Afghanistan
· Writing of visits to the Eastern Province, the FAO forestry officer in Afghanistan indicates that the natural forest has already been pushed back to the steepest slopes and rather inaccessible areas. Full-scale logging on these slopes would be disastrous as erosion would rapidly take place leaving only bare rocks incapable of reproducing any forest crop. The granite soils are in this respect a greater problem than the gneissic soils.
The gneissic soils are nevertheless subject to severe erosion as was seen in the Waziri Valley, where the Cedrus and pine forest had been completely logged. In this area there is a useful amount of natural regeneration which if protected from any further cutting and grazing will lead to re-establishment of the forest cover.
There are some magnificent coniferous forest stands on the unstable granite formations. These forests should be regarded as protection forests and never be opened up for logging. From time to time for local village uses such as water races for irrigation and local building needs, damaged or overmature trees could be selected and removed without exposing the soil to erosion.
Climatically the Jalalabad area offers excellent prospects for the establishment of fast-growing plantations. At present it is considered that poplars, some of the Eucalypts, one or two conifers and Cedrela toona are likely to give excellent results. With these species a good range of wood for all uses - from fuel wood to high grade cabinet wood, could be obtained.
Lying south of the Safed Koh, the Southern Province presents a completely different forestry picture. The soils derived from sedimentary rocks are much more stable but the Himalayan cedars apparently growing in their southern limit do not form the same magnificent forest stand as was seen in Eastern Province on the granite and gneiss soils. However, since these forests are on the more stable soils, they will be better able with protection and management, to provide cedar wood for the market.
It is a rare experience when making a forestry survey to visit areas where the answers to some of the problems are already demonstrated, but in Southern Province such examples were seen; range grasses were seen in abundance in an area closed to grazing and regeneration of Pinus gerardiana and Cedrus deodar were seen in a partially protected forest area.
In mixed stands of Cedrus and Pinus gerardiana the objective will be to foster the growth of the Cedar to produce logs of this very good species. Both the pine and the juniper which occur in this type are of importance to this objective since they will provide the necessary shelter which the young cedar plants require in order to establish themselves. The pine will in addition provide wood and nuts but should always be regarded as secondary to the cedar.
At Khohi Surati an area was visited which had been completely logged some years back of all cedar and pine logs. This logging operation was followed by good regeneration of both species. As the regeneration has grown up it has been cut for fuel and some small poles but not permitted to develop into logs. Fortunately both species have coppiced and generally around each stump are now found 4 or 5 stems each 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 meters) in height. The pine coppice is setting seed and quite a few seedling pine were found. There was very little evidence that the coppice stumps of the cedars had done likewise.
On the higher slopes of the sheltered gullies some cedars 40 to 50 feet (12 to 15 meters) in height remain and should provide some seed. It is considered that these trees were probably very small at the time of the main logging operation or grew up immediately after, and have since escaped the ax. The people of the village stated that they wished to allow the trees to grow to economic size and it did seem that very little cutting for fuel had been done for at least a couple of years, although there was evidence of grazing. If the whole area had escaped further cutting in the same way, there would have existed in this area a really good young forest.
Belgium
· A law on the inspection of seeds and planting stock for forests was promulgated in 1956. Its purpose was to establish, side by side with the free market, one under State control, in which producers who wished to do so might participate.
Inspection of seed and planting stock for forests is carried out in three stages; selection of seed-tree stands, supervisions over harvesting, and inspection during seed preparation; these are performed by State forestry officers, by the Water and Forest Research Station and by the National Horticultural and Agricultural Products Marketing Office (ONDAH). The purpose is to give producer identification certificates stating species, by type or variety, provenance and to assure their healthy condition.
The Water and Forests Research Station selects seed-tree stands and publishes regularly a list of such stands. It also fixes and publishes seed production standards (by unit weight of cones) and standards for planting stock (by unit weight of seed). There is also selection of woodlands under forestry management by the State Forest Service and of privately-owned woodlands, as well as of stands belonging to private bodies, the owners of which have applied to the Ministry of Agriculture for this purpose.
As regards supervision over harvesting in the case of stands managed by government services, the head of the competent Water and Forests District Office and ONDAH are warned eight days before the date of harvest. The harvester then carries out the harvesting of the seed under the surveillance of the Water and Forests Administration. Afterwards a check is carried out by the ONDAH expert who issues, for the sample quantities of the accepted seed, a dated " certificate of provenance " in four copies countersigned by the harvester and stating the species, the breed, variety, and complete catalogue description of the seed-tree stand and the quantity of fruits, cones or seeds harvested.
In the case of a non-state-managed woodland, an owner who has one or more stands that have been approved for seed production, undertakes to be present at the supervised harvesting of the seed. The expert sent by ONDAH at the harvester's request for such supervision, supervises the harvest and, if the seed is acceptable, draws up a certificate of provenance.
Seed preparation is supervised by the ONDAH expert, who sends out checks on the certificates of provenance, supervises the preparation, takes whatever samples he-deems necessary and, if the merchandise is acceptable, issues several small denominational stamps, according to the quantity of seed obtained. The quantities of acceptable seed may not surpass the figures set by the Water and Forests Research Station. For each delivery of selected seed, the preparer draws a statement on forms issued by ONDAH, indicating deliveries and stating: the species, or variety, the full catalogue description of the seed-tree stand, the quantities delivered, the date of harvesting and of inspection.
There are two steps involved in the inspection of planting stock in the nursery: the inspection of standing stock and of stock for sale. Planting stock may be refused or accepted provisionally after its initial growth period. It can either be refused or definitely accepted after the second growth stage. After each of these stages a second expert opinion may be obtained from ONDAH, at the expense of the claimant, unless the finding on the initial inspection are changed in his favor.
Only plots of standing stock that have been seeded with select seed may obtain inspection. The number of plants accepted may not exceed that set by the Water and Forests Research Station. Inspection of standing stock calls for one or more visits to the plots. In order to be accepted, the plots have to meet the technical standards set by ONDAH.
Only plants from approved stock may be inspected for the purposes of sale. When a request for inspection is submitted to ONDAH sufficiently ahead of time, an expert is sent out to make an inspection of planting stock for sale, which includes a general examination of the plots and a count of the number of plants for sale.
Canada
· A Technical Note issued by the Forestry Branch of the Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources describes a survey of the tolerant hardwood stands in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, Canada, which was oriented to a determination of the ecological characteristics of the hard woods in various forest districts as basis for recommending silvicultural management. The principal species are sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, red maple and basswood.
In all but the most northern areas, sugar maple is the dominant species and is so aggressive that it can increase its numbers at the expense of the other species. Moist of the trees and reproduction are defective, and there are few areas where it is capable of developing into trees suitable for sawlogs and veneer. If high quality maple stands are to be obtained, cultural treatment to release young growth from overhead shade and to protect young saplings from injuries must be undertaken.
Yellow birch is widely distributed but to restock cut-over areas it requires suitable seed beds and freedom from competition with advance growth of other species, especially sugar maple. To establish the species in quantity it will be necessary to use a system of partial cutting, prepare seed beds and destroy advance growth of sugar maple and, if overdense birch stands are obtained, the best stands will have to be thinned.
Beech is sensitive to extreme cold and is mostly confined to upper slopes and ridges. It is very defective and, with present utilization limits, its elimination should be sought wherever possible. Basswood is important in the southern areas but is never the dominant tree. It reproduces by stump sprouts, but to obtain seedling reproduction probably heavy cutting will be required to hasten the decomposition of the seed costs.
Other species in the tolerant hardwood forests are of more limited occurrence and have limiting silvicultural characteristics so that, if their perpetuation or increase is sought, rather special silvicultural measures will be required.
Ceylon
· A report to the Asia-Pacific Commission states that the aerial photographic aircraft which operated in Ceylon under the Colombo Plan Aid from Canada, has completed the 1: 40,000 general purposes photography of the Island and the larger scale aerial surveys, to scale of 1: 15,000, of the inaccessible forests in the wet zone in Southern Province and montane grasslands in the bill country: 2-inch-to-the-mile scale controlled mosaics are being prepared.
Two officers of the Forest Department, a junior assistant conservator of forests and a senior forester, underwent a course of lectures by the Canadian specialists on photogrammetry and other allied subjects in Colombo and also attended the field camp at Tellulla for investigation of the resources survey of the Kirindi Oya Basin.
Interpretation of aerial photographs has now been carried out and arrangements have been made for carrying out ground sampling and preparation of a forest inventory for the Sinharaja Forest Block.
Aerial photography has considerably helped in the recognition of the different gross forest types: high forest, low and scrub jungle, grassland and fernlands within both the major wet and dry evergreen forest types, which information cannot be ascertained from the available topographic maps of the island. It also assists in the determination of the soil types, depth of soil and other soil phases. It depicts land subjected to erosion, other forms of misuse of land and shows the extent of afforestation possible for reclamation and protection.
Ethiopia
· A group of technical advisers, including FAO experts, has carried out a series of reconnaissance flights in Ethiopia to permit in the shortest possible time a preliminary evaluation of land use problems over extensive areas, which it is otherwise impossible to obtain except at great. expense of time and money. It is expected that further flights and more detailed surveys of selected districts will be carried out, combined with aerial photography.
A report on one flight includes the following:
"From Gondar we flew south across the eastern half of Lake Tana to Bahar Dar where we saw the point where the Blue Nile emerges from the lake. Thence we followed the course of the Blue Nile valley for about one hundred miles to the vicinity of Debre Markos, where the river turns sharply west. This valley presents a fantastic landscape, the result of water erosion over millions of years. It exhibits a chaotic scone of plateaus intersected by innumerable gorges and chasms with steep slopes and in places perpendicular walls, in which the silvery thread of the river and its frequent tributaries flow. This gorge of the Nile is only comparable with the famous Colorado Grand Canyon. The escarpments and slopes of the plateaus are dotted with scrubby bush, which also frequently lines the edges of the fields on the plateaus. The pressure of population seems to be quite heavy, for the plateau lands are cultivated and thousands of tiny fields cover their flat tops. The small villages are mostly concentrated on the very edges of the escarpment like swallows' nests, so as to leave as much land as possible for cultivation. Not only is the arable area intensively utilized, but many of the steep slopes are also cultivated; bush fires were visible on all sides; and man-made erosion was everywhere visible in addition to the gigantic erosion caused by nature.
To improve the land-use pattern of this ultra-rugged region will require intensive study. It is evident that population pressure is very heavy and that there are many interrelated problems in the associated fields of agriculture and forestry, which are likely to be resolvable only through a prolonged investigation on the spot of all their socio-economic aspects."
France
· A true appraisal of the benefits to forestry from the reduction in the numbers of rabbits owing to myxomatosis will not he possible for some time. The disease, for the time being at least, shows some weakening of the virus and consequently there has been a reappearance of the rabbit population in limited numbers both in France and elsewhere in Europe where the rabbit has long been the bane of foresters.
From a forestry point of view it is clear that as a result of the work of the disease natural regeneration of tree crops has been definitely helped. In pure or mixed coniferous high forest, it is obvious that even after a had fruiting year, seedlings are appearing wherever the soil is suitable for germination whereas, before. the disease, it was impossible to find oven a single seedling in rabbit-infested areas. More uniform and abundant regrowth and the subsequent natural selection among more trees, should permit a wider choice of elite trees which could logically produce better stands. It should, in turn, benefit the soil, which will eventually produce better timber. In many Scots pine and maritime pine stands in Sologne and on the dunes of Gascony, natural regeneration is no longer a problem.
Coppice sprouting is now extremely vigorous, and instead of bushy or topped stools, the coppice produces fine, long straight shoots. The great or vigor and greater abundance of these shoots is good for the soil, and should produce stands of greater commercial value.
On barren heaths (landes) where the soil is already too seriously degraded, planting will still be necessary. But new opportunities now exist for making plantations without incurring heavy expenses for fencing and protection. Plantation work becomes practicable and normal again, with appreciable chances of success even in bad years. Investments that landowners formerly hesitated to make, can now be financed out of the National Forestry Fund, and many areas ruined by rabbits can thus revert to their original vocation as woodlands. However, the reappearance of rabbits has meant that many plantations which were set out in 1955, now again need protection, but this time it is less expensive than when rabbits were too numerous.
It is not possible, at present, to foresee the future course of myxomatosis. It is unlikely that the rabbit will disappear entirely. Probably in a few years, the disease will lead to total, or at least partial, immunization, and will then become endemic. From two to five years will have to elapse before. a firm opinion can be given.
· The French paper industry, which is rapidly expanding, must seek to use an increasing proportion of homegrown timber, especially hardwoods, of which there is a considerable surplus. This trend necessitates a detailed inventory of national timber resources and an investigation of marketing and price conditions.
It is planned to carry out two surveys in France:
1. A national forest resources survey is to be undertaken by the forest authorities with the object of determining more precisely the quantities of timber that French forests can provide. This inventory - the method for which has now been decided - will be based on statistical sampling.2. An economic survey of the market for wood for heating and industrial uses. Its principal aim so far as the paper industry is concerned will be to determine the conditions under which this industry can be supplied with the timber it needs, without competing with the demand for wood for heating purposes. Fuelwood often commands prices higher than those paid by the paper industry. The survey will comprise a sample coverage of forest owners and timber firms, consumers of wood for heating purposes, retailers of wood stoves. and firewood suppliers.
A pilot survey has already been carried out in two French départements with satisfactory results.
Germany, Federal Republic
· At the beginning of the forest year 1957, the Federal Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forests started with the preparation of studies for the assessment of a timber-balance. This is a first attempt to analyse, in co-operation with all groups of consumers and producers, the detailed structure of timber consumption as compared to national wood production plus imports. The aim is both a long-term and a short-term review of the timber market and a forecast of prospective trends in supply and demand.
The review is based on statistics of
1. removals, sales and price development of roundwood;
2. production, stocks and price development of processed wood;
3. import and export of roundwood, sawnwood and processed wood.
