5. Conclusions

LLR systems are highly divers, ranging from veal production in EU, which can hardly be called a ruminant system, and beef fattening in OECD countries to sheep fattening in WANA countries and mega-livestock units in EE and the CIS. Consequently, the seemingly single common feature of these systems is landlessness and even this is questioned for livestock production in EE and the CIS: real landless livestock farms seem to be rather exceptional and their importance is likely to diminish even further in the wake of current changes in these former communist countries.

Another feature the LLR systems have in common is that they are mainly prominent where the price ratio between concentrates and livestock products is attractive, due to low concentrate prices, often as a result of subsidies, and high premiums paid for the higher quality meat produced by these intensive systems. The major exception once again is EE and the CIS where the existence of mega-livestock units is more the result of former government policies.

The livestock production in most LLR systems is likely to stabilize or even decline in the near future because of:

- public concern for the consequences for the environment and animal welfare (particularly in OECