortable with taking these risks?

■Sustainability: Is there long-term potential for the product?

■Duration: How long will the enterprise have to operate before it accrues returns?

■Productivity: Because most FFS participants will be starting with a small flock, they should choose enterprises that show tangible results.

Strengthening commercial poultry enterprises – what to think about in the FFS

■ Group action and marketing groups

■ Identifying the need for access to microfinance institutions

■ Time management

■ Management by microfinance institution committees and the full group

■ Record-keeping formats

■ Accounting documents

■ Report writing

■ Deposit and withdrawal procedures

■ Role of savings in agriculture

■ Types of savings

■ Interest rates

■ Guidelines for operating savings and credit schemes

■ Calculation of interest rates

■ Sources of funds

■ Methods of raising funds

■ Borrowing

■ Agricultural marketing

■ Modes of credit

■ Uses of credit

1.2.2.1 Transitioning from subsistence to market-oriented production

In an FFS that supports family poultry producers in transitioning from subsistence to market-oriented production, the aspects to be emphasized include:

■ discussing access to capital, inputs and services before embarking on the transition;

■ planning for surplus production and predetermined offtake;

■ monitoring of entrepreneurship competencies and social changes;

■ establishing and/or strengthening saving activities;

■ forming partnerships for support;

■ undertaking a market survey and risk assessment based on the enterprise;

■ selecting the FFS income-generating activity to be a group business;

■ common parameters for monitoring poultry farming as a business, such as:

– reducing the mortality rate from 80–100 percent to 20–30 percent;

– increasing brooding cycles from two to three per year to five to seven per year by weaning the chicks at two to eight weeks;

– increasing egg production from 60 to 120 eggs per head per year by increasing the number of clutches per year.

■ Cost–benefit analysis. Without frequent cost–benefit analyses, there is a risk that farmers spend too much money on feed for producing and maintaining their birds. In some cases, cost–benefit analysis can lead to the conclusion that poultry production is not viable in the area or that production cannot pay for inputs, so extensive production is the only option.

It is advisable always to start small when gaining experience. Once a small business is successful, it can be expanded into a larger one. If farmers need to obtain a loan to start their enterprise, they will likely appreciate assistance in preparing a realistic business plan that shows all the costs, including loan repayments and a reasonable salary for the owner/manager.

See (module): Marketing and value chains (2.1.7)

1.2.2.2 Core values

As the facilitator, you should help the poultry producer/entrepreneur to set standards based on core values. Such standards govern the relationship between the poultry business and its stakeholders, and the relationships within the poultry business itself. Applying these values will help the business to distinguish itself from others and will build customers’ confidence. To sustain the business, all areas of work in a poultry farm must be guided by the following core values:

■Trustworthiness: Worthy of trust and confidence. Includes values such as integrity, keeping promises, loyalty, dependability and reliability. Actions are consistent with words.

■Truthfulness: Honest in all business dealings.

■Open-mindedness: Being disposed to accept and adopt new ideas and proposals from others.

■Respect: Regard for the dignity, worth, independence and essential equality of all people. Treating people with courtesy, politeness and kindness. Tolerance of others.

■Responsibility: Acknowledging and performing duties to others and to one’s self. Being self-disciplined and accountable for one’s actions.

■Fairness: Being impartial and avoiding conflicts of interest. Being reasonable and consistent. Acting fairly.

■Caring: Having regard for the well-being of others. Being kind, compassionate, considerate, unselfish and charitable.

■Social responsibility: Recognizing and living up to community and social obligations. Being law abiding. Doing one’s share. Contributing to a better society.

Adapting the FFS approach: Training and knowledge sharing in the Green Innovet Cam (GIC)/IFAD rural poultry model in Cambodia

by Narin Oum (GIC) and Antonio Rota (IFAD)

To improve and scale up sustainable poultry production in Cambodia, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), together with the national non-governmental organization (NGO) Green Innovet Cam (GIC), promoted the intensification of family poultry production through a modular model that enables the poorest and landless households to enhance production and productivity through sustainable, good farming practices.

The model promotes a specific training and knowledge-sharing programme on improved poultry husbandry practices and techniques (including on preventive health practices, such as vaccination and biosecurity measures, and feed formulas that use locally produced ingredients) and the development of integrated market clusters in village communities. Establishing such clusters involves: i) setting up small hatcheries for the production of 21-day-old vaccinated chicks by using electric and/or solar incubator systems; ii) setting up demonstration farms and chicken producer groups; iii) facilitating links between small hatcheries and chicken producer groups; iv) building the capacity of poultry entrepreneurs to become extension/farmer promoters for new village chicken producer groups; v) conducting regular close monitoring exercises, coaching farmers and providing advice aimed at improving technical aspects and record-keeping, including of daily expenditure, income, business plans and visitors; vi) developing market linkages between chicken producers and market intermediaries or wholesalers; and viii) establishing poultry input supply chains that support chicken producers. The main feature of the GIC training and knowledge-sharing programme is the farmer-to-farmer knowledge-sharing approach. GIC staff and farmers come together at monthly meetings in order to facilitate the sharing of concerns and updates regarding their respective poultry farms. Well-performing poultry producers are encouraged to share their experiences in meetings and to display the good practices, management and communication techniques that contribute the most to the profitability of their business. They also illustrate the tangible improvements to their livelihoods and businesses. At the end of each session, there is a question and answer session that enables participants to raise questions and concerns.

A second feature is the facilitation of smallholder farmers’ participatory action research aimed at developing each farmer’s innovative capacity and new techniques for all participants. For this purpose, selected poultry producers make their farms available as demonstration farms. To ensure the quality of the demonstration farms and to collect reliable data, the GIC technical specialists conduct regular supportive field visits. They provide the demonstration farmers with technical advice on how to conduct field demonstrations, monitor and assist farmers in analysing data, and report on the demonstration farms. Poultry producers are encouraged to visit other farms in the village to identify practices that they can use and to pass on the knowledge that they have learned from training sessions and meetings. It is interesting to note that GIC often facilitates participation in monthly meetings of local microfinance institutions, which provide clarifications and support for farmers who need access to credit to establish or expand their businesses.

Another distinctive feature of the model is the hands-on training and support that GIC offers to farmers in the field as technical follow-up training. Technical specialists and village animal health workers make regular visits to poultry farms to ensure that the model is functioning well. In the case of any issues, the health workers are available to provide advice and support.

1.2.3 Undertaking awareness-raising activities

It is your role as facilitator to encourage the dissemination of FFS innovations and knowledge among farmers. Information from FFS should be shared among participants and disseminated to other poultry producers in the local community.

During the learning phase, you should organize exchange visits, field days, “open-house” days, exhibitions and/or share fairs.

1.2.3.1 Exchange visits

What are they?

Educational tours to other FFS, farmer innovators, research centres and poultry fairs.

Objectives

■ To enhance participants’ motivation to adopt and adapt practices or technologies that they have seen elsewhere.

■ To enable the poultry FFS participants to compare the activities of other FFS groups with those of their own group.

When should they be held?

At appropriate times during the learning process.

How many times?

At least once or twice per FFS, depending on the poultry enterprise and the budget.

If not all poultry FFS participants can take part in the exchange visit, ask those who have taken part to describe what they have learned at the next FFS meeting.

1.2.3.2 Field days

What are they?

Non-FFS participants are invited to the FFS and involved in its activities.

Objectives

■ To provide an opportunity for non-participants to be exposed to poultry FFS activities.

■ To share lessons, skills and knowledge gained in the FFS process.

Features to be highlighted during a field day

■ The history of the poultry FFS.

■ What is being done well and what can be improved.

■ Practices/technologies that are being adapted to local needs.

Where appropriate, you can encourage participants to use song and drama as a way of sharing their experiences.

When are field days held?

If FFS participants are almost ready for graduation or time and funding are limited, field days can be combined with the FFS graduation event.

How many times?

Once or twice per FFS, depending on the budget.

1.2.4 Planning for post-farmer field school learning: Evaluation and action plan

Graduation marks the end of the FFS learning phase. However, an FFS is a continuous learning process that does not have a definite end. After graduation, poultry producers should implement what they have learned and try to find new ways of learning as a group. Groups can either continue working on the same enterprise or select a different one.

In your role as facilitator, you should help the group to evaluate the FFS and develop an action plan based on the evaluation of what has been learned and the gaps that remain. Additional meetings (on different topics or for more in-depth learning on topics already covered), implementation of commercial enterprises, and the development of linkages to researchers, extension workers and other FFS are also planned. One of the farmers often takes on the role of facilitator.

For this to be successful, the facilitator should begin fostering post-FFS activities during the learning phase, for example, by sharing the success stories of other FFS. As a facilitator, you should also start “working your way out of the job” by identifying FFS members who are enthusiastic and have the potential to become community facilitators. The farmers selected will start by assisting you so that they can learn the basics of facilitation. When they are ready, they can conduct an FFS on their own. Ideally, you can train several participants to spread the FFS approach more widely.