A periodic inventory of stocks held by the timber trade, including importers, and in secondary manufacturing industries, will be added in the future. Statistics on end-use consumption do not exist in the Federal Republic, and it would be technically too difficult to collect them.
The balance worked out at the beginning of each year on the basis of the above statistics should permit clearer forward estimates of market prospects. No attempt will be made to analyse all economic and business trends which will affect progress of the market because of the actual lack of end-use statistics and the fact that prewar data are no guide to trends now, the results of the studies are not likely to be made public for the time being.
At the end of each forest year, the actual outcome will be compared with the estimates. The detailed analysis of national consumption should be improved step by step.
India
· An official report to the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission includes information on the organization of private woodlands and co-operatives.
Private woodlands exist only to a very small extent and even the few privately-owned areas are likely to come under State control in the near future. As wood-based industries in the country still depend on the State forests to supply them with their requirements, there are no woodlands as yet devoted to the production of their requirements under any form of private management.
In Orissa and Bombay, some private forests have been placed by the owners under state management and these forests are looked after as if they were reserved forests. Elsewhere private forests are controlled by Acts of Legislature adopted to regulate their working, e.g., the Private Forest Protection Act of Madras which extends to parts of Kerala State also in the south and the Himachal Pradesh Private Forests Act, in the Western Himalayan tracts. These regulations obligate the owner to obtain government permission in advance of any clearings, fellings or removals he plans in his forests. In some cases, privately owned forests (e.g., Punjab and Bengal) are managed under working plans properly prepared under the technical supervision of the State Forest Department. In a few States, even the felling of individual trees by any private owner is restricted by suitable legislation (e.g., Saurashtra Tree Felling Act in Bombay State).
Large-scale experiments to vest forest management in co-operatives (village panchayats) proved a failure in Madras, and the State Forest Department has had to resume management of the forests, though, unfortunately after much damage had been done to the growing stock. Co-operative societies have, however, shown remarkable progress in the management of forests placed in their charge in the Punjab but under general guidance of the Forest Department. Bombay has successfully evolved methods for the produce (fuelwood) of minor forest areas to be worked by co-operatives of tribal forest workers.
Indonesia
· In the course of the investigations for the preparation of the Forest Industrial Development Program for Indonesia by an FAO officer, special attention has been devoted to the fuel problem of the country.
Fuel consumption for heat and power is still characterized by the predominance of fuels from organic sources, i.e., firewood, charcoal and to a smaller extent, agricultural residues.
The result of the preliminary investigations on the total consumption of fuel can be summarized as follows:
|
Source of energy (heat and power) |
Quantity |
Equivalent firewood |
Percent |
|
.....million tons..... |
|||
|
Fuel from organic sources(firewood, charcoal including agricultural residues) |
28.2 |
28.2 |
85 |
|
Coal |
0.76 |
1.3 |
4 |
|
Mineral-oil |
1.6 |
3.5 |
10 |
|
|
.....million kwh..... |
||
|
Hydro- electric power |
400 |
0.32 |
1 |
|
TOTAL |
|
33.32 |
100 |
Per capita consumption of different types of fuel is:
|
Type of fuel |
Consumption per year |
|
|
Actual consumption |
Equivalent in firewood |
|
|
......kilograms...... |
||
|
Fuel from organic sources |
350 |
350 |
|
Coal |
9.5 |
16 |
|
Mineral-oil |
20 |
44 |
|
|
kwh. |
|
|
Hydro-electric power |
5 |
4 |
|
TOTAL |
|
414 |
The breakdown of wood fuel requirements of the major groups of consumers (in terms of cubic meters of solid wood) is:
|
|
|
million m3 |
|
Households (about 1 kg. of woodfuel per capita and per day) |
about |
41.6 |
|
Smallholders rubber (smokehouses) |
" |
0.99 |
|
Small food industries |
" |
0.81 |
|
Ceramic industries (Lime, bricks, tiles. etc.) |
" |
0.68 |
|
Railways |
" |
0.58 |
|
Batik-works |
" |
0.14 |
|
Comparison of consumption or production | ||
|
Timber consumption (including unrecorded production) |
about |
4 |
|
Fuelwood consumption (including charcoal) |
" |
45 |
|
(Ratio, timber: fuelwood = 1: 11) | ||
|
Firewood consumption (excluding charcoal) |
about |
39 |
|
Charcoal consumption (In terms of roundwood) |
" |
6 |
|
(Ratio, firewood: charcoal = 6.5:1) | ||
|
Recorded fuelwood production |
about |
2 |
|
Unrecorded |
" |
43 |
|
(Ratio, 1: 21) | ||
During the last few years the above structure of fuel consumption has changed due to the tremendously fast increase of kerosene consumption which has developed as follows:
|
Year |
Kerosene |
Petrols |
|
......million liters...... |
||
|
1938 |
322.2 |
190.0 |
|
1950 |
325.0 |
446.0 |
|
1951 |
384.0 |
505.2 |
|
1952 |
461.6 |
558.8 |
|
1053 |
593.3 |
605.8 |
|
1954 |
740.9 |
685.7 |
|
1955 |
894.4 |
694.1 |
This has been caused by:
(a) the very low price level, fixed by the Government.
(b) the great differences in prices for firewood in the various parts of the country.
(c) the low efficiency of cooking devices for use of firewood in comparison to the high efficiency of modern cooking devices for kerosene.
Whereas points (a) and (b) have to he adjusted by government policy, considering the economic and social needs of the country, point (c) has to be solved by international co. operation, i.e., by improving the cooking devices according to modern technical experiences and by encouraging training courses to introduce these experiences in rural and urban areas (e.g., smokeless chula from India).
The Indonesian Forest Department is sending some of the cooking devices used in Indonesia to the Fuel Laboratory of the Central Forestry Organization of Switzerland. Tests are to be conducted in co-operation with FAO to find out what saving of fuel can he achieved by various design improvements and what investments will he required, keeping in mind the principle that the construction of stoves should as far as possible be done by householders themselves.
Iraq
· In the mountain oak forests of Iraq, the tree crop provides forage as well as branch wood, The nomadic Kurdish tribes which pass over the mountains to spend the summer in Iran, returning to Iraq in autumn, depend upon fresh foliage for fodder during their return journey and hack branches off the trees haphazardly. Depending on the state of the grass and the weather conditions at both ends of their journey, they may stay in the forests for a matter of days, merely passing through, or they may spend several weeks on the journey. They appear to travel over well-defined routes; one valley near the Iran border which the FAO officer visited was due to suffer the passage of about 2,000 families during the next two months. There is a special agreement between the two Governments which regulates the passage of these people.
The settled mountain people also make use of the foliage in the same way, but in addition they gather branches which they store in crooks of trees near their houses. This dried foliage or chillu is used for winter fodder. At least in some areas this is cut in a reasonably systematic manner and all the trees in one place, perhaps a few hectares in extent, will be roughly pollarded the same year while an adjoining area is left for the following year. There is no fixed cutting rotation but there is some semblance of systematic working.
Japan
· Reporting to the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, the Japanese delegate stated that the pulp industry had been expanded rapidly for the past several years and the production in 1955 reached 1.87 million metric tons. The supply of logs is becoming acute, but with the advancement of pulping techniques, the pulping of hardwoods is economically feasible and more use of such species is being promoted. About 10 percent of logs used for the pulp industry in 1955 were hardwood. Approximately 70 percent of the pulp mills are integrated with paper or chemical fibre manufacturing and most of them are on a large scale and dominant in the pulp industry. Modernization of plants in keeping with technical progress is significant. The number of plants decreased by 6 percent in 1955, but production capacity increased by 12 percent.
The fibreboard industry is also showing active development. The number of plants of the industry in 1955 was 24. With the expectation of growing demand for construction and other fields, each company is planning expansions and the production capacity at the end of 1957 is expected to be four or five times as much as that of 1956.
The wood particle board industry started at the same time with fibreboard manufacturing as a new wood processing industry and has developed remarkably. The annual production of the industry in 1955 was 10,000 tons and is now about 20,000 tons. Considering the planned expansion program, even greater production is expected.
Kenya
· It is reported that a Paper defining the Government of Kenya's policy on forest resources has been tabled in the Legislative Council in Nairobi. Entitled A Forest Policy for Kenya, the Paper lays down the basic principles which will guide the development and control of forestry "for the greatest common good of all ". The Paper describes Kenya's forest estate as ranking high as one of the country's most important national assets. It has a protestive aspect in its conservation of climate, water and soil; it is the source of forest produce for all uses by the people of Kenya; and is a revenue earner of high potential.
The basic principles in the Paper are contained under ten main headings - the reservation of land for forest purposes; the protection of the forest estate; relations with timber utilization industries; finance; employment; relations with African local authorities; private forests; public amenities, and research and education.
Recognizing the value of the forest estate, the Government is determined to reserve the existing forests in perpetuity and wherever possible to add to them. Enough timber will be produced to meet requirements under a fully developed national economy and to provide the greatest possible surplus for exports. The need for fuel supplies in African areas wilt be met, as well as the requirements of towns for as long as other fuel supplies are not available at an economical rate.
Explaining this policy, the Paper says that the total area of all forest reserves is at present only 2.91 percent of Kenya's total land area. " The Government regards this as a dangerously low percentage ", it continues, " and its policy is to increase and demarcate the area under forests as far as is practicable, having regard to other land use and to availability of finance ".
Experience over the past 20 years has shown that Kenya can grow exotic tree species, particularly softwoods, at a cost and in a time which should enable the resulting timber to be placed on world markets at competitive prices. The Government intends to develop both types of forest products, to encourage the export industry and, where practicable, to faster timber using processes in Kenya.
All forests will be managed in accordance with specific plans approved by the Minister, and the express approval of the Minister will be needed for any important departure from an approved plan. An inventory of forest resources is to be compiled as soon as possible. Forest management will take into account the use of the timber produced and the special requirements of the industries and markets concerned. The Government intends to hold consultations at all stages between the Forest Department and the timber milling. marketing and exporting industries.
In the financial field the Government will provide adequate funds for the realization of its policy within the limits of available money.
The Government is convinced that the ultimate success of its forest policy depends largely on the practical application of scientific research. Adequate provision must be made for high level scientific research, and for the training of forest staff to apply to results of research to the best advantage. Within the limits of finance. the Government intends to maintain for itself an adequate scientific staff, and to make the fullest use of research institutions within the country and outside it. It also intends to maintain its own training school to provide practical training in forestry at the sub-professional level.
Liberia
· The School of Forestry is an integral part of the University of Liberia. After a certain amount of preparatory work, the School started in February 1956 with a freshman class of eleven students and with a sophomore class of two students who had started their work in the previous year. FAO furnished the teaching staff.
Now in 1957 the School of Forestry runs a freshman class of twenty students and a sophomore class of eleven students. During the next two years this school will continue to be built tip, so that in 1959 it will have all four classes of the ordinary university school of forestry,
A school forest as outdoor laboratory is in preparation. The whole research work of the School of Forestry is also just in the preliminary stages, but there is general agreement that it is a very urgent task to start forest research at the earliest date and on a larger scale, if the School of Forestry is to play its full role.
No other school of forestry exists either in West Africa or in Contra) Africa, which means that this Liberian School of Forestry is the only one to train academic foresters in Africa itself and to handle all the manifold scientific problems of the African rain forest on the spot.
For Liberia itself the necessity for such a School of Forestry is shown by the following facts:
(a) The Republic of Liberia is forested over 80 percent of its surface, but has as yet no sustained forest management of this natural resource.(b) There is a consequent need for the creation of a solid forest administration body of state foresters as well as of those for communal and private forests.
(c) In connection with modern practice of forestry there will be a development of the timber industry in general and of its different branches to a much larger extent than before.
(d) National Parks will be created for recreational purposes, not least for the preservation and observation of wild life.
It is estimated that the country may need 70 to 100 well-trained academic foresters for the forestry program within the next 10 to 12 years.
Malaya
· An official report to FAO says that, in 1955, the Silvicultural Research Committee recommended that the forests of the country which had been regenerated by silvicultural operations, should be sampled to discover the composition of the new crops of different ages in terms of species, girth class distribution, basal area, timber volume and height of dominant trees. A pilot scheme for sampling the 17,000 acres (6,800 hectares) of regenerated forest. in the State of Perak was implemented in the latter half of 1956. The design was a stratified random sample at an intensity of one percent.
Experiments in reforesting land which has been abandoned and degraded by poor agricultural practices or by mining, have been initiated by the ecologist. Both exotic and local species are under trial. Partial cultivation appears a promising means of establishing trees in areas of sheet lalang (Imperata cylindrica). Among the exotic, Pinus insularis and P. caribaea are so far doing well in lalang areas whilst P. merkusii is showing promise on barren areas of spoil from tin mines. Of other exotics, Maesopsis eminii is showing remarkable growth in its early years.
New Zealand
· The progress report submitted to the last session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission indicates that with the steady expansion and continued prosperity of pastoral farming in New Zealand, the pressure of demands for the release of forest land for agricultural use has not abated.
The land-use committees (composed of experts in the fields of agriculture, forestry, soil conservation and land development) appointed to advise the Government on the final disposal of land, the use of which is disputed, have thus been fully occupied, and many large areas will have to wait some years for decisions. However, the trends towards piecemeal release of fertile lands and the acquisition of land needing permanent protection has progressed well, and the Forest Service has now acquired control over a very large proportion of all coastal sand dunce that require fixation.
Establishment of new production-forest resources, both privately and publicly owned, continued steadily between 1954 and 1966. But because of conditions affecting land use described above this has been very largely confined to land already hold as forest land. Acquisition of new areas for production forestry is hindered by the very high cost of land in those regions where a timber shortage makes afforestation particularly desirable. For this reason the Forest Service has encouraged farm forestry as an alternative source of timber supply.
Good progress has been made in the protection of catchment areas; and the predominant role of the Forest Service in this work is now fully recognized- This has enabled the ex tension of Forest Service control over many critical mountain areas throughout New Zealand. Management of these protection forests has also been successfully adapted to serve the recreational needs of the community.
· In 1955, the Tasman pulp and paper project was completed and is producing timber, pulp and newsprint. The New Zealand pulp and paper industry has now completed its first stage in the utilization of the big exotic forests in the North Island and further expansion is already in the planning stage.
Timber production has reached an all-time record. The indigenous softwoods show a slight decrease, but exotic species continue to increase. Prospects for bigger exports of timber to Australia are very promising, though New Zealand must make every effort to improve marketing to meet competition with American and Baltic softwoods.
New Zealand is now by far the world's largest producer per head of population of timber preservatively treated for building purposes. Species of timber available, traditional methods of house construction and developments in preservation techniques are the main reasons for this. The increase in the use of exotic softwoods which are more liable to decay and no less susceptible to insect attack than indigenous timbers, and the difficulty of ensuring through out the life of a building that moisture cannot enter any part, demand the wide use of preservative-treated timber. Much controversy has naturally arisen regarding the effectiveness of various types of treatment and the extent to which treated timber should be used in a building.
In September 1955, the Government, in order to resolve these questions, set up a Timber Preservation Authority. The principal function of the Authority is to secure and maintain a high standard of timber preservation. All treatments carried out must be in accordance with the requirements of the Authority, which has established an inspecting organization under the New Zealand Forest Service. Already the Authority has adjudicated on and approved a number of specific methods which were previously the subject of controversy. Notably the application of boron compounds by diffusion has been accepted for all timbers requiring treatment for light building construction other than those for use on contact with the ground. The regulations under which the Authority functions permit it to prescribe that no preservative-treated timber can be marketed unless the treatment and the marking of the timber agrees with the Authority's requirements. Progress in preservation practice and use of treated timber will now be accelerated.
Treatment of exotic forest thinnings is continuing to fall short of demand, although treatment facilities are steadily being increased. This treatment enables this otherwise low utility produce to be used for farm and engineering requirements where durability in the ground is important.
Pakistan
· The first Pakistan Silvicultural Conference was hold in May at, Abbottabad. Presided over by the Inspector-General of Forests, Mr. Y. S. Ahmad, it was attended by Conservators of Forests from East and West Pakistan, silviculturists, and the officers of the Pakistan Forest College and Research Institute. The proceedings have been issued.
In this connection. an FAO officer reports on desert areas of West Pakistan that there are appreciable parts in Tharparkar, Cholistan, and the Thal where either a substantial stocking of trees still exists or which hold promise of being able to grow trees. Such areas, up to 20 percent of the total area, should be selected for reservation as forests. Areas which carry a substantial stocking of tree species, even though browsed to bush form, should be immediately reserved. A photographic survey has been made for practically the whole of West Pakistan, and the mosaics should be very helpful for selecting the areas for retention as forest, and for choosing the areas for immediate reservation.
There are good indigenous species which grow to a useful size in these difficult conditions. They grow slowly but they would grow better in protected plantations. They should be used until experiments and research find exotic species which will give better and quicker growth. The many species of Eucalyptus offer a fruitful field for study and some experimental work has already started.
Reserved forests would not necessarily be closed to grazing, except where necessary in the interests of the tree growth. Most of them could be managed under a system of dual use, but grazing would need to be closely controlled and goats and camels completely excluded.
· A detailed report to the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission states that during the last five years a number of important forest industries have been established in Pakistan to meet the essential needs of the country. Some of the developments in this direction are outlined below.
Practically all conversion of logs is carried out by hand sawing either in the forest or at the collection points. Only in the large consumption centers, circular and hand saws are used for the production of sawn lumber. As soon as mechanical extraction of timber starts in East Pakistan a big sawmill capable Of ultimately handling 30,000 tons of round logs per year, is expected to be set tip near Chittagong to convert the round logs which will be extracted from Chittagong Hill Tracts. One modern plywood factory, having a production capacity of 30,000 square feet (2,800 square meters) of plywood per day, has recently been set up in Karachi and is producing plywood, block boards, flush doors and other similar products of various grades. No fibreboard or chipboard plants have come into existence so far, although chances for these industries are quite promising in both wings of the country. With the new match factories now set up in Chittagong, Khuma and Karachi, the number of such factories has increased. The Landhi Factory is producing annually 45 lakhs gross boxes while Khulna Factory has a capacity of 9 lakhs gross boxes per annum. The present output is able to supply an appreciable part of the total demand which is estimated at 9.5 million gross boxes per year. Considerable progress has also been made in the manufacture of paper and cardboard. A big paper mill for the production of 30,000 tons of paper per year from muli bamboo available in Chittagong Hill Tracts has been installed at Chanderaghona. Two factories producing high-grade boards and various qualities of paper are nearing completion at Nowshera and Rahwali. These mills will utilize grasses and rice straw for this purpose and each will have an annual output of 7,500 tons. A project for the manufacture of 30,000 tons of newsprint paper per year at Khulna from gewa wood available in the Sunderbans is also under active consideration at present.
Out of the old industries existing in this country, mention may be made of the manufacture of sports goods at Sialkot. The main raw material for the sports goods industry is mulberry wood grown in the irrigated plantations of the Punjab forests. The major proportion of the goods produced in Sialkot are exported to meet established foreign demand for these articles.
No regular manufacture of doors, windows or other materials needed for house building is carried out in this country. These are all made manually by the local carpenters engaged for this purpose. A practically similar situation holds good in respect of furniture which is being manufactured in large cities on a small scale. There is no modern furniture plant for the large scale production of utility articles. With the installation of a big sawmill at Chittagong, a fabrication plant for the manufacture of furniture is also expected to be added to the integrated forest industries unit that is proposed to be set up in East Pakistan.
Paraguay
· An FAO technical assistance officer with the assistance of local forest engineers, has been studying natural regeneration in the Paraguayan forests, both in virgin and cut-over lands. The areas described are: 1. the central area, east of the Paraguay river, and the most populous zone of the country; 2. the area of Concepción still east, of the same river, but further north; 3. area of the Alto Parana River; 4. area of the Chaco with predominance of Schinopsis balansae. He also mentions the extension of this area, going west towards the Bolivian boundary, where the predominant species of potential value is Schinopsis lorentzii, which also occurs abundantly in Bolivia even though it is not under exploitation; it is intensively used on the Argentine section of the same phyto-geographical area.
The exploitation of all these areas is purely selective with no regard to silvicultural conditions, which has of course an important bearing on the regeneration possibilities of the main species. He lists over 32 different species of which, nevertheless, only five are of immediate and present commercial value. Some of the other species are used sometimes locally for fuelwood and fence posts.
The composition of the forests of the three regions east of the Paraguay river is basically the same with respect to the important five species, locally known as " especies de ley ". Variations in occurrence are. more remarkable for the secondary species. The terrain elevation rises from west to east, from 200-300 to 1,000 meters; and in the same way the rainfall increases from 1,000 to 1,800 millimeters. The average temperature is about 23°C, of a continental type of climate, with periods of drought in winter, and a difference of over 11°C between the extreme average temperatures for the coolest and hottest months.
The study shows that none of the important species reproduce adequately in virgin forests, but it is also evident that they do not do better in cut-over areas mainly because of the selective cutting. Such cutting, in certain cases, leaves no seed trees, and in others does not leave enough clear openings for tight demanding species. Cedrela tubiflora (C. fissilis var. macrocarpa) regenerates well along the roads and in cut-over areas but is very severely attacked by Hypsipyla grandella. This attack is more frequent in the Alto Parana area; a 100 percent attack was found in small plantations.
In the Chaco area, especially in connection with the quebracho, it was found that three different systems of extraction were carried out. The most suitable form of cutting permits regeneration by leaving enough trees over 30 centimeters, but this is basically a contractual matter between the mill and the loggers.
A forest nursery, for the production and use in reforestation of natural and exotic species, is being organized near Asunción by the Departamento Forestal of the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, with the help of American bilateral aid, and is expected to be in operation by the end of the current year or beginning of 1958. The FAO officer is supervising and helping in the preparation of a tree planting manual which will he used as part of the background material for Tree Planting Practices for Latin America, which will complete the series of similar FAO Forestry Development Papers prepared for other regions.
Philippines
· The Director of Forestry reported to the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission on the reorganization of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources which has been passed by the Congress of the Philippines. Under the reorganization plan, a Commission on Parks and Wild Life is created to be attached to the Bureau of Forestry for purposes of policy and programming co-ordination. The College of Forestry is entirely placed under the University of the Philippines and the Forest Products Laboratory, a functional division of the Bureau of Forestry, is re-named Forest Products Research Institute. This is to be an autonomous unit, but attached to the University of the Philippines for purposes of administrative supervision. The plan provides for the position of an Assistant Director of Forestry. The plan also regroups activities and functions for the more efficient discharge of the Bureau's responsibilities.
Two laws have been approved:
1. An Act requiring the registration of agents, contractors, and dealers in logs, lumber and commercial piles.2. An Act to amend certain sections of the Pasture Land Act, by restricting persons leasing or using public land for pasture to graze one head of large cattle belonging to the lessee for every five hectares, and providing additional penalty for the violation of the Act.
The policies governing land classification as undertaken by the Bureau of Forestry are embodied in the Revised Guiding Principles for Land Classification.
Portugal
· In the history of the cultivation of cork-oak in Portugal, 22 December 1956 was a noteworthy date. It marked the first of the practical achievements of the Commission for the Development of Cork-Oak Growing in gaining additional land on which to extend the raising of cork-oaks throughout Portugal. Simultaneously at Alentejo and Trásos-Montes, the first planting of acorns to form the future cork-oak groves was carried out by the Under-Secretaries of State for Agriculture and for Commerce and Industry. Since then, 160 tons of seed, carefully selected, have been distributed during the course of this year's campaign.
These efforts, widely supported in the press, have been made possible through a close co-operation between the National Cork Junta and the Forest Department, with the support of growers. They clearly show that the need and significance of rehabilitating cork-oak cultivation have been apprehended and approved as a move towards the forest development of the country.
The action of official bodies was for a long time limited to the laying down of regulations for the cork-oak industry. Only in the last ten years, since 1946, has progress been made in providing training and demonstration courses, and extension services to owners of cork-oak groves. It has been recognized that this alone was not enough. It was necessary to find answers to the many problems associated with the management and proper exploitation of the cork-oak woodlands and, in particular, to secure the restocking of suitable areas with this species where it had long disappeared and elsewhere to restore a better density of stocking so as to make the whole business of growing cork-oak more economic, prevent soil deterioration, and permit the full utilization of available land resources.
Due credit must he given to the efforts made by many private owners over the last 15 or 20 years: many formerly cleared areas have been gradually restocked, either by planting or through protection of the natural regeneration. Young thriving stock is to be found in profusion in scattered areas. But the task on the national scale is still so immense and difficult that these isolated efforts are insufficient by themselves. It is necessary, indeed essential, to co-ordinate all the separate efforts and willingness to help into a national program for the protection and development of cork-oak growing. A campaign for the expansion of cork-oak growing has long been advocated by the Permanent Working Party on Cork of the FAO Mediterranean Subcommission. In the Mediterranean region, it should be possible to recover for cork-oak growing some millions of hectares of degraded or deforested land, and introduce better cultivation techniques in place of the often primitive and devastating current practices combined with farming and grazing.
A Commission for the Development of Cork-oak Growing was set up in Portugal in September 1955 for the, purpose of implementing the measures deemed necessary for the development of the cork-oak resources of the country. Subsidies provided to the various services of the Junta Nacional de Cortica have made it possible to start work on a wide spread scale this year.
Sarawak
· The broad assessment of forest resources, with the more detailed inventory and stock-mapping of permanent forests, is still one of the major tasks of the Forest Department. The examination of the peat-swamp forests and mangrove swamps, which cover a total area of more than 5,000 square miles (13,000 square kilometers), is now almost complete. Inventories of permanent forests, usually combined with detailed stock-mapping, covered 2,150 square miles (5,600 square kilometers) at the end of 1956, as compared with 1,276 square miles (3,300 square kilometers) at the end of 1953.
Land-planning in general is largely in the hands of the Natural Resources Board, which was considerably enlarged in 1955 to include more unofficial members. The Conservator of Forests is an ex officio member of the Board. One of the principal functions of the Board is to study and make recommendations on all proposals concerning the constitution or revocation of Permanent Forests.
The demand for more agricultural land is becoming very pressing, particularly on the part of Sea Dayaks whose bush-fallow rice lands are becoming exhausted. The Sarawak Government has recently set up an Internal Migration Committee to study the whole problem and to organize resettlement where it is necessary. It is hoped that such resettlement may be effected under conditions that will lessen the evils of shifting cultivation. The present Conservator of Forests is chairman of this committee.
To facilitate the work of the Internal Migration Committee, the Department of Lands and Surveys. assisted by the Forest Department, is preparing a land use map which, it is hoped, will be completed early in 1957. The map shows not only present land use, but also attempts to show potential land use. With this objective, the principal natural vegetation types are shown on the map, as a broad guide to soil types.
Under the FAO technical assistance program, a soils expert was attached to the Forest Department during 1955 and 1956, to study the very poor sands (usually podsolised) known as kerangas in Sarawak. These soils cover many hundred square miles. It is hoped that the study may provide a practical guide to their future use.
The constitution of a permanent forest estate, however, is still a major task of the Forest Department. At the end of 1954, the total area of this estate was 9,592 square miles (25,000 square kilometers), or 20.4 percent of the total land area. During the period 1955-56 it has been increased to 10,560 square miles (28,500 square kilometers), or 22.4 percent of the total land area.
At the end of 1954, the total area of permanent forest managed under systematic working plans was 638 square miles (1,660 square kilometers). By the end of 1956, this had been increased to 923 square miles (2,400 square kilometers). In addition, the exploitation of a considerable number of swamp forests, that are not included in the Permanent Forest Estate but that are not likely to be alienated within the foreseeable future, is controlled by simple felling plans, providing for fixed annual coupes and a girth-limit for the felling of the more valuable species.
Singapore
· With the exception of some very small reserved areas of Crown forest and city catchment areas, which still contain some of the original flora, the original forest on Singapore Island has been destroyed and only small patches of nonproductive secondary forest remain. The small forest areas that have survived are managed by a Board of Management under the Nature Reserves Ordinance, 1951, and not by the Forest Office, whose main functions are:
(a) the grading and supervision of grading of timber under the Malayan Grading Rules for both local and overseas markets,(b) advising generally on the grading and utilization of Malayan timbers both in Singapore and overseas.
An official report to FAO states that processing for local consumption and for export of timber, plywood, rotans, damar and gums from raw materials imported from the mainland and surrounding territories, is a major local industry. The most important of these processing industries is the production of sawn timber and of plywood. Twenty major saw mills, one large modern plywood factory, and several small mills, and re sawing and woodworking plants are in production. All the sawmills are owned by Chinese and are operated exclusively with Chinese labor, the output of the largest being about
60 tons of sawn timber per day and that of the smallest less than 5 tons per day.
The main sources of supply of logs for the sawmills in Singapore are the Federation of Malaya, particularly Johore, and the neighboring islands of Indonesia, particularly Sumatra. Though total imports increase, supplies are still often not adequate to enable all mills to work at full capacity.
Imports also include sawn timber which is either in transit for export overseas or intended for consumption in Singapore. The following Table shows the total imports of sawn timber:
IMPORTS OF SAWN TIMBER (EXCLUDING TEAK) FROM ALL SOURCES
(in tons of 50 cubic feet)
|
Region |
1953 |
1954 |
1 1955 |
|
Indonesia |
2,478 |
2,543 |
4,247 |
|
Elsewhere |
29 |
160 |
110 |
|
TOTAL, OVERSEAS |
2,507 |
2,703 |
4,357 |
|
Federation of Malaya |
36,529 |
81,683 |
48,217 |
|
GRAND TOTAL |
39,036 |
34,386 |
62,574 |
Teak does not grow naturally in Malays and as there is a considerable demand for it, particularly in the furniture trade, substantial quantities are imported, mostly from Bangkok. The amounts imported for the last three years are as follows:
|
Year |
Quantity |
Value |
|
(tons of 50 cubic feet) |
(straits $1) |
|
|
1953 |
8,272 |
4,676,673 |
|
1954 |
6,081 |
3,171,775 |
|
1955 |
7,196 |
3,545,636 |
1 3.03 Straits dollars = 1.00 U.S. dollars.
Spain
· A report to the European Forestry Commission says that the resin industry, comprising 82 factories engaged in distilling resin to obtain by-products, is of considerable importance to the Spanish economy. The resin factories employ seasonally from 12,000 to 14,000 workers for nine months of the year; the resin production season lasts for that period.
The annual output is about 43,000 metric tons of resin; in recent years there has been no noticeable fluctuation in these figures. The production of turpentine has been rather steady. There have been periods of shortage of colophony, due largely to increased home demand and demand from abroad from countries who traditionally buy Spanish colophony and turpentine. Sideline industries using colophony as their raw material are the 190 factories producing synthetic (resin) soap, four factories making metallic resinates, and the paint and varnish factories.
Switzerland
· The possibly harmful effects of insecticides and fungicides on forest trees, used in agriculture to combat insects, has been the subject of research in Switzerland for some time.
Concern had been voiced over a number of years by ornithologists, beekeepers and nature protection circles as well as foresters over the destruction of insects by chemicals. They have pointed out the harmful after-effects of such control measures on useful animals and birds and how they upset the natural biological equilibrium. The effects on forest trees may be of two kinds. First, the jeopardizing of the fruiting because of the killing off of the seeds; second, preparations with a Hexa base can have direct effects upon tree growth and quality of the timber.
Special working parties have carried out research over a period of ten years into the harmful effects of these chemical products. Experiments have not lead to conclusive results, but have rather proved negative as regards the effects upon forest trees. It is noteworthy, however, that up until now, neither insecticides nor fungicides have been used in Switzerland to combat forest tree diseases or parasites.
· Switzerland's board industry, which produces boards of all kinds, has expanded greatly and improved its production in recent years. Processed boards are being increasingly used in the building and furniture-making industry. The board industry makes possible a practically complete utilization of saw logs. The demand of the industry for sawmill waste, other than sawdust, has increased to such an extent that there is already a shortage, despite the fact that the wood saccharification factory had to stop operations in the middle of 1956 as a consequence of a negative public vote in the Federation.
As a means to absorb the sawdust no longer used by the factory, research is tinder way to make saccharification cheaper either by the Scholler or Rheinau process for the derivation of products from sawdust more valuable than alcohol, which does not pay. The making of sawdust bricks fuel has proved profitable tinder certain working conditions because of the high prevailing prices paid for solid fuels. In the meantime, small quantities of sawdust are still used as a base for linoleum, wall boards, in brick factories and by butchers.
The Swiss paper and cellulose industry is continuing to use mainly softwoods, rather than hardwoods or residues, although the interest of manufacturers in the latter two is growing. With improved sorting and grading it should be possible to place larger quantities of softwood on the market - about 300,000 cubic meters. The conversion of small size timber does not figure very largely, although projects are under study for the erection of a sulphate process factory. At present cellulose is being produced in Switzerland only by the bisulphite process.
Taiwan
· A Forestry Program for Taiwan issued by the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction quotes an example of a China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plantation yielding N.T.$10,000 per hectare (U.S. $160 per acre) from a light thinning 5 years after planting, the cost of which. did not exceed N.T.$2,000. This return is comparable in value to agricultural crops. It will continue annually and will increase rapidly with age. It requires less expenditure of money and labor and is better land management on marginal soil types. Cunninghamia lanceolata is an exotic species introduced from the mainland about 100 years ago. A local species (Cunninghamia konishii) appearing in certain localities grows even faster.
Another exotic that finds itself at home in the environment of Taiwan is the Luchu pine, introduced from Okinawa about 50 years ago. According to the Taiwan Forest Research Institute, Luchu pines " have grown to 0.5-0.8 motors in breast-height diameter in 25 - 30 years... moreover sometimes there are 45-year-old standing crops whose volume per hectare amounts to 850 cubic meters ". According to Forest Resources of Taiwan, the forest survey also recently issued by the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, " One 30-year-old plantation has trees 30 inches d. b. h. and with good height and form ". Similar volumes are recorded for Cryptomeria of the same age. There are few places in the world where natural conditions combine to make forestry so productive.
Results of the same order can be cited from plantings of Acacia, Cassia, Melia, teak, Casuarina, slash pine, and other species, both native and introduced. A few of these are shown in the accompanying Table.
