(Henning Steinfeld, FAO, Rome)
6. Among the major regions of the world, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is uniquely positioned for livestock production. Low population densities combined with vast productive pasture areas, the absence of major diseases and a fairly well developed infrastructure in most countries provide opportunities for low-cost production. At the same time, comparatively high incomes, a high urbanization rate and the absence of major dietary taboos are creating a favourable demand situation.
7. Despite these favourable conditions, the development of the livestock sector has been slow over the past decades. Only in the last ten years, has there been a marked growth, mainly in poultry production. Livestock production is also associated with a series of problems related to natural resource use.
8. In resource-poor areas, such as arid and semi-arid areas and the highland zones, pastoral and mixed crop-livestock production are also constrained by poor market access. As a result, the natural resource base, in particular grazing land, tends to be overused and is often degraded, in turn resulting in low animal and farm productivity, and finally, poverty. Policy options to address this negative livestock-environment interaction target at developing market access and alternative sources of income, as well as institutional development and price incentives.
9. In resource-rich areas, such as the less densely populated humid and sub-humid tropics, extensive livestock production expands horizontally into new areas, in particular forest land. Policy options to address livestock-associated deforestation include the protection of valuable areas, institutional development to regulate access to resources, selective infrastructure development, and the facilitation of technology transfer to raise productivity levels from land already used for livestock.
10. The vast areas with comparatively good market access of the Southern Cone, for example, have traditionally generated large surpluses of meat for export. "Environment" has become part of trade negotiations and the application of differential standards of animal production (including processing) has given rise to trade disputes. Bilateral and multilateral negotiations attempt to find a response and standardization of norms through, for example, regulations, market incentives and training.
11. Urban demand has pulled livestock production closer and closer to urban centres. The concentration of animal production, slaughtering and processing results in large waste loads, and other major problems such as diseases. This problem can be addressed by policies favouring a more even geographic distribution through proper pricing, infrastructure and institutional development, waste control and regulations.
12. Policies that address these issues need to be designed with a view of the composite picture of animal production, taking into account multiple objectives, in addition to natural resource preservation. They need to be placed in the context of particular eco-regional settings and policy trade-off needs to be identified for recommendations to be practical.
(C. de Haan, The World Bank, Washington)
13. With strongly growing demand for animal products in the developing world, livestock production will generate increased pressure on the global natural resource base of land, water, air and bio-diversity. Growing intensification and industrialization of animal production might, if left unchecked, seriously impair the capacity of future generations to produce the quality and type of food they desire.
14. The recently completed multi-donor Study on Livestock and the Environment describes a wide variety of technologies to enhance the positive and mitigate the negative effects of animal production and processing. Key requirements to implement successfully those technologies and examples of their application are:
15. The next phase of the Livestock-Environment Initiative will seek to bring these components together by providing decision support "to protect and enhance natural resources as affected by livestock production and processing while alleviating poverty". More specifically, the next phase would seek to: (a) create a "Virtual Centre for Livestock and the Environment" to assist in capacity building, facilitate communication between the different disciplines and stakeholders involved in this area and act as an overarching framework for other components of the Initiative; (b) continue to disseminate the results of the multi-donor studies, also in other languages; (c) fill gaps in the understanding of Livestock and Environment interactions, by carrying out additional studies, in particular on the use of fossil fuel in livestock production and the social effects of intensification, and test novel ideas as emerged from the first phase study; (d) provide policymakers at national and regional level with practical methodologies (a "toolbox") for analysis and decision making on appropriate policies, institutions and technologies for better management of Livestock and Environment interactions; and (e) provide training and technical assistance to mainstream Livestock and Environment concepts in government and donor polices and projects. This second phase could provide an impetus for a paradigm shift under animal production specialists and for an improved dialogue between livestock specialists and environmentalists.
(Hugo Li Pun, ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Carlos Leon Velarde, CONDESAN/CIP-ILRI, Lima, Peru)
16. The Andean eco-region covers a mountainous area around two million km2. Its population is estimated at more than 125 million, most of who depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Most farming systems in the high Andes are mixed crop-livestock. Livestock plays a key role in the sustainability of these farming systems, as it is less susceptible to widespread climatic risks than crops. Livestock take on important roles: food supply, feed bank, work, source of energy in the system, source of fertilizer, and link to local markets. Livestock production is intrinsically associated with environmental quality. Crop-rangeland production is directly associated with soil erosion and affects the supply and quality of the water used downstream. However, soil cover by grasses reduces soil erosion compared with crops alone.
17. Rangelands constitute the main feed resource for ruminant-based mixed systems. Grazing of native pasture is complemented with crop residues/stovers and introduced improved feed resources. Although National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and universities have a history of research on feed resources, most investigations have been conducted at specific sites (research stations, peasant communities, and farming systems). The impact of research has been limited and localized, due to the heterogeneity of the region in factors such as altitude, climate, soils, quality and quantity of feed resources, and ethnic background. Likewise, a lack of methodology in producing technological alternatives to solve the different problems encountered in the region, and inappropriate incorporation of socio-economic aspects into the technology development and transfer process. By taking these constraints into account in the initial design of research-development programme, there is considerable potential for increasing crop-livestock productivity and household income through an integrated research-development approach.
18. Meeting this challenge requires a holistic approach with participation by a consortium of institutions, because the eco-region includes several countries and eco-systems. A horizontal characterization of agro-ecosystems (across the region) rather than a localized analysis is necessary. The consortium approach includes the integration of different institutions from both government and the private sector, complemented with field research and the development and application of innovative methods such as simulation modeling for integrating research results, as well as the use of remote sensing data and geographic information systems to identify areas with similar ecologies across the eco-region and thus allow extrapolation of research findings.
19. A significant body of knowledge on the characteristics of feed resources in the high Andes already exists. Most research results in this area have been compiled and appropriate research methodologies were described. Even though the level of biomass production for most vegetative associations has been described, there is a lack of knowledge on the dynamics of forage resources, especially under grazing conditions in mixed and intensive systems. Therefore, an appropriate assessment of vegetation condition - particularly important to the assessment of overgrazing - is required.
20. Because of the high altitude, specialized, so-called "improved" breeds of most domesticated ruminants are relatively well adapted. However, pure breeds are demanding more nutrients requirements; consequently, a translation of knowledge on feed resources production and quality into feed requirements of the herds is needed. Farmers rely upon indigenous species and breeds as well as their crosses with introduced genotypes. A dynamic characterization of indigenous and adapted animals is neither available nor is an adequate understanding of their nutrient requirements, although research findings show that existing nutrient requirement tables do not apply well to these conditions and animals.
21. Complex farming systems - such as the ones in the high Andes - can be studied by modeling simulating scenarios that can help policymakers. Hence, several livestock and economic models have been developed and successfully validated for specific ecological conditions of the Andean eco-region. Nevertheless, the existing models require validation and adaptation in different ecological conditions. The models developed are sheep, alpaca, beef/dairy, dairy, alpaca genetics, risk and hillsides. Integration of these models with erosion - productivity model, Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC), has been used to evaluate different production scenarios and environmental impact. In order to expand the use of these analytical tools in research, extension, and teaching applications by NARS, they must be adapted to different ecological conditions and professionals must be trained in their use.
22. Adapted models may be used to orient research and analyze ex ante technological alternatives with market opportunities prior to introduction in actual farming systems, thus decreasing research expenditures and promoting high rates of adoption of the alternatives. Socio-economic constraints have seldom been included in the analysis of Andean farming systems. A holistic analysis includes these constraints at both the micro and macro levels including production and market risks.
23. Debate is ongoing on the interaction between livestock production and changes in environmental parameters. There is evidence for both negative as well as positive effects of livestock production on environmental quality. Because livestock is an essential component of the farming systems of resource-poor farmers environmentally friendly livestock production technology is needed. In the high Andes, an adequate management of feed resources is needed; thus increasing long-term farm productivity and downstream water quality will require decreased soil erosion. To assess better the impact of livestock production on environmental quality, with appropriate consideration for long-term scenarios, more refined tools such as specific studies and simulation models must be developed and validated as well as policy research must be considered.
24. Collecting and analyzing data and integrating results into farming systems models will not solve all livestock production constraints in the high Andes. Research findings must result in technological alternatives that will minimize the effect of production constraints without negatively affecting the environment. Activities carried out are oriented towards contributing to improved livestock productivity on market-oriented small mixed farms in the high Andes. However the integration of research results within policy issues are needed. Likewise, information products such as bulletins, reports, computerized and geo-referenced database and models will contribute to enhance knowledge and human resources. Present experiences indicate that sharing research findings across the region and among institutions (research, extension, and teaching) is a main benefit of collaborative research; however, sharing research findings with policymakers in the eco-region is required.