1.3 Post-farmer field school learning phase

Chapter objective

■ To provide an overview of the activities to be carried out by the facilitator after the poultry FFS meetings stop.

During this phase, poultry producers should implement what they have learned during the learning phase and try to find new ways of learning as a group.

Main activities in the post-FFS learning phase

■ Ensure continued learning (for example, set up a second-generation FFS and enhanced producer organizations).

■ Share findings, lessons learned and knowledge.

Groups that decide to continue with the learning process can either continue working on the same enterprise or select a different one. To facilitate the process, you can help FFS participants to develop a new action plan based on what they have learned and what knowledge or skills they still lack. The new activities could be financed by developing or continuing the group’s income-generating activity. You might also advise the group to contact microfinance institutions for funding support.

You should provide initial regular backstopping and technical support to FFS groups continuing their own activities.

During this phase, it is critical that you help the group to strengthen further its linkages to researchers, extension workers and other FFS. Researchers and extension workers can keep the group informed about new technologies and innovations that could suit their local circumstances. In addition, developing networks of FFS can help to address common problems that cannot be solved effectively by a single group, and can create economies of scale. By forming a network, FFS can share information and knowledge more effectively, have better access to services and markets, pool their resources, use local experts from other FFS, etc.

It is also important that you encourage the dissemination of FFS innovations and knowledge among poultry producers. Information on FFS learning should be shared among members and disseminated to other producers in the local community. Field days (involving non-FFS participants in FFS activities), exhibitions and share fairs should be encouraged.

See (external): FFS guidance document (FAO, 2016a).

2.1 Poultry production and health

Chapter objective

■ To provide relevant information for providing facilitators with a grounding in relevant technical knowledge.

As a facilitator, you may or may not have extensive direct knowledge and experience of poultry production and health, but good understanding is essential. Your participation in poultry training prior to FFS preparation and implementation will ensure that your technical knowledge and skills are adequately reinforced. As you begin to interact with new groups of farmers, you may also be able to draw on their experiences.

2.1.1 Glossary of technical terms

2.1.2 Socioeconomic aspects of family poultry production

Family poultry production can contribute significantly to a range of socioeconomic benefits with contributions varying among production systems. Overarching socioeconomic issues include gender equity and social inclusion, empowerment of young people, animal welfare, and variable and frequently inadequate farmgate prices for poultry products (Figure 1).

2.1.2.1 Gender equity

Gender equity is the process of allocating resources, programmes and decision-making fairly between men and women. In many low- and middle-income countries, extensively raised poultry is frequently the livestock species to which women have most access and over which they have some degree of control. Extensively raised chickens often belong almost exclusively to women, who are responsible for the care of the birds and for selling chickens and eggs. Men are often involved in the construction of shelters for the chickens, or in their treatment or slaughter. However, even in male-headed households, women are often responsible for decision-making on issues related to chicken production. Income from the sale of poultry products is often the main source of income for female-headed households, whereas male-headed households usually have multiple income sources.

Before starting an FFS, you should always carry out a “gender analysis” to evaluate how poultry ownership, husbandry and marketing are divided between men and women in households in the area.

See (exercise): Activity 2. Gender analysis (1.1.4.1)

Women’s income often contributes more to improvements in household health, education and nutrition status than men’s income, and has a positive impact on household food security. Extensive poultry production systems are a particularly important income-generating activity for women as they place little demand on women’s time. For example, poultry production allows mothers to dedicate adequate time to childcare, a crucial element in achieving good nutrition. In some settings, women are also active as poultry traders.

The inclusion of women in family poultry training programmes for farmers and/or community vaccinators increases the knowledge and standing of women in their households and the wider community. Interventions that target domestic animal species under the control of women, including family poultry, may have an enhanced impact on household food and nutrition security through the empowerment of women.

As production systems become more intensified with higher financial investments and turnover, men tend to take over the ownership and management of poultry production and the resulting income. In the poultry FFS, facilitating discussions related to gender dynamics may help to mitigate this trend.

2.1.2.2 Empowerment of young people

Poultry farming is considered a favourable agrifood business that can promote sustainable growth, contribute to poverty reduction and provide gainful employment for young people. However, young entrepreneurs often face challenges such as a lack of funding, assets, experience and knowledge appropriate to their situation.

As a facilitator, it is your role to ensure that young poultry producers acquire appropriate and tailored agricultural, financial and entrepreneurial skills and are able to overcome the specific challenges that they face. Young people should be informed about existing support and opportunities for them and linked to key players.

2.1.3 Keys to achieving good poultry health

To achieve optimal production, it is important that birds are healthy (Table 3). Good health is achieved when birds have access to appropriate feed, water and shelter and when good biosecurity practices, vaccination programmes and treatments for disease are in place.

The presence of disease in the poultry flock is reflected in inferior performance. It is essential that the flock is in good health for it to achieve its performance potential. There are three elements of good health in the management of a poultry flock.

2.1.3.1 Prevention of disease

Preventing disease outbreaks is a much more economical way of managing health than waiting for the flock to become diseased before taking appropriate action. The application of a stringent farm quarantine programme and the use of good hygiene and husbandry practices are key factors in disease prevention.

Vaccination

Disease prevention includes vaccination against vaccine-preventable diseases, and good biosecurity. Vaccines can protect animals from infectious diseases, but they cannot treat a disease. In addition, vaccines are disease-specific and protect animals against only a specific disease rather than all diseases. Vaccines work best on healthy, well-fed animals that are not suffering from parasites or other diseases. Do not vaccinate weak or sick birds. If a bird is already incubating Newcastle disease or another killer disease when it is vaccinated, it will die and the farmer may become angry or discouraged and lose confidence in the vaccine.

Help farmers to understand that vaccination with a particular vaccine protects their birds against only a specific disease and that their birds might suffer from other diseases despite successful vaccination. An example can be used to explain this: children vaccinated against polio or measles might still get malaria.

Some vaccines can be administered via eyedrops, drinking-water or spray. In most countries, these types of vaccine may be administered by non-professionals who have received appropriate training. In some countries, vaccines administered via injection can be given only by qualified professionals. If you are uncertain about the animal health regulations in your country, please consult your local veterinary services.

Organizing a vaccination campaign against Newcastle disease

■ Extensive production systems. ND control may be most efficiently achieved by organizing regular vaccination campaigns as a joint venture between suppliers (which may be government veterinary services or agroveterinary supply shops) and community vaccinators.

■ Intensified production systems. Farmers with large numbers of birds should develop relationships with reliable distributors of high-quality ND vaccine so that they are sure that the vaccine will be available at the right time to enable them to adhere to an appropriate vaccination schedule.

See (annex): Handout 8. What is Newcastle disease and what can be done to control it? (Annex 1)

Parasite prevention and control

Parasite prevention and control varies depending on whether the parasite lives on or inside the animal. Commercial and traditional treatments are available for both categories of parasite.

Biosecurity

Disease agents and pests can be introduced to a poultry farm by the movement of eggs, birds, people, vehicles and equipment between farms, and via clothing, footwear, aerosols, water, feed, litter, wild birds, biting insects and vermin. Biosecurity refers to the hygiene and sanitation practices used to keep disease away from poultry (bioexclusion) and prevent the spread of disease if it occurs in a flock (biocontainment). The important thing to remember is that biosecurity is good for any type of poultry business.

Most guidelines on poultry biosecurity are relevant for intensified production systems in which the birds are confined.

See (annex): Handout 18. How to prevent the entry of infectious disease into extensive systems (Annex 1) and Handout 20. How to prevent the entry of infectious disease into intensified production units (Annex 1)

2.1.3.2 Early recognition of disease

Early recognition of disease is one of the first skills that should be learned by poultry flock managers. Frequent inspections of the flock to monitor for signs of sickness are required (Tables 4 and 5). Inspection of all the birds in the flock should be the first task performed each day in order to monitor for signs of ill health, injury or harassment. Feeders, drinkers and other equipment can be checked for serviceability at the same time. If a problem has developed since the last inspection, appropriate action can be taken in a timely manner.

2.1.3.3 Early treatment of disease

If a disease infects a flock, early treatment may mean the difference between a mild outbreak and a more serious one. It is important that the correct treatment be used as soon as possible. This can only be achieved when the correct diagnosis has been made at an early stage. While there are occasions when appropriate treatment can be recommended as a result of field diagnosis – a clinical and/or post-mortem examination on the farm – it is best if all such diagnoses be supported by a laboratory examination for confirmation and to ensure that other conditions are not also involved.

Remind poultry producers that medicines alone will not eradicate a disease. They should clean their chicken houses and remove infectious material. Always make sure that producers provide enough fresh water, feed and proper housing to sick birds to help them recover from a disease.

A variety of products for treatment of poultry diseases (antibiotics, insecticides, anthelmintics, etc.) may be available in local supply shops. When treating stock, it is important that the treatment be administered correctly and at the recommended concentration or dose rate. The instructions must always be read carefully and followed. Most treatments should be administered under the guidance of a qualified flock health service provider.

See (annex): Handout 19. How to control a disease outbreak in extensive systems (Annex 1)

The use of antibiotics

Antibiotics have been used for many decades to control bacterial infections and to “promote growth” of birds fed cereal-based rations under intensive conditions. The misuse and incorrect storage of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of bacteria that are no longer susceptible to the different classes of antibiotics. It is now recognized that antimicrobial resistance is a global health threat, and antimicrobial usage in animal production is one of its contributing sources. Antimicrobial-resistant poultry pathogens may result in treatment failure, leading to economic losses, and may also be a source of resistant bacteria/genes (including zoonotic bacteria) that may represent a risk to human health.

In most countries, the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in feed is now banned. Where antibiotics are used to treat sick birds, this should be done under the supervision of a trained poultry health specialist, and the birds should not be slaughtered and/or eaten until the “withholding period” (see 2.1.1) has been passed.

When used, antibiotics should always be administered at exactly the right dosage – neither too much nor too little – and always for as long as recommended. Do not stop the treatment as soon as animals improve.

See (exercise): Special topic 7 (socioeconomic). Antimicrobial resistance: matching diseases with cost-effective, safe prevention and control practices (1.2.1.2.)

See (annex): Handout 9. Key actions that farmers can take to ensure that antimicrobials continue to function and that animals and the community remain healthy (Annex 1)

See (external): How to reduce the use of antibiotics in poultry production (FAO, 2021)

2.1.4 Poultry diets

Poultry need adequate feed to maintain their condition (for moving around, renewing feathers and fighting diseases) and enable them to grow and to produce eggs. A diet may be formulated for each class of stock under various management, environment and production conditions. The diet specification for obtaining economic performance in any given situation will depend on factors such as:

■ the cost of the diet;

■ commodity prices – the income from poultry;

■ the availability, prices and quality of the various ingredients.

Just as people need fresh and healthy food to achieve good health, so do poultry. Such benefits can be demonstrated in a kitchen garden with “dual-purpose” vegetables (such as moringa) for poultry and human nutrition.

Maximizing production is not necessarily the most profitable strategy as the additional cost required to provide a diet for maximum production may be greater than the value of the increase in production gained. A lower-quality diet, while resulting in lower production may bring in greater profit in the long term because of the significantly lower feed costs. In addition, the food given to a flock must be appropriate for that class of stock – good-quality feed for one class of bird will quite likely be unsuitable for another.

The following are some of the key aspects to be taken into account when seeing to provide a good-quality diet:

■ The ingredients from which the diet is made must be of good-quality.

■ All of the ingredients must be accurately weighed or measured.

■ All of the specified ingredients must be included; for example, if a particular grain is unavailable, the diet should be reformulated. One ingredient cannot usually be simply substituted for another without reformulation.

■ The micro-ingredients used, such as the amino acids, vitamins, minerals and other similar materials, should not be too old and should be stored in cool storage. Many such ingredients lose their potency over time, particularly at high temperatures.

■ Mouldy ingredients should be discarded and must not be used. Mould in poultry food may contain toxins that may affect the birds.

■ Feed that is too old or has become mouldy must not be used. Storage facilities such as silos should be cleaned frequently to prevent the accumulation of mouldy material.

■ Feed should be stored away from vermin and wild birds to prevent contamination by infectious agents transmitted by these animals and birds.

■ Antibiotics should not be added to feed as growth promoters.

Nutrients

The diet of poultry – like the diet of humans – consists of different nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, crude fibre and water. All of these nutrients are necessary to provide energy, grow muscles and produce eggs. Lack or shortage of a single nutrient may result in poor growth or egg production and increased disease problems. The daily feed ration of a chicken must therefore contain certain amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. To make a balanced diet, these nutrients need to be combined in the right ratio, according to the age and productivity of the bird. For example, to optimize egg production in layers, the birds’ diet should be moderate in both energy and protein content, while a ration for broilers should contain higher levels of both energy and proteins to optimize the production of lean tissue. Because of their lower production rate, diets for village birds tend to have lower nutrient specifications.

Sources of nutrients

Nutrients and their sources include the following:

■Carbohydrate-rich feeds (energy feeds). These include maize, sorghum, rice, millets, cassava and cooked sweet potato.

■Cereal brans containing moderate levels of energy and fibre. These are a very useful, and often cheap, feedstuff for chickens, but because of their fibre content, they should not be fed to chickens in large quantities.

■Animal or vegetable proteins. Animal products usually have a higher protein content than vegetable products, as well as better-quality proteins. Examples of animal protein sources include fish, meat of various origins, blood, earthworms, termites and other larval and adult insects. Chickens will also eat the ticks off cattle lying in cattle corrals. Eggs are an excellent source of proteins. If available, a hard-boiled egg can be given to young chicks, with an egg a day being sufficient for six to seven chicks. Among the sources of vegetable proteins are various legumes (such as cowpea, pigeon pea, chickpea, mung bean, garden pea, groundnut, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, pumpkin seeds [after removal of the outer shell] and coconut). Some legumes (including soybean) contain toxic chemicals that must be removed through some form of heat treatment before the feed can be consumed. The legumes mentioned above are known to have little or no toxicity when eaten raw. Certain fermentation processes may improve the protein quality of some beans. As vegetable proteins are of lower quality, as many different types as possible should be combined in the feed (for example, beans and sunflower seeds together provide proteins that are nearly as good as animal proteins). Leaf proteins, including those of grasses, are of better quality than those in seeds.

■Minerals including iron, zinc, copper, iodine and manganese. Chickens require very small amounts of a wide range of minerals, which they get from their feedstuffs and the soil. An important mineral required in greater amounts is calcium, which is present in sea and snail shells, limestone in the earth, and bones (burned and crushed). Eggshells also contain high levels of calcium but they should be roasted before being fed to chickens, otherwise the birds may acquire a taste for eggs and become egg eaters. Phosphorus, another essential mineral, is present in bones and certain rocks. People often forget the importance of salt, which can be sprinkled in small quantities over any feed. However, too much salt can cause diarrhoea.

■Vitamins. These too are required in very small quantities. There are many different vitamins, and feeds such as liver, fruits, vegetables and leaves are rich sources of them. Other feeds, such as grains and insects, also contain vitamins in varying amounts.

All of these nutrients are necessary for optimal production, but the proportions vary according to the age of the bird, the stage of production, the local climate, the season and other factors. For example, growing chicks need more proteins than adult birds. Energy-rich feeds usually form the largest part of the diet of chickens (about 60–70 percent), then come protein-rich feeds, while the various minerals and vitamins are needed only in very small amounts, except for calcium for laying hens; in layers, the formation of the eggshell requires higher levels of dietary calcium than those needed for non-laying birds.

2.1.5 Composting of poultry manure

Although chicken manure is too strong to be used raw on gardens, it can be composted and converted to high-quality fertilizer. If used without composting it can damage the roots of plants and possibly kill them, but when it is composted chicken manure is a good fertilizer with high concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Manure safety tips

Fresh chicken manure may contain disease organisms that could contaminate root crops (carrots, radishes, beets) and leaves (lettuce, spinach), so uncomposted manure should not be spread on the soil in vegetable gardens. Always encourage farmers to employ the following safety tips:

■ Apply only aged or composted manure to your soil.

■ Always wear gloves when handling manure.

■ Thoroughly wash raw vegetables before eating.

■ Do not use cat, dog or pig manure in compost heaps.

■ People who are susceptible to food-borne illnesses should avoid eating uncooked vegetables from manured gardens. Those who face risks from food-borne illness include pregnant women, very young children and people with cancer, kidney failure, liver disease, diabetes or AIDS.

2.1.6 Animal welfare

The World Organisation for Animal Health states that perceptions of animal welfare differ from one region to another and between one culture and another, as do the ways in which animals contribute to human society. An increasing number of countries have both community-based animal welfare societies and government animal welfare legislation.

The main animal welfare issues under human control are:

1. freedom from hunger or thirst through ready access to freshwater and a diet that maintains full health and vigour;

2. freedom from discomfort through the provision of an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area;

3. freedom from pain, injury or disease through the prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment of these;

4. freedom to express (most) normal behaviour through the provision of sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal’s own kind;

5. freedom from fear and distress through ensuring conditions and treatment that avoid mental suffering.

2.1.6.1 Routine practices for animal welfare

A successful poultry house must satisfy the welfare needs of the birds, which vary by the birds’ class, age and housing system. Failure to satisfy these needs will, in many cases, result in lower performance from the birds and, consequently, lower income owing to inefficient production. These needs include:

■ adequate floor space with enough headroom;

■ good-quality food with adequate feeding space;

■ good-quality water with adequate drinking space;

■ the opportunity to associate with others in the flock;

■ the elimination of anything that may cause injury;

■ the elimination of all sources of unnecessary harassment.

It is your responsibility as a facilitator to discuss animal welfare and agree with farmers the appropriate poultry welfare standards for local conditions.

2.1.7 Marketing and value chains

While some family poultry producers raise birds solely for home consumption, the majority raise birds as an income-generating activity. Live poultry, meat and eggs are sold or bartered as required to meet household needs. Family poultry can contribute to income generation only where appropriate value chains are present. Value chains are the sets of people and processes through which poultry products are supplied to the final consumer.

As a facilitator, you can discuss existing local poultry value chains and seek to identify new opportunities that may be appropriate for farmers. You can help farmers to develop “productive alliances” with key participants in the value chain.

Linking production plans with marketing opportunities is key to success. Producing more birds than can be sold results in farmers losing money. Tailoring production so that farmers have more birds to sell ahead of important events such as national holidays and local celebrations will likely increase the sale price per bird. For intensified production, ensuring that birds reach market weight or start laying at the appropriate age is vital to financial success, as every extra day that a farmer has to provide feed for birds prior to sale will eat into profits.

Frequently only a few birds are ready for sale from a single-family poultry flock at any one time. Therefore, self-marketing of birds in urban centres by members of family poultry-producing households is often not profitable. In farming communities that are remote from significant markets, farmers may wish to enter into cooperative marketing arrangements to minimize the transport costs associated with getting their birds or eggs to market. Considerable transport costs result from the collection of birds from relatively small indigenous chicken flocks in rural areas. For farmers producing eggs, all transport costs, including the purchase of egg trays to minimize breakages, must all be taken into account.

You should work with farmers to prepare working budgets that identify and assign realistic prices for all expenses and the expected income.

In an increasing number of settings, specialist markets are developing for indigenous poultry meat and eggs through larger distributors such as supermarkets. These markets are meeting urban consumer demand for indigenous poultry meat and eggs, certified safe “biosecure” poultry products and organic poultry products.

2.1.8 Extensive scavenging systems

The following subsections on different aspects of extensive poultry production provide a general introduction. For additional information, please consult Improving village chicken production: a manual for field workers and trainers’ manual (Ahlers et al., 2009), which is available online via free download.

2.1.8.1 Feed and water

Poultry in extensive scavenging systems can feed from scavenging alone or be provided with supplementary feeding. Fresh, clean water should be available at all times.

Scavenging feed only

Making the best use of the scavenging feed resource base is a major characteristic of extensive poultry systems. The scavenging feed resource base includes various types of green feed, seeds and fruits, insects, worms, minerals in the soil, gleanings from cultivated fields, bran from cereal processing and household food scraps and leftovers.

Sometimes, the scavenging feed resource base is deficient in protein-rich feeds or energy-rich feeds. The quantity and quality of the feed base is usually the main factor limiting chicken production and it is essential to take the particular scavenging feed resource base into account when exploring possible management improvements.

Supplementary feeding

Supplementary feeding can be used to increase the productivity of scavenging village chickens and to assist the chickens when the scavenging feed resource base is insufficient to allow the whole flock to thrive. Supplementary feed is an addition, not a replacement, and must therefore not distract the chickens from scavenging. In general, it is best to offer supplementary feed in the late afternoon before the chickens are penned overnight.

Poorer farmers might find it difficult to supplement their chickens’ feed regularly. In such cases, supplementary feed might be provided to only selected birds or age groups, such as young chicks or laying or brooding hens. When this is the case, a way of separating the selected chickens from the rest of the flock must be devised, so that only they have access to the supplementary feed.

What can be used for supplementary feeding?

In general, anything edible can be used for supplementary feeding of chickens, but the benefit will be higher when the nutrition needs of the chickens are considered.

Chickens that obtain all their nutrients from scavenging may eat an excess of proteins and therefore benefit most from supplementary feeding of carbohydrates (for example,

a few handfuls of maize, sorghum or millet). Hens in lay can be provided with a diet rich in proteins with some extra crushed mollusc or egg shells, which contain the calcium that is necessary for producing the eggshell.

Chickens can be provided with leftovers from household food, and green feed such as grass, weeds and leaves from garden plants. Bran (the seed coat but not the husk), derived from grains such as rice, maize and wheat after polishing, is a useful feed ingredient for chickens, with moderate protein and energy content. The outer husks or hulls have little nutritional value.

If a farmer is unsure of which type of feed to provide to supplement the scavenging feed resource base (for example, whether to provide more proteins or more carbohydrates), then “cafeteria” feeding may be worthwhile.

See (annex). Handout 15. How to provide supplementary feed to your free-ranging bird (Annex 1); Handout 16. How to provide supplementary feed via the cafeteria approach (Annex 1) and Experiment 1. Supplementary feeding in extensive systems (Annex 5)

Water

Scavenging chickens usually manage to find enough water to survive. However, chickens, especially young chicks and laying hens, will perform much better when provided with water. While clean, fresh water is best, when water is scarce, extensively raised chickens can be offered used water as long as it contains no detergents or other harmful substances.

See (annex): Handout 17. The characteristics of good waterers (Annex 1)

2.1.8.2 Egg production and reproduction

While more intensified systems usually use parent stock (see 2.1.1) flocks and artificial incubation through hatcheries, in extensive scavenging systems multiplication through broody hens is the most common practice (Figure 3).

Egg laying

Hens start to lay eggs when they are about five to six months of age; malnutrition or poor health condition in growers will result in the birds coming into lay later and producing fewer eggs. Not all of the eggs laid are necessary for producing future generations. Some hens may lay 20 or more eggs in a clutch, but a small village hen cannot cover so many eggs and can properly care for a maximum of eight to ten chicks (especially in colder weather or when the scavenging feed resource base is poor). A hen may also abandon her nest with all the eggs in it. This is a waste of a very valuable food or income source for the family. In addition, eggs left in nests are heated and cooled repeatedly as hens leave and return daily to lay more eggs. This can cause early embryo mortality.

Laying hens can be identified in various ways:

■ Checking the width of the bones around the vent. In non-laying birds, only one finger can be placed between the two pubic or “pin” bones and two between the pin and breast bones. Laying hens can have a space of two to three fingers between the pin bones and four to five fingers between the pin and breast bones, depending on the size of the chickens and size of the fingers.

■ Examining at the comb. Adult hens with a very small and pale comb are not in lay and are probably either moulting or in poor health. If hens in poor health do not recover, they should be separated from the flock, because they are not productive and may transmit disease to the healthy birds. A small, pale comb is normal in moulting birds.

■ Examining the vent. A non-laying hen has a puckered (tightly gathered or contracted into wrinkles or small folds) vent while a layer has a large, oval, moist and bleached vent.

Brooding and hatching

Once a clutch of eggs is laid, indigenous hens usually become broody. When hens are broody, they sit on their nests for most of the day and may even sleep there. They become aggressive and make a characteristic squawk when approached. A broody hen will incubate the eggs and then look after the chicks that hatch. The hen sits on the eggs for 21 days, leaving the nest for only short periods for feed and water.

A hen can lose a lot of weight while she is incubating the eggs. Ensure that water and some supplementary feed are nearby to minimize this effect. As the hen has depleted her calcium reserves to lay the clutch of eggs, it is important also to provide her with a good source of calcium during this period, to build up her bones and encourage her to commence laying as soon as possible after rearing her chicks. If the hen has to leave the nest for long periods to look for feed and water, the eggs may cool down excessively, resulting in poor hatchability and chick survival.

To test whether the hen is definitely broody and will not abandon the nest, the farmer can set two or three old eggs under her. If she stays on the nest for two or three days, it indicates that she is truly broody. The old eggs can then be taken away in the evening when it is dark and replaced with eight to twelve fresh, stored eggs. Very small or very large eggs should not be used; choose well-shaped, strong-shelled eggs. Do not set eggs from very young hens, as these usually do not hatch well.

The farmer should control the number of hens that are hatching eggs at any one time. The most favourable time is when there is more feed available for the hens and their chicks (harvest time or when the scavenging feed resource base is rich) and when the weather is not too hot or too cold. It should be remembered that in some areas hens lay eggs and go broody only at certain times of the year.

If the farmer does not want a broody hen to hatch eggs, she can be placed in a small, separate cage in a cool, shady place. Keep the cage off the ground and cover the floor with wire or small branches to allow good air circulation. Make sure the hen has water and feed. In a few days she will lose her broodiness and after a while will start laying again.

If possible, it is good practice to separate a broody hen from other birds so that she is not disturbed while incubating her eggs. However, if this means that the nest must be moved, it may well lead to the hen abandoning the nest. The move therefore needs to be done carefully and preferably at night.

Candling eggs

Candling will provide information on whether or not an embryo is developing inside the fertilized egg and whether the embryo is alive. To check whether a chick is developing inside an egg you can hold the egg in front of a bright light, such as a paraffin lamp, a candle, a torch or a light bulb inside a dark room. Candling can be done around days 6, 7 or 8 after a hen has started brooding a clutch in order to determine fertility, and again around days 17 or 18 to identify viable eggs and those containing dead embryos or bacterial rot. Eggs containing bacterial rot or dead embryos should be discarded as they are a potential source of infection for the hatching chicks. White-shelled eggs are easier to examine than brown-shelled eggs.

At days 6–8, you can see the shadow of the embryo, which might move in response to the light, and a fine net of blood vessels. Eggs in which no embryo is developing are completely clear and may be removed and used for consumption. Place the eggs in water first to ensure that they are not bad – good eggs remain on the bottom of the container while bad eggs float.

In a fertile egg after nine or ten days of incubation, the clear air cell in the blunt end of the egg takes up about a quarter of the volume of the egg, and the embryo, its membranes and fluids fill the remainder, allowing almost no light to pass through. There is a clear line separating the embryo from the air cell.

2.1.8.3 Flock management

All chicken farmers aim to keep their chickens healthy and productive so that they can benefit from the flock in terms of meat and egg production. A major step towards increased productivity is vaccination against Newcastle disease (ND), the most devastating disease of chickens in many regions. Other diseases can be controlled or limited in their effects, and improved housing and nutrition will help keep the chickens in good condition. The benefits of these actions can be augmented by good flock management.

The aim of flock management is to maintain a healthy and productive chicken flock throughout the year by choosing an adequate flock size and taking off any surplus in the ways that are most beneficial to the poultry owner. Flock management includes control of breeding and egg production to increase the output of eggs and chicks per hen.

Indigenous chicken production is characterized by low inputs and outputs, with many farmers selling or eating their chickens only when the need arises. However, once ND vaccination is implemented and/or other killer diseases are controlled, more chickens will survive and the following possibilities emerge:

1. The breeder flock size can be allowed to increase.

2. Surplus surviving chicks can be marketed or consumed prior to maturity.

3. Fewer eggs can be set under the hens, allowing more eggs to be consumed or sold.

4. Various combinations of these options can be implemented.

The scavenging feed resource base will probably not support a significant increase in flock size in a village (options 1 and 2 above), which means that farmers will need to plan and manage their flocks more carefully. Good planning and management will help to maximize the benefits of increased chicken production and minimize any other problems that may arise once ND is controlled.

Farmers need to plan well in advance to get as much benefit as possible from their vaccinated flocks. Possible negative effects that may occur once ND and other killer diseases are controlled include the following:

■ An increasing number of chickens might not find enough feed in the local environment.

■ Other diseases (such as fowl pox) might become more prominent and important.

■ The supply of chickens and eggs for local markets may increase, resulting in a decrease in the prices received.

Disease prevention and control

The saying that “prevention is better than cure” is very appropriate in poultry farming. To keep chickens in good health and support high productivity it is necessary to control the diseases that affect the birds. Effective disease control includes measures taken to cure or eradicate a disease as well as measures designed to prevent it.

Should the aim be eradication or control? It is not always possible to eradicate the cause of an infectious disease, especially if wild birds also carry the infectious agent or if the infectious agent is very widespread (endemic). However, it is possible and desirable to control the clinical diseases caused by many infectious agents. For example, ND virus is endemic in many regions and is therefore almost impossible to eradicate. Nevertheless, mortality to ND in individual flocks can be avoided through regular vaccination and good biosecurity.

The following are among the general measures required to ensure comprehensive disease control in extensive production systems:

■Husbandry, nutrition, flock management and environmental factors. These elements all have a direct and important influence on flock health and improvements in them should generally be part of the control of any disease (for example, ensuring good housing, nutrition and management).

■Hygiene (biosecurity). Biosecurity procedures help to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases and contribute to improved flock productivity and the production of better-quality eggs and meat. Although there are limited possibilities for improving chicken hygiene under extensive conditions, awareness of the need to maintain general cleanliness for the birds will certainly be helpful.

■Traditional remedies. In many countries, farmers use traditional remedies to treat diseases of village chickens. Some of these remedies may be effective, while others are less effective or even harmful. This manual does not cover the large range of traditional remedies that are used.

See (module): Keys to achieving good poultry health (2.1.3)

See (annex): Handout 18. How to prevent the entry of infectious disease into extensive systems (Annex 1)

Breeding

Indigenous breeds are arguably the best option for conditions in rural villages and, in most situations, it is not advisable to introduce exotic breeds into extensive scavenging systems. Indigenous breeds have lower overall production because they often survive on limited feed resources and they use energy doing a range of activities such as scavenging for feed, escaping predators, brooding and raising chicks. The growth rate of an indigenous chicken is slower than that of a well-managed broiler chicken (Figure 4), but growth is usually achieved with very little investment, resulting in a very high cost–benefit ratio for individual birds compared with commercial breeds, which require multiple inputs for successful production. Indigenous chickens often command much higher prices in local markets.

See (annex): Handout 7. Differences between indigenous and commercial chicken breeds (Annex 1)

The productivity of indigenous chickens can be significantly improved over time by selecting only the healthiest males and females with the best production and conformation for breeding purposes. Using existing chicken breeds and strains also means that the birds will retain their ability to survive under harsh conditions.

It is important to maintain the correct mating ratios and not to have too many or too few males for the number of hens. The general guide is to have one rooster for every ten hens, plus an extra rooster (in case one is injured or dies). If a farmer has ten hens, there should therefore be two males, and; if there are 20 hens, there should be three roosters.

Interbreeding between closely related birds can be avoided by obtaining chickens (especially males) by purchase or exchange from more distant villages about once every two years. After obtaining the chickens, the farmer should make sure that no disease is present in them and should keep them isolated from the rest of the flock for at least 7 to 14 days.

In some circumstances, farmers may consider crossbreeding indigenous hens with exotic purebred (not hybrid) cockerels. However, in general such activities have not yielded much success. Elements that need to be considered for increasing the likelihood of success include access to high-quality exotic cockerels, reliable markets for the easy sale of birds or eggs when ready, affordable supplementary feed, appropriate vaccines and mechanisms for ensuring that the indigenous poultry gene pool is not lost or significantly diluted.

Housing

Housing village chickens at night will protect them from rain and cold, predators such as rats, snakes, other wild animals and dogs, and theft. Housed birds are also easier to catch when inspecting for signs of illness or injury, or vaccinating against diseases. Exploitation of the scavenging feed resource base is one of the major advantages of low-input village chicken production systems, housing for adult and older growing birds should therefore be provided only at night with the chickens left free to range for feed during the day.

Adult birds and growers are often provided with elevated night housing. Chicken houses built close to the ground are suitable for hens with young chicks that cannot enter an elevated house. It may be necessary to dig a drain around such a house or to raise the floor, so that it will stay dry during the rainy season. Some cages do not have a floor and can be moved to a new site every day or two. Chickens can be housed in these cages overnight or confined in them for periods during the day. The chickens scratch the ground to find feed for themselves. A chicken house can be completely covered with wooden slats or be partly open with netting or woven bamboo. This type of house may also be suitable for holding a hen with her chicks for the first week or two after hatching. Housing hens and chicks in coops or baskets reduces chick mortality resulting from predators, thieves and adverse climatic conditions. It also allows separate feed and water supplementation.

2.1.9 Intensified rearing systems

In semi-intensified and small-scale intensified systems, birds are kept in a poultry house for all or most of the time until they are ready to be sold.

2.1.9.1 Housing

Not only does housing protect birds from predators and rain, but an appropriate chicken house also provides steady temperatures and sufficient light and fresh air. Some large commercial sheds are very expensive to construct, so in this manual, only open-sided, naturally ventilated houses are considered. In tropical countries, houses must be designed to keep chickens cool.

See (annex): Handout 21. Constructing a chicken house for intensified systems (Annex 1)

2.1.9.2 Incubation and hatching

To hatch large numbers of eggs, farmers need an incubator. There are different types of incubator available, including solar-powered units for off-grid areas. Incubating eggs should be turned at least five times a day (the broody hen will do this herself ) and farmers with a reliable source of electricity are recommended to get an incubator with an automatic turning mechanism.

Eggs to be incubated should be kept for no more than a week before setting, otherwise the hatch rate will diminish. Farmers should choose eggs that are clean, medium-sized and free from blemishes or odd shapes.

The incubator should be located in an area that is free from wide temperature fluctuations. The instructions for the incubator should be followed carefully and water added when required to maintain ideal humidity.

The incubation period for chicken eggs is 21 days; on day 19, farmers should stop turning the eggs. When the eggs start to hatch, some farmers can be tempted to help the chicks, but leaving this phase to nature is usually recommended.