TAIWAN: COMPARISON BETWEEN' AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST CROP RETURNS
|
Agricultural crops on agricultural lands |
Forest crops on forest lands (plantations) | |||||
|
Crop |
Totala annual income (N.T.$/ha.) |
Species |
Harvest cutting (years) |
Commercial volume (m3) harvestedb |
Unit price (N.T.$/m3) |
Averagea annual income (N.T. $/ha.) |
|
Rice |
12864 |
Cunninghamia |
20 |
200 |
1800 |
18000 |
|
Sweet potato |
11505 |
Cryptomeria |
25 |
240 |
1800 |
17240 |
|
Pineapple |
9324 |
Pine |
20 |
200 |
936 |
9360 |
|
Jute |
8787 |
Camphor |
30 |
300 |
900 |
9000 |
|
Peanut |
6230 |
Acacia |
15 |
150 |
702 |
7920 |
|
Sugar cane |
5085 |
Teak |
25 |
180 |
1050 |
7560 |
|
Cassava |
3 998 |
Cassia |
15 |
120 |
540 |
4320 |
a) All values Include harvest costs, which for forest products average from 20-40 percent.
b) Commercial volumes harvested are average net log volumes on medium sites. The following explanatory notes accompany the Table:1. The extremely high Incomes from forest crops are due to the present abnormally high prices of forest products. No doubt, as the recently established plantations, and those which are planned for the near future, begin to produce commercial products, the prices of wood products will gradually go down. Still, it Is doubtful that they will ever go down to the point where forest lands will yield less than agricultural lands.
2. The forest products, however, are grown on mountain lands with comparatively poor soils, and unsuitable In general for agriculture. If they am not yielding forest products, they would therefore yield nothing and would constitute a hazard to agricultural production In the form of erosion, water shortages, etc.
3. Forest yields result from but one planting followed by two years of tending after which nature does the rest until harvest time.
Thailand
· All teak concessions issued to foreign companies expired at the end of May 1955, and the Council. of Ministers divided all teak forests in Thailand into three approximately equal each to be worked by one of the following agencies:
1. a government enterprise under the name of Forest Industry Organization (FIO) which has worked both teak and other hardwoods since 1947;2. a joint concern in which the Government and the five foreign companies who had held previous leases participate;
3. changvad forestry companies formed, one in each province or changvad, with the major object of working the forests in their respective provinces. both teak and other forests which are not assigned to the Forest Industry Organization or to the joint concern.
As regards changvad, forestry companies, any local inhabitants of the province can participate in the local company, but the Government holds majority shares for the purpose of guidance and control. The underlying policy of this project is to allocate forest resources of each province to the benefit of the local inhabitants and to instill forest consciousness among the general public, so that, it is hoped, indiscriminate exploitation or destruction of forests may he lessened or totally stopped.
The practice of shifting cultivation by nomadic hill tribes in watershed areas is a constant drawback with regards to soil utilization and conservation. An attempt has been made to afforest the cleared areas with the object of stopping soil erosion and deterioration, but the appropriated budget for this project is always scanty, so only about 700 hectares of denuded land could be afforested in 1955 and 1956. Extension and demonstration services were also carried on at four already established watershed protection centers in the principal catchment areas, by introducing suitable perennial crops such as tea, coffee, tung-oil, fruit trees etc., for experiments in devastated areas with the ultimate aim of persuading nomadic bill tribes to settle permanently on the land. Satisfactory results have been achieved in this respect..
United States of America
· In 1949, as it became evident that the virtually untouched forests of southeastern Alaska were to be invaded by great pulp operations, the Alaska Forest Research Center of the U.S. Forest Service undertook a comprehensive and continuing study of the physical effect of logging on the salmon streams. Until that time the vast commercial catch of salmon, which averages 55 percent of that for the entire world, had been the dominant industry of the area. The project, in the planning of which experts in other official services were con suited, had two major parts, one a collection of quantitative information on type and effect of the physical change taking place in streams prior to logging, and, second, quantitative changes following logging.
Four streams were selected for continuing study; two of the watersheds would be logged. Continuing measurements of factors such as climate, streamflow, storms and associated runoff, base flow, water temperature, stream channel change, sedimentation and ground water levels have been under way. The project is planned and conducted primarily as a timber management undertaking, and aims to determine and define the physical changes which may result from timber utilization. A co-operative study is, however, under way by trained aquatic biologists and this will relate physical changes in the streams to the salmon which includes five major species. The prelogging calibration period is completed and logging has begun on one of the two watersheds to he cut.
This intelligently planned project should make it possible to identify any seriously adverse effects of timber utilization in time so that necessary modifications may be considered before whole streams are rendered useless for the fish.
· The U.S. Forest Service has made a comprehensive study of the recreational problems, and the development and maintenance programs required to make National Forest recreation a full-scale segment of the use of these areas.
The first real attempt to provide simple recreational facilities - namely public camping grounds - was made during the emergency period of the early 1930's, and since that time the recreational use of the forests has quadrupled and it has been impossible because of scanty funds appropriated for the purpose even to maintain the areas then developed, to say nothing of adding to them. Thus there has accrued a major task of rehabilitation of old areas, as well as selecting, planning and establishing new ones; an additional job that is only partly settled is the prosaic but necessary task of collecting and disposing of refuse and maintaining sanitation facilities.
The study fits the recreational program into other programs for timber, range, watershed and other major values, and caters only to true forest type activities such as camping, swimming, hunting, fishing and the like. It is contemplated that special services and facilities such as large shelters for automobile trailers, electric lighting and so on will not be provided at public expense but will be provided by private enterprise if at all. Similarly, public service facilities such as automobile service stations and restaurants will not be constructed or operated, but left to private industry.
It is predicted that by 1962 the recreational use of the National Forests will increase from the 45.7 million visits which were recorded in 1955 to 66 million. The total cost of the program required to catch up and keep shead is estimated at $11.5 million in 1958, increasing to $19.5 million in 1960, after which it should remain relatively constant.
Venezuela
· Over an area of 30 million or more acres covered by deciduous forests, a serious fire problem exists. Fire is used as a tool in agriculture for clearing land, and carelessness with these fires has resulted in thousands of denuded acres. The livestock industry also traditionally uses fire as a means of removing old grass from the range in order to get fresh palatable forage. These fires run wild and continuous burning has resulted in a downward trend of desirable fodder species and an increase in the brush type more resistant to fire.
During the 1955/56 fire season, 700 fires were reported, and it is estimated that an equal number or more were not reported. A very good fire legislation exists and the Departamento de Prevención y Extensión de Incendios in the Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria has been entrusted with its application. The National Guard co-operates in fire control and also public bodies formed by agriculturists and livestock breeders, amounting to 33,000 members. There are all the elements, therefore, to create an efficient fire control.
For the purpose of organizing this control, FAO has furnished the services of a specialist from the United States. Several of his recommendations are now being implemented: decentralization of the fire control organization, modification of the fire reporting system, purchase of fire fighting tools, and a publicity campaign for fire prevention through conferences, radio and television. The presuppression program has been limited because of insufficient funds but many fire lines have been constructed, in particular around reforested areas; the construction of more lookout stations has been approved; and personnel are receiving appropriate training. As to suppression, this is a more complex problem and will take longer to solve.
A range management specialist is needed to demonstrate new practices that would eliminate traditional techniques of burning.
The Timber Pavilion designed for the Brussels World Fair, 1958.