(Victor M. Mares Martins, GEA Consultores, Panama)
25. Livestock contributes to sustainable natural resources management. Where fertilizer is not available or is expensive, livestock provides manure and nutrients to maintain soil fertility. Improved pastures control soil erosion, maintain water cycling, sequester carbon, fix atmospheric nitrogen, and improve soil biological activity.
26. Environmental degradation occurs when poverty, low education, financial insecurity, high risks, distorted markets, poor infrastructure, wrong land titling requirements and wrong policies force smallholders to use damaging agricultural practices. Thus, the cause of degradation is the failure of the institutional framework. Smallholders are marginal both economically and culturally and they are generally located in areas of low productivity and high degradability such as hillsides and forest margins, devoid of infrastructure, markets, and services. Population growth drives a continuous fragmentation of farms, impeding the raising of large animals in the available area. Mixed farming in Andean countries might be following an involution trend, defined as the breaking up of interactions between livestock, vegetation and soil, rather than moving towards intensification, higher investment, higher productivity and sustainability. Involution causes environmental costs and aggravates rural poverty and occurs when the socio-economic, demographic or biophysical context changes.
27. Minifundia is increasing in the Andean eco-region, as there is no significant open agricultural frontier. Hereditary subdivision of small farms is a major cause of increasing minifundia. However, population growth rates are declining. In Peru growth was 2.4 percent in the 1980-85 period, decreased to 1.7 percent between 1990-95 and is expected to further reduce to 1 percent during the next decade. There have been large migrations to urban centres, which currently account for about 75 percent of the population in Latin America. Rural population reached its peak in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador by 1990 and is declining, and the rate of migration to urban centres is about 2 percent. If rural population is declining, there could be a reduction of minifundia proliferation and a reduced risk of breakdown of crop/livestock integration. This assumption will hold, unless farm sizes continue to decrease for reasons other than population increases or involution respond to factors other than farm size.
28. Whether livestock systems will achieve a balance between production, resource conservation, and the satisfaction of human needs, will depend on factors influenced by society and policymakers. In the past, macroeconomic conditions were negative for smallholding agriculture. Imports of subsidized food, price controls, ineffective land reform, rural development programmes that failed to have continuity based on the empowerment of grassroot organizations, and lack of coherence between macro and sectorial policies, created an unfavourable context for smallholder agriculture. Control of inflation and structural adjustment has improved the situation but the terms of internal and international trade continue to be unfavourable for the agricultural sector. Current macroeconomic policies and a free market may enhance the response to a growing demand for animal products but it is not clear how this will lead to intensive and environmentally balanced production systems. The downsizing of government services and privatization of research and extension will negatively affect smallholders if policy measures are not taken to attend to their needs. Macroeconomic policies do nothing to reduce the market, climatic and property uncertainties faced by smallholders. Also, there are no significant efforts to improve human, physical and institutional capital through education and infrastructure. The role of government should not simply be reduced but should focus on norms and regulations regarding the access and sustainable use of natural resources and investment in human capital. International agencies and governments should ensure that structural adjustments do not negatively affect the capacity of public administrations to provide services, as long standing problems such as absence of rural financial services, education, infrastructure, market information and property rights have not been solved. Smallholders are more vulnerable than ever and this situation could lead to an accelerated rate of natural resources degradation as the balance between crops and livestock might be reaching a breaking point as farm units are becoming smaller, level of investment in inputs is very low and technology adoption is not encouraged by the institutional and economic context. Furthermore, lack of farmers' participation in local resource management precludes new technologies to prevent degradation of natural resources.
29. Erosion is proceeding at a rate above the soil regeneration threshold value and productivity is maintained at the expense of soil capital. Thus, mixed systems are facing the risk of collapsing when erosion reaches the point of depletion of soil capital as happens in the humid foothills and forest margins after a few years under annual monocropping or pasture degradation. The process is less evident in tropical highlands because soil fertility losses and erosion proceed at a slower pace, particularly in areas of low rainfall.
30. Research, development and extension services have attempted to improve natural resources management, particularly soil management, through conservation technologies. The problem is that technologies are not neutral to the socio-economic and cultural context and their adoption by farmers has been minimal. Smallholders respond to the economic rationale of technology, not to its ecological rationale. Thus, technologies should be complemented by policies that promote financial incentives for good natural resource stewardship. However, frequently the environment is not on the agenda of policymakers. Recently, the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics concluded that concerns for land use sustainability are of secondary importance among political decisionmakers in Latin America. Feeding a growing population, debt payments by export of natural products, filling territorial voids for national "security" reasons, relieving pressures on more settled lands, are higher priority concerns of social and economic planners. Also, policy formulation is frequently based on a narrow perception of production systems, which tend to prioritize technology determinants. Human capital, institutional framework, social services and public infrastructure are extremely weak in Andean countries. A concerted effort by international organizations and national governments to improve all capital endowments in order to achieve sustainable development is required. It has to be based on the empowerment of rural communities through education and access to services, the promotion of equitable terms of trade and compensation for better natural resource management.
(Libardo Rivas, CIAT, Cali)
31. Changes in land use in Latin America resulted in significant losses of tropical humid forest; 77 million hectares disappeared during the 1980-90 period. Despite the existing forest reserve - 960 millions hectares in 1990 - there is concern about deforestation and their social and environmental costs.
32. The expansion of the agricultural frontier and changes in land use associated with deforestation are priority issues when designing policies to foster sustainable development and equity.
33. Deforestation is important because of its global environmental and climatic implications, the costs involved and the personal and social benefits associated with the slash and burn agriculture. The issue is controversial and many judgements concerning values intervene in these discussions, making it difficult to reach agreements.
34. There is no simple cause of deforestation. Many agree on what the direct agents of deforestation are, but not as to its primary causes. The quality and quantity of information, differences in methodologies, and the spatial and temporal location of the studies make it difficult to identify structural causes and the extrapolation of results.
35. Nevertheless, consensus exists concerning the complex causes of deforestation: demographic pressure, income level and distribution, accessibility of frontier areas, costs and risks involved in opening forest areas.
36. Projections on deforestation indicate that it should decline over the next years, but it will continue to be higher in tropical Latin America than other developing regions. This shows the need to implement actions that invert these tendencies. But to do so, a better understanding of causes and consequences of deforestation is required.
37. A large proportion of the areas opened to agriculture in the humid tropics is destined to pastures, after a phase of pioneer crops. The relationship between livestock and deforestation should be studied within the general framework of the overall economy and the agricultural sector. The expansion of commercial crops into traditional production areas has displaced livestock toward marginal areas with lower productive capacity and located farther from the consumption centres.
38. Some factors, such as land and income distribution, population dynamics and distribution, limited generation of employment, the need to increase production, and geopolitical reasons, have forced governments to expand the agricultural frontier through colonization programmes with a strong subsidy component.
39. This expansion promoted the growth of the livestock sector, based on the incorporation of pastures and cattle, in which productivity did not play a significant role. Short-term trends show that cattle productivity is becoming an important determinant of increased production, probably as a result of the combined effect of improved forages, better adapted crops, and reduced governmental interest in expanding the agricultural frontier.
40. Economic conditions induce migration toward frontier areas, which, together with the changes in productivity and profitability of agricultural activities in traditional production areas over time, exerts a strong pressure on forest areas.
41. Attributes of cattle raising include the use of land with very low productivity; economical flexibility; low use of inputs and contracted labour; income-generating capacity and liquidity; marketability; and ease to transport products. It adjusts, to a great extent, to the resources and needs of smallholders. Cattle raising is therefore very attractive and convenient for them, even in situations of low animal productivity or low productivity per hectare.
42. A significant portion of the intervened zones remains as disturbed land, in fallow or abandoned. Thus, technologies to recover disturbed and degraded areas are needed.
43. Improved technology for both consolidated production zones and new areas is a key element within a strategy to alleviate the pressure on tropical forests. However, technology alone cannot curb the uncontrolled expansion of the agricultural frontier.
44. Economic policies that influence road construction, interest and exchange rates, land tenure, income distribution, generation of employment, etc. determine the demand for land and migratory flow.
45. Future land use in the Brazilian Amazon and the Cerrados, using several alternate scenarios that combined economic policies and technology development, has been evaluated. Results show that deforestation rates will increase under conditions that favour macroeconomic instability, associated with the development of production-oriented technology with little emphasis on sustainability.
46. Under these circumstances, migratory processes toward agricultural frontiers will increase, as well as land speculation and negative environmental impacts; the areas planted to pastures and disturbed areas will increase toward the year 2020.