Once the chicks are hatched, the farmer can leave them in the incubator for 24 hours to dry off before transferring them to a brooder.

2.1.9.3 Specializations in intensified systems

Chick production (0–21 days)

The care of young chicks is the same for broilers and layers. The first three or four weeks from day 1 is called the brooding period and extra skills are required for success during this period.

See (annex): Handout 22. Brooding in intensified systems (Annex 1)

In general, for good, profitable production it is recommended that commercial breed day-old chicks are obtained from well-managed parent stock. Small-scale producers involved with the selection and breeding of indigenous breeds may be able to supply day-old chicks.

Broilers

Broilers are chickens that have been bred to grow quickly into large, meaty birds. They are kept to produce chicken meat and should not be used to produce eggs. Modern broilers can reach an average live body weight of more than 2 kg per bird at six weeks of age. A live weight of around 1.7 to 1.8 kg at six weeks is usually an indication that production is going well. Broilers should weigh about 0.7 kg at three weeks, and 1.4 kg at five weeks.

Commercial broilers have a feed conversion of less than 2 kg of feed for every kilogram of live weight produced. Feed conversion is a measure of the efficiency of broiler growing, and the smaller the figure the better. It is calculated by dividing the total weight of feed eaten by the body weight of the bird. For example, if a broiler has eaten a total of 4 kg of feed by the time it is sold and weighs 2 kg, the feed conversion ratio is 2.

For disease control purposes, it is advisable to have broilers of only one age on a farm. This is called the “all-in, all-out system” and means selling one batch of birds every eight weeks or so: with a six-week growing period followed by two weeks for cleaning and resting of the chicken house.

Layers

Pullet production (21 days to 3 months)

Layers are usually purebred chickens that are kept for producing eggs. Dual-purpose breeds (breeds that produce both meat and eggs, such as the Australorp and Rhode Island Red breeds) also produce eggs and they tend to do better than commercial breed layers under semi-intensified conditions.

Ensuring that the birds come from a reputable supplier is crucial to the success of the enterprise. If target markers have a preference for white- or brown-shelled eggs, the breed should be selected accordingly.

Encourage farmers always to order their layers a long time before they are required on the farm.

The decision regarding whether to start a layer flock with day-old layer chicks or with point-of-lay pullets requires careful consideration. Day-old layers may be easier and cheaper to obtain, but require special skills and experience in caring for them throughout the brooding stage, and sufficient resources for ensuring that they receive all the necessary vaccinations and for providing them with feed for around five months before any income from the sale of eggs can be obtained. Point-of-lay pullets, on the other hand, may be less easy to obtain and more expensive, but they are ready to start laying and can start providing money from the sale of eggs in a relatively short time.

Laying hens

Laying hens are usually kept in lay for one year only after they have started laying, meaning that if they start laying at about 20 weeks of age, they will be sold when they are about 72 weeks old. When starting with day-old layer chicks, an average mortality of about 10 percent can be expected until the pullets reach point-of-lay. During the laying period, the expected mortality is about 1–2 percent per month, with one to two hens out of every 100 dying each month.

See (annex): Handout 23. Key aspects in the management of layers (Annex 1)

2.2 Facilitation methods and non-formal education

Chapter objectives

■ To provide an overview of FFS facilitation techniques.

■ To illustrate the indicators of a successful FFS.

A precondition for starting a poultry FFS is that it can be facilitated by someone who has attended a training of facilitators course. This training is set to equip participants with non-formal adult education approaches for use in delivering participatory poultry training.

2.2.1 Facilitation techniques for participatory learning

Topics of interest to the farmers are learned about through various methods, including comparisons of alternatives. As a facilitator, you can decide the type of exercise or discussion (Table 6) that best delivers a specific lesson.

2.2.2 Qualities of a successful farmer field school

Knowledge of the qualities of a successful poultry FFS (Table 7) will help the facilitator to run a successful FFS.

2.2.3 Incremental levels of achievements of farmer field school groups

2.2.4 Funding mechanisms for farmer field school activities

Funds and materials can be channelled to FFS through: i) direct funding in which a project advance is paid into a bank account operated by the FFS and the funds are then managed by FFS members (as is the case mainly in eastern and southern Africa); and ii) delivery-based funding in which the project office procures all learning materials and pays allowances to the FFS facilitators.

A delay between the grant application and fund allocation might discourage participants. If there is such a delay, as facilitator you could promote low-cost or income-generating activities to maintain unity within the group until the funds arrive (Groeneweg et al., 2006).

Many projects have funds for only a limited number of FFS. When this is the case, facilitators should work with other stakeholders to try to get support from policy-makers, local authorities and donors. Such support can expand the FFS activities beyond the scope of the project:

■ To sustain goodwill, make sure that funding partners are visible. Arrange for policy-makers to visit at key times.

■ Involve politicians and the media to generate political interest.

■ Write case studies and briefing notes about policy or technical issues, and document the FFS’ achievements.

2.2.4.1 Self-financing

The current trend is for self-financing FFS. When groups are well-structured and well-facilitated, it is possible for the FFS to progress over time from being completely donor-financed, to partial donor-financing and on to self-financing. Examples of activities, elements and features that can help an FFS to achieve the goal of self-financing are:

■ group savings;

■ saving and loan schemes, which graduate into resilience funds once a degree of trust and cohesion has been developed;

■ commercial group enterprises;

■ volunteering and cooperation;

■ borrowing from microfinance institutions;

■ assessing risks;

■ market-oriented farmer groups;

■ negotiation (with service providers and the private sector) of better terms for inputs, better farmgate prices and advisory services.

Experiences from Uganda

From FFS grants to FFS revolving funds

Initially a grant of USD 500–600 is provided to an FFS to cover running costs, including the logistics of training. At the end of the season, the FFS repays half of the grant to the FFS network, constituting a revolving fund. The revolving fund is used to establish and operate other semi-self-financed FFS. The FFS is thus placed in the hands of the farmers, leading to sustainability and farmer ownership of the approach. FFS have access to the revolving fund through application to the FFS network. Facilitators provide support – based on the network’s guidelines – to ensure that the correct procedures are followed throughout the application process and the approval of funds. The facilitator is responsible for reviewing the proposals before funds are granted.

Resilience fund for agro-pastoral field schools

Each agro-pastoral field school that has been trained in group savings and loan schemes sets up a resilience fund. Using resilience funds, groups have been able to fund activities that reduce the vulnerability of their communities. A good example is seed/grain banks, which have been important in reducing hunger gaps, making grain readily available during lean periods, and allowing timely planting from seed banks. In cases of disease outbreak, the resilience funds have been used for stocking veterinary supplies, thus improving access to medicine.

As a facilitator, you can adapt the following handouts for local use to enhance learning, particularly on special topics.

See (modules): Special topics (1.2.1.2.)

Poultry farmer field schools

Family poultry production systems

Animal and human health

Extensive family poultry systems

Intensified family poultry systems

Income and operating costs per production cycle

Sales income

Input/material costs

Labour costs

Income and operating costs per activity

Total income and costs

Many different methods and tools can be used for monitoring and evaluating a poultry FFS. The methods and tools should be adapted to the local context.

Monitoring the learning process

Facilitators’ workplan

FFS meeting checklists

Participants’ attendance

Monitoring and evaluation of experiments

Sessions on special topics

Exchange visits

Field visits

Graduation ceremony

Visitors’ list

Plan for post-FFS activities

Evaluation of participants (ballot tests)

Evaluating the poultry farmer field school

Empowerment process report among FFS members

Group empowerment

Agro-ecosystem analysis sheet

The following table illustrates the components and sequence of a typical AESA sheet. As the AESA is linked to a comparative experiment, the parameters for observation and analysis vary depending on the topic under study.

See (annex): Annex 5. Examples of comparative experiments and agro-ecosystem analysis sheets

Components of the AESA sheet

“Title/problem being addressed” is the objective of the experiment.

“Name of subgroup” is the group that carried out the AESA and that looks after the related experimentation unit

“AESA number” is the number of times the experiment has been monitored.

“Week number” is the number of meetings that the FFS has had.

“General information” describes the setting in which the production site is located, including:

■ climatic season:

■ month;

■ time of observation (for the AESA);

■ weather conditions;

■ animal type (breed, name or tag number, date of hatching, etc.).

“Parameters” are measurable indicators of change resulting from a management practice.

If the group has many participants with low literacy levels, the AESA parameters should be listed in the form of simple drawings that reflect field conditions and observations.

“Observations”: record aspects such as whether or not birds are sick and changes in the environment.

The “Drawing” illustrates what the problem looks like on the animal, plant or infrastructure. It helps to ensure that FFS participants with low levels of literacy are included in discussions of the problem observed. In some cases, specimens of the problem (insects, poisonous plants) or of useful insects/plants that are new to the group are better than drawings. Specimens should be shown to all the farmers in the group so that they can suggest ways of managing the problem.

“Recommendations” are the actions to be taken in order to improve the parameters and correct any negative observations. Implementing these recommendations is expected to result in immediate improvements in production. Recommended actions should be discussed among the participants at the end of the AESA session, and their effectiveness should be monitored from one session to the next.

Comparative experiments

This template can be used while designing comparative experiments to be implemented during a poultry FFS. The parameters and observations listed will form the basis for developing the AESA format.

This annex provides some examples of comparative experiments that can be carried out in poultry FFS. The experiments – including the related parameters, materials and observations – and the AESA sheets have to be adapted to local needs and conditions.

Learning enterprise

Feeding regimes for extensive systems.

Background information

In low-input extensive poultry production systems, chickens are free-range and scavenge for feed during the day. At certain times of year, the scavenging feed resource base is deficient in protein-rich feeds, while at others energy-rich feeds may be lacking. Supplementary feeding can be used to increase the productivity of scavenging village chickens and to assist them when the scavenging feed resource base is insufficient to allow the whole flock to thrive.

Problem: The growth rates and slaughter weights of chickens are very low and vary throughout the seasons.

See (modules): Poultry diets (2.1.4) and Feed and water (2.1.8.1)

Learning objective

To assess the effect of supplemented and non-supplemented feeding regimes on the health, growth and economics of extensive poultry production enterprises.

Experimentation constant/uniform situation

■ Biosecurity conditions and disease prevention measures (including vaccination) remain the same throughout the experiment.

■ Environmental conditions remain the same.

■ Chicks or growers are of similar age and from the same source.

■ For the first three weeks, birds are fed the same feed according to recommended rations.

Trial description and treatments

Number of birds in scavenging poultry flocks in the experimentation area: for example, 50

Number of birds included in each treatment and replication: for example, 5

Number of treatments: 2

Number of replications: 2

Trial design

■ Treatment A: Birds without supplementation (no investment in feed and feeding equipment)

■ Treatment B: Birds with supplementation (investments in feed and feeding equipment)

During the first two weeks of the experiment give all the birds the same feed and then separate them into experimental groups with different feeding regimes.

Key requirements

■ Day-old chicks/growers.

■ Vaccines for routine vaccination against endemic diseases.

■ Source of good-quality supplementary feed.

■ Multivitamins.

■ Watering equipment.

■ Feeders for cafeteria feeding.

■ Poultry housing.

■ Brooder.

■ Weighing scale.

■ Essential poultry drugs.

Parameters/observations

Parameters

■ Age of birds.

■ Weight of birds.

■ Slaughter age.

■ Quantity of feed consumed.

■ Cost of feed.

Observations

■ Feeding behaviour.

■ Poultry manure (colour, texture).

■ General behaviour of chickens (dull, bright).

■ General health and body condition (crown colour, discharges, swellings, coughs).

■ Condition of house and feeding equipment.

■ Feed storage and quality.

■ Number of birds that died.

Duration

32 weeks.

Evaluation

Analyse the results in the two feeding regimes as reflected in the learning data collected throughout the production cycle (from the AESA sheets) and define conclusions and recommendations based on the following questions:

■ Did supplementation increase the growth of the birds?

■ Did supplementation reduce the time to maturity (faster growth)?

■ Did supplementation result in better health for the birds?

■ Was supplementation cost-effective or was it too costly?

■ Are materials for the supplementation available locally and can they be prepared on the farm to reduce costs further?

■ Compare the two feeding regimes and make recommendations of actions to be taken.

Notes

Monitor the value of the chickens that are consumed, sold, used in cultural events, or die.

Expected outcomes

■ The potential of the selected chicken types to gain weight is demonstrated.

■ Chicken types with efficient scavenging behaviour are identified and promoted.

■ Investment in structures that allow the separation of flocks according to age for better feeding management.

■ A production strategy is developed under which each FFS participant sets targets for the number of chickens to be reared within a certain period. The whole FFS can work towards meeting the demands of a specific market.

■ Farmers buy or plant grain crops to supplement chicken diets.

■ The sorting and grading of grains to be used in a mixture for chicken supplementation are promoted.

Learning curriculum/schedule

AESA sheet

Learning enterprise

Feed sources for broilers.

Background information

The cost of feeding in intensified poultry production often accounts for 70–80 percent of total costs. Therefore, any opportunity to reduce feed costs results in increased income for farmers, provided that the birds’ nutrient requirements are met. Commercial feed is not always readily available/accessible in remote rural areas, which hampers the intensification of poultry rearing systems.

Problem: Commercial poultry feed is frequently expensive, unavailable and often sourced from distant locations, incurring high costs.

See (modules): Poultry diets (2.1.4); Broilers (2.1.9.3)

Learning objective

To assess the impacts of different feeding types (commercial feed versus on-farm feed preparation) on growth, health and the economic viability of broiler production.

Experimentation constant/uniform situation

■ Day-old chicks are of the same breed and line and from the same source (hatchery).

■ Birds are provided with the same environmental conditions and spacing.

■ Biosecurity conditions and disease prevention measures (including vaccination) are the same.

■ For the first two weeks of the experiment all the birds are fed with commercial feed.

Trial description and treatments

Average number of birds per poultry house in the experimentation area: 200

Average stocking density: 10 birds/m^2

Number of birds for each treatment and replication: 15

Number of treatments: 2

Number of replications/cycles: 3

Trial design

■ Treatment A: Broilers fed commercial feed

■ Treatment B: Broilers fed farm-made feed

For the first two weeks feed the birds with the same feed and thereafter separate them into experimental groups with different feeding regimes.

Key requirements

■ Commercial feeds.

■ Day-old chicks.

■ Formula and ingredients for on-farm feeds.

■ Vaccines for routine vaccination against endemic diseases.

■ Feeding/watering equipment.

■ Multivitamins.

■ Weighing scale.

■ Mixer.

■ Grain crusher.

■ Litter.

■ Lighting and heating equipment (such as solar panels).

■ Poultry house divided into compartments for the different treatments.

■ Personal protective equipment.

■ Footbath.

■ Essential poultry drugs.

Parameters/observations

Parameters

■ Bird weight.

■ Feed consumption per day.

■ Feed costs.

■ Age of bird (weeks).

Observations

■ Feeding behaviour.

■ Poultry faeces (colour, texture).

■ General behaviour of chickens (dull, bright).

■ General health and body condition (crown colour, discharges, swellings, coughs).

■ Condition of house and feeding equipment.

■ Feed storage and quality.

■ Number of birds that died.

Duration

27 weeks.

Evaluation

Analyse the results in the two feeding regimes as reflected in the learning data collected throughout the production cycle (from the AESA sheets) and define conclusions and recommendations based on the following questions:

■ Did the farm-made ration increase the growth of the birds?

■ Did the farm-made ration reduce the time to maturity (faster growth)?

■ Did the farm-made ration result in better health for the birds?

■ Was the farm-made ration cost-effective in terms of preparation and feeding to the birds?

■ Are the materials for the farm-made ration available locally and can they be prepared on the farm to reduce costs further?

■ Compare the two feeding sources and make recommendations.

Notes

Other possible solutions to the problem:

■ Organize farmers to buy commercial feed in bulk.

■ Encourage farmers to produce ingredients for farm-made feeds.

■ Reduce wastage of food by having the correct equipment, such as feeders with a lip or design that prevents birds from knocking feed out of the feeders when eating.

Learning curriculum/schedule

AESA sheet

Learning enterprise

Feeding regimes for layers.

Background information

The cost of feeding in intensified poultry production often accounts for 70 to 80 percent of total costs. Therefore, any opportunity to reduce such costs results in increased income to the farmers provided that the birds’ nutrient requirements are met.

Problem: Commercial layer feed is expensive and there is need for a local alternative to fishmeal in order to reduce costs.

See (module): Poultry diets (2.1.4) and Layers (2.1.9.3)

Learning objective

To assess the effectiveness of a potential substitute for fishmeal in feeds for layers in terms of birds’ health and growth and farm economics.

Experimentation constant/uniform situation

■ Biosecurity conditions and disease prevention measures (including vaccination) are the same.

■ Birds are of the same breed, line and age and come from the same source (hatchery).

■ Feed comes from the same source.

■ Environmental conditions and spacing are the same.

Trial description and treatments

Average number of birds per poultry house in the experimentation area: 200

Average stocking density: 3 birds/m^2

Number of birds for every treatment and replication: 20

Number of treatments: 3

Number of replications/cycles: 1 (each treatment is replicated twice during the cycle)

Trial design

Key requirements

■ Birds (three weeks old).

■ Commercial feeds (treatment A).

■ Grain crusher.

■ Mixer.

■ Formula and ingredients for on-farm feeds (treatments B and C).

■ Feeding/watering equipment.

■ Poultry house divided into compartments for the different treatments.

■ Personal protective equipment.

■ Footbath.

■ Vaccines for routine vaccination against endemic diseases.

■ Multivitamins.

■ Weighing scale.

■ Litter.

■ Disinfectant.

■ Sprayer.

■ Lighting equipment (such as solar panels).

■ Essential poultry drugs.

Parameters/observations

Parameters

■ Age of birds (weeks).

■ Weight of birds.

■ Age at first egg.

■ Numbers of eggs per day and per week.

■ Size of eggs (diameter).

■ Texture of eggs (including deformities).

■ Number of eggs at peak laying.

■ Duration of laying.

■ Feed consumption per day.

■ Feed costs.

Observations

■ Colour and texture of droppings.

■ Feeding behaviour.

■ General behaviour of chickens (dull, bright).

■ General health and body condition (crown colour, discharges, swellings, coughs).

■ Presence of pests and friendly insects.

■ Condition of litter and feeding equipment.

■ Feed storage and quality.

■ Number of birds that have died.

Duration

The experiment lasts for 31 weeks (about eight months). It ends when the birds are at peak production.

Evaluation

Analyse the results in the three feeding regimes as reflected in the learning data collected throughout the production cycle (from the AESA sheets) and define conclusions and recommendations based on the following questions:

■ Did the rations B and C increase egg production and to what extent?

■ Did the rations B and C reduce the time to first laying?

■ Did the rations B and C improve the quality of the eggs?

■ Did the rations B and C offer better health for the birds?

■ Were the rations B and C cost-effective in terms of preparation and feeding to the birds?

■ Can the ingredients for rations A and B be sustainably sourced locally, and can the rations be prepared on-farm?

■ Compare the three feeding regimes in terms of cost, egg quality, age at first egg, and overall egg production, and make recommendations for future action.

The recommendations can be shared with other FFS groups and the community at large during field days or the FFS graduation event.

Expected outcomes

■ Increased number of eggs.

■ Testing of feeding options.

■ The benefits of and process for routinely checking the quality and adequateness of feeds are reflected on.

■ The challenges and benefits of different poultry feed ingredients are known.

■ A tested formulation that is based on what is grown locally is appreciated, so entrepreneurs can start to produce locally mixed feeds.

■ Entrepreneurs can supply fresh, good-quality eggs to their clients.

Learning curriculum/schedule

Learning enterprise

Breed improvement through selection of indigenous chickens for egg production.

Background information

Improving poultry production requires proper methods for improving breeding. Through selective breeding, a limited number of productive hens and cocks can be kept as a breeding flock to provide better chicks.

Problem: Egg production is very low.

Learning objective

To improve egg production through the breeding of poultry with different laying characteristics and selection of the best birds for production purposes.

Experimentation constant/uniform situation

■ Birds are of the same indigenous breed and source and approximately of the same age.

■ They are housed under the same environmental conditions.

■ Biosecurity conditions and disease prevention measures (including vaccination) are the same.

■ The birds all have the same feeding regime.

Trial description and treatments

Average number of birds per poultry house in the experimentation area: 150

Average stocking density: 4 birds/m^2

Number of birds for every treatment and replication: 6

Number of treatments: 2

Number of replications: 0

Trial design

Steps

1. From the flock, select the 12 hens that produce the most eggs.

2. Divide the 12 hens into two treatment flocks with six hens housed with a local cock and the other six with an improved cock.

3. For each of the hens selected for experimentation:

a. select the best eggs based on size (not too big and not too small), number, texture, colour, shape, strength of shell, deformities, etc. – select only clean, undamaged eggs that are not more than two weeks old;

b. store the selected eggs in a cool dark place, keeping track of which eggs are from which hen.

4. Select broody, experienced hens to hatch the selected eggs from the 12 hens. If broody hens are not available, an incubator can be used.

5. Compare the hatchability of the eggs from all the hens selected for experimentation.

6. Select and remove any deformed chicks and all males.

7. Rear to maturity the offspring from the two flocks while selecting:

a. the fast-growing healthy birds, removing the slow growing;

b. birds that are active and appear alert, removing the docile;

c. birds with bright alert eyes and bright-red combs and wattles, removing the others;

d. birds with a cloaca of a reasonable size, removing those with a small cloaca.

8. When the birds reach maturity introduce new cocks (different from those used in step 2) for mating with all the selected hens from the two groups of birds (group A with a local cock, group B with an improved cock).

9. When the selected birds (groups A and B) start laying, collect and grade the eggs while removing the damaged and abnormal eggs.

10. When the birds (groups A and B) finish laying, incubate the eggs (with broody hens or in an incubator) until the second-generation chicks hatch. The second-generation chicks from the two treatments (A and B) are taken through steps 6 to 9 in a second cycle (using different cocks).

11. After 16 months, compare the results of the two groups (A and B) in terms of egg production.

Key requirements

■ Indigenous cocks and hens and improved cocks.

■ Vaccines for routine vaccination against endemic diseases.

■ A poultry house divided into compartments for the different treatments.

■ Personal protective equipment.

■ Footbath.

■ Essential poultry drugs.

■ Weighing scale.

■ Lighting/heating equipment (such as solar panels).

■ Housing.

■ Good-quality feed and water as necessary, and feeding/watering equipment.

Parameters/observations

Parameters

■ Bird weight.

■ Size of eggs.

■ Texture of eggs.

■ Egg weight.

■ Number of eggs laid per bird.

■ Number of eggs hatched.

■ Number of healthy non-deformed birds.

■ Growth rate of pullets.

■ Age at first egg.

■ Broodiness of pullets.

■ Size of cloaca.

Observations

■ Feeding behaviour.

■ Poultry manure (colour, texture).

■ General behaviour of chickens (dull, bright).

■ General health and body condition (crown colour, discharges, swellings, coughs).

■ Presence of pests and friendly insects.

■ Condition of house and feeding equipment.

■ Feed storage and quality.

■ Number of birds that died.

Duration

This experiment will take 16 months.[2]

Evaluation

Analyse the results in the two treatments as reflected in the learning data collected throughout the production cycle (from the AESA sheets) and define conclusions and recommendations based on the following questions:

■ Did treatment B:

– increase egg production and to what extent?

– reduce the time to first laying?

– improve the quality of the eggs?

– offer better health to the birds?

■ Was treatment B cost-effective?

■ Compare the two treatments in terms of cost, egg quality, age at first egg, and overall egg production and make recommendations.

Notes

Monitor the value of the chickens that were consumed, sold, used in cultural events, etc. or that died.

Expected outcomes

■ Increased supply of eggs.

■ The benefits of and process for adopting selective breeding is reflected on.

■ The challenges and benefits of adopting different breeding practices are known.

■ A breeding practice that allows poultry entrepreneurs to improve farm productivity and income has been tested.

■ Entrepreneurs can supply fresh, good-quality eggs to their clients.

Learning curriculum/schedule

Other possible topics for experimentation

■ Mixing of locally made feeds with conventional commercial formulations for intensified chick rearing for meat or egg production.

■ The creep feeding system for chicks, using feeds made out of local, seasonal ingredients, compared with supplementary feeding from household waste in extensive systems.

■ Comparison of results of supplementary feeding using reared earthworms versus feed produced in a home garden with a ground cover of mulch.

■ Comparison of results of supplementary feeding using reared earthworms versus planting of Azolla (Azolla sp.) for chickens on commercial formulations.

■ The benefits and challenges of improving poultry production through crossbreeding.

■ Alternative methods of poultry disease prevention.

■ Alternative methods of poultry parasite control.

Demonstrations help farmers to understand the effectiveness of a given technology or practice (either through testing as part of a comparative experiment or through some other method) while also strengthening facilitation in the FFS. The following are examples of topics for demonstrations:

■ Optimal poultry housing – identify the type of poultry housing that is the most cost-efficient for farmers.

■ Methods of improving vegetation in the poultry yard, using perennial crops such as bananas, or short-fallow crops such as sweet potatoes, and observing the proliferation of insects and worms.

■ Compost-making and vegetable production in bags compared with planting on the ground.

■ Rearing of mealy worms, housefly maggots or red earthworms.

■ The effect of egg selection on the number of chicks hatched.

■ The effects of different means of protecting chicks from predators.

■ The effects of the duration of light on the number of eggs produced.

■ The effects of feeding green grass to chicks aged 0–8 weeks.

■ How the supplementary feeding of laying hens with soybean oil affects egg production.

■ How the dryness of the litter affects the control of coccidiosis.

■ How the different ways of handling and storing eggs affects their freshness.

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[1] The focal activity or learning enterprise of the poultry FFS, such as egg production, poultry breeding, broiler production, chick raising, or feed production and management.

[2] The two cycles will allow identification of the best layers, but in order to come closer to the expected breeding value a third cycle of selective breeding may be undergone (of eight additional months).