47. With favourable economic conditions and sustainable technologies, land use would drastically change in the Brazilian Amazon. The area in pastures would remain at levels below those of the previous scenario (17 million hectares versus 49 million) by decreasing the speculative demand for land. Farm and forest production would grow and positive externalities would occur, as expressed in high volumes of carbon sequestering. This scenario helps reduce the rates of deforestation without sacrificing production.
48. The benchmark study shows the comparative importance of policies over technology. For example, to decrease the advance of the agricultural frontier, policies have proven four times more effective than technology. Nevertheless, even if the economic environs are favourable, appropriate technology is required to recover degraded areas and improve both production and productivity.
49. With limited information of the causes and impact of deforestation, it is difficult to make recommendations concerning lines of action. It is possible, however, to suggest areas of work that appear pertinent, such as land use planning, policies, and technology.
50. Land use planning should be improved. To do so, an in-depth characterization and monitoring of deforestation are needed to identify and quantify in detail its causes and effects, to determine the magnitude and location of areas in greatest danger, and the degree of urgency of the actions required to curb deforestation.
51. By improving information, it is easier to establish clear restrictions on land use, identify critical areas that should be protected, and design schemes and policies that address land use. Thus, policies on road development, credit, land titling can be expressed better and made more coherent with previously established land uses.
52. Macroeconomic environs with clear and instituted rules are requirement to conserve and productively use humid forests and to achieve the social goals of sustainable growth with equity.
(Merle D. Faminow and Cameron Dahl, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg)
53. This paper briefly reviews the internal drivers of deforestation in the western Brazilian Amazon. Production and price variability are presented as internal drivers, reasons why intensive management systems are not widely adopted, even though they seem to display agronomic and financial benefits. The micro-level decisions of individual landowners, choice of production system, etc., have received scant attention in the literature, relative to external drivers. For smallholders, factors affecting choice across production systems and also the type of technology within a system critically influence deforestation. Two case studies dmonstrate the importance of these two factors.
54. One case study, for the settlement project of Pedro Peixoto in Acre, uses a price-stochastic simulation model for pioneer farmer gross revenues from a basket of commodities including annual crops, livestock and agroforestry products. Pedro Peixoto is a relatively new colonization project, with a large portion of cleared land still in annual crops but a rapidly growing cattle herd.
55. A second case study is for the municipality of Ouro Preto in Rondônia, a mature settlement that has been subject to agricultural development for more than 25 years. Ouro Preto provides a reference point for how Pedro Peixoto may look in 15-20 years, with most smallholder land in extensive and unproductive pasture, supporting rustic cattle herds with low milk and beef off-take rates. This case study focuses on the financial benefit to adoption of an improved cattle technology package under price and production risk.
56. Four main empirical findings were presented for the Pedro Peixoto case:
57. Three main empirical findings for the Ouro Preto case were:
58. A focus on price and production risk as internal drivers of deforestation allows development of several implications for policymakers. If the likely path of agriculture development in settlement projects like Pedro Peixoto and Ouro Preto is towards increased cattle production, farmers must be encouraged to develop management practices that do not use land as extensively as current production methods if deforestation pressures are to be reduced.
59. Extension efforts are fundamental for small landholders to acquire and properly use improved technology such as improved pastures and better animal management. A successful management system for improved pastures must include an integration of: improved genetics; improved grazing and pasture management practices; improved animal health management (e.g., immunizations) and better reproductive control. If small landholders do not adopt the entire package of improved management techniques (i.e., they only plant legumes, but do not buy a new bull and make other necessary investments) the extensive pasture management techniques currently practised are likely to continue to be the most profitable course.
60. Other barriers exist to the implementation of improved pasture management. Small landholders may not have access to improved genetic lines (at any cost) and if these improved genetic lines exist they may not have the capital to purchase the required animals. Small landholders may not have access to the credit required to purchase the fencing needed for improved pasture management, or the increased cost of improved animal health. Cash flow constraints, especially for recent migrants, can be severe. A case might be made for targeted financial assistance packages of financing to encourage the adoption of improved management systems.
61. Private investment in improved genetics and animal health may not be enough. Genetic quality is not always visually distinguishable and is based upon probability. The perceived gains from improved cattle technology are partially tied to the perceived likelihood that animals will produce more. Development of a mandatory bull testing system is one way to reduce the risks from genetic improvement programmes. Similarly, although investment in herd health management has private payoffs, there can also be benefits to public animal health programmes.
62. Access to markets is fundamental for the adoption of more intensive technologies. This is true for improved pasture and management systems designed to milk output better by dual-purpose smallholders and also for investment in agroforestry crops. Marketing infrastructure, particularly access to roads, product transport and downstream processing, is a constraint to adoption by many smallholders. There is little point in investing in higher production if the product languishes on farms during the rainy season because road access to markets is cut off.
(Enrique Murgueitio R. Fundación CIPAV, Cali)
63. This document endeavours to establish the most relevant aspects for the transformation of cattle raising in Colombia, emphasizing social and environmental issues. Currently, cattle raising occupies most deforested lands in a country worldly known for its biodiversity, but that at the same time experiences a deep social crisis characterized by violence, unfair distribution of resources (land, wealth and knowledge) and lack of opportunity for the rural sector. A wide variety of production systems as well as mechanisms of territorial control, with cultural roots inherited five centuries ago from the Spanish conquerors, are included under the denomination of "cattle raising".
64. The diversity of situations, social factors and environmental impact involved in cattle raising, must be recognized in order to transform the current systems into activities compatible with socio-economic development and the protection of nature. Cattle raising can be divided in two broad classes.
65. The first of these includes all systems in which cattle and the business derived from it constitute the main economic motivation. Within this class, there is significant variation in: gross primary productivity (30 to 300 tons of green biomass/hectare per year), nutritional quality of this material (4 to 12 percent of protein content and 30 to 60 percent digestibility), carrying capacity (10 hectares per animal to 10 animals per hectare), meat production (100 to 2000 kgs of live weight/hectare per year) and milk production (500 to 12,000 litres/hectare per year). Cattle birth rates waver between 40 and 90 percent. Size of land holdings fluctuates between 0.5 and more than 500,000 hectares. Wide genetic diversity exists in both cattle and forage.
66. The environmental impact of these systems varies between absolute and irreversible soil erosion and partial rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems. Social factors include entrepreneurs, small farmers (campesinos), colonos and indigenous people. Per capita income ranges from between less than US$1,000 and more than US$500,000 per year; income periodicity, from two years in extensive grazing to one week in milk production. Employment generation varies between one per 200 hectares and more than two per hectare. Associated social conflict goes from active participation in the armed struggle to true examples of community organization and social participation.. Many of these systems require technological and entrepreneurial change in order to reduce negative impacts on soil, water and native vegetation. Cattle raising must be intensified through the intelligent use of local resources (natural and human) adapted to each agroecosystem. The following aspects are important: agroforestry (mixed forage and tree cultivation, in this context); biological corridors; protection of water sources; forage bushes and trees; strategic supplementation; efficient animal production and reproduction; higher prices for farmers through co-operative or associative commercialization of products; genetic improvement of cattle based on crosses between native, European and Zebu breeds; local and regional transformation of products; integration with forestry and agriculture, use of urban and agricultural residues and by-products, and recycling of nutrients and organic matter.
67. Land speculation is the main objective of the other class of cattle raising activity. Buying and selling of land is stimulated through valorization related to infrastructure, urban expansion or opportunity business linked to money laundering. More than a production system, this class of cattle raising activity is a land occupation strategy, not only with economic aims but also as a means to exert political influence and obtain social prestige.
68. Pastures, which may remain without animals over long periods, are a viable option for territorial control, with low capital and labour investment per unit area and low maintenance costs. This cattle raising activity promotes one of the most inequitable land tenure patterns known in the world. For these situations, an answer to social and environmental problems necessarily implies deep political and macro-economic change. In the first place, it is necessary to remove the incentives to the mechanisms through which the buying and selling of land ends up being more profitable than agriculture and livestock raising. Land concentration in areas dominated by small farms (owned by campesinos and colonos) must also be halted through legal means, such as those specified by the most recent agrarian reform. Processes which accelerate administrative decentralization, social participation, environmental planning and change in the local power structure will also be required, as well as an international solution to the demand for illegal drugs in order to stop the senseless war in the Amazon and Andean regions.
69. The urgent need to transform tropical cattle raising is evident. The Colombian case has unique components as well as many aspects in common with other countries in the region. Political change in agrarian structures is required as well as technological alternatives for those truly interested in cattle as a means of production. Researchers, decisionmakers, technicians and farmers must admit that a higher biological potential exists and that it can be reached if nature is wisely managed understanding the limits of each ecosystem, and if cattle are integrated with other production systems.
(Carlos Pomareda, SIDESA, San José, Costa Rica)
70. In Central America livestock farming is a traditional activity, including more than 300,000 producers. As many farmers produce both meat and milk, specific policies for each product are required. From both dual purpose and dairy farms, meat and milk industries have been established. Artisan and industrial meat and milk processing plants exist together, adding to the duality of the chain of production. Along with domestic production, the import of meat and milk is also important. More than US$110 million worth of dairy products are imported into the region each year.
71. Pastures cover 13.35 million hectares of land previously covered by forests. Expansion of grazing land was promoted by timber extraction, which devastated the forests, and by policies which encouraged livestock farming. Remaining forests in the region cover 19.35 million hectares and cropping land adds up to 8.65 million hectares.
72. Markets for animal products, cash crops, non-traditional agricultural products and forests products are evolving in response to consumers' preferences, demand for quality, new market norms and the development and marketing of new products. All these new factors are producing a number of variables, which have to be taken into account to define rational natural resources utilization. New market conditions also demand the adoption of new technologies and production strategies, better adapted to open markets and international trade.
73. For the livestock industry it is proposed to: utilize less land and time for unit animal product produced; abandon hill sites giving way to forests and reforestation projects; abandon the more fertile soils which could be better utilized for cash crops; eliminate the artisan industry which poses a health hazard for consumers, promote a vertical integration between the meat and milk production; and, include product quality as a production criteria. Such a livestock model is adequate for small, medium and large farms but not for the very extensive systems. In any case, intensification and business oriented management is required.
74. Policies to promote change in the described direction should focus on: the strengthening of producers’ associations and unions; promoting associative livestock production and services; improving producers' management capabilities; promoting a change in attitude of producers; improving the quality of products in order to minimize consumers' health hazards; promoting technological innovation; and, promoting the reduction of transaction costs. As technologies, germoplasm, inputs and knowledge are already in the market, policies should focus on people not livestock. Policies should recognize peoples' capabilities, capitalization levels and willingness for associative work.
(Arnaldo Chibbaro, IICA, Montevideo, Uruguay)
75. Traditionally, the standing of a given country in international markets was determined by its capacity to subsidize and protect local production rather than by any other comparative advantage. A new scenario is emerging in which new international trade norms and regulations are reverting, although partially, the situation. Consequently, national policies for agricultural development are formulated within the framework of international trade agreements.
76. Inspite of current trends to reduce unfair competition, subsidies to livestock production in industrial countries at the end of the reduction period will be high enough to distort markets and lower international prices, affecting producers in developing countries. It is clear that international trade agreements and new international norms and regulations will help the livestock sector in Latin American countries. However, any positive effect of trade agreements will not be sufficient. What is required are a set of comprehensive policies for livestock development and the improvement of the managerial capabilities of smallholders. Uruguay provides an example of increases in the competitiveness of the livestock sector. During this decade, meat production increased from 303,000 t in 1991 to 411,000 t in 1996 and meat exports doubled during the same period, from 117, 318 t in 1991 to 209,754 t in 1995. Milk production shows the same dynamism and has grown at a yearly rate of 20 percent for the past 20 years. Exports of dairy products increased from US$ 67 million in 1991 to US$156 million in 1996 and export products are becoming more diversified. A number of policy and technological measures contributed to the improved standing of the livestock industry in Uruguay: liberalization of exports of livestock; elimination of export taxes; elimination of regulation stocks; improved quality controls in slaughterhouses; development of trade names to identify "Uruguay natural meat" with an environmentally friendly production system based on natural grasslands; technology adoption to increase weaning rates from 60 to 80 percent; a comprehensive animal health programme to reach and maintain the status of a country free of foot-and-mouth disease, which allowed Uruguay to enter all demanding meat markets in the World; and, increased presence in traditional markets and aggressive expansion to new markets, based on trade agreements.
77. The creation of free trade zones in Latin America gives an opportunity for the strengthening of the livestock sector. However, trade negotiations of agricultural products is a very complex issue. Therefore, it is absolutely essential to have a highly qualified presence of the agricultural sector in the negotiation process, starting with the design of negotiation strategies and going all the way to the design of policies to increase the competitivity of the sector.
(Michel H. Thibaud, Sociedad Rural Argentina, Buenos Aires)
78. Argentina has experienced significant economic changes during this decade. New economic trends are modifying the context of the livestock industry, which remained in stagnation for years. Today, there is some concern regarding the capacity of the industry to adapt to the expected increasing demand for meat in the international markets. Traditionally, agricultural systems maintained ecosystem stability, particularly soil fertility, by the rotation of crops and permanent pastures. However, soil stability and other natural resources are increasingly affected by continuous monocropping, which is replacing traditional livestock systems. Rather than complementing each other, there is competition between cropping and livestock systems for land use in the Pampas. Furthermore, livestock systems are being pushed to forest margins in the Chaco region. On the other hand, higher prices for meat in international markets are promoting the use of corn as animal feed, in substitution of pastures. Today, milk production on pasture amounts to less than half the total production. It is known that economic determinants rather than environmental objectives drive production systems. So resources degradation is occurring by the failure of governments to implement policies which are able to lead economic decisions towards a desirable environmental situation. Government intervention through policies can be of two complementary types: by-laws, norms and regulations oriented to modify the behaviour of economic agents, and through market interventions oriented to modify access to resources. Low prices for agricultural products and land property uncertainties are not incentives for sound management of natural resources and promote mining of the soil in procurement of short term gains. On the other hand, new international trade rules and conditions force producers to be more competitive, which can cause increased pressures on natural resources as a consequence of unsound intensification. It is imperative to look for novel development models, which satisfy human needs but at the same time protect the environment. The new international scenario is defined by a world trade that moves towards liberalization, a growing concern in regard to the environment and a social aspiration for more equity between and within countries. Policies should try to harmonize these components.
(Rosario Pérez Espejo, UNAM, Mexico)
79. The work reviews the characteristics of the development of porciculture in Mexico, from the viewpoint of the environmental problems that it generates. In the first place, it describes the evolution of the porcine industry during the last two decades, emphasizing the factors, which gave way to its expansion and also those that caused its stagnation. The information obtained from the census and individual studies, provides an idea of present production modalities, the levels of technology, and the tendencies towards concentration. With a foundation in studies carried out in different countries, the principal characteristics of porcine excrement are profiled, taking into consideration its physical-chemical parameters, the content of fertilization nutrients, nutritional value, and its pathogenic specificity.
80. It is sustained that the environmental problem that the porcine industry generates, is the result of a special model of growth that separated porciculturism from agricultural activities. This induced the concentration of many animals in small units that use dietary supplements which are transformed into residual contaminants, and that do not internalize the environmental consequences. In addition, the industry did not prepare the human resources necessary to confront and resolve the environmental problem.
81. In addition, the lack of knowledge concerning available technology, the cost of treatment and the regulations which are in place; the complexity of the regulatory framework, the irregularity in the administration of water, the politicization of environmental problems, and above all, specific macro-economics conditions in which the elevated interest rate result in hardly effective environmental policies.
82. Prominence is given to poverty in Mexico, especially hydraulic resources, and to the paradoxical situation that the largest concentration of pigs is found in regions where water is scarcest and most contaminated.
83. Of the studies on porciculture and the environment, a series of conclusions concerning the management of water and its treatment systems are presented. Among them, negative consequences are resulting from a series of management factors: that water is provided at no expense for agricultural and livestock activities; the wrong sizing of many of the treatment systems, including drainage canals and oxidation reservoirs; the reduced recycling of residual water and excrement in agricultural irrigation, animal food, and cleaning water on the farm itself; the inefficiency of the use of water on small farms in comparison with large ones; the surpassing of the maximum allowable limits in some of the parameters included in the norm of residual water disposal.
84. It is stated that the environmental policy is based more on the application of "command and control" instruments, represented in the discharge of residual water regulations and in the Federal Law of Rights, which imposes a payment when the maximum allowable limits stated in the regulations, are surpassed, than on the application of economic incentives, which are practically non-existent.
85. Within the framework of the process of commercial expansion, the difference in the cost of water treatment and environmental regulations between Mexico and the diverse countries with which commercial agreements have been signed, have not induced significant changes in the investment patterns and commercial interchanges that have an effect on the environment.
86. Finally, it is concluded that reducing the environmental problem which the porcine industry generates, is a mid-term task that should include changes in the feeding system of pigs, the preparation of human resources in aspects specific to the treatment of waste, the coordination of efforts between the public, private, and academic sectors, the organization within the public sector itself and a greater sensibility by the production organizations concerning the problem.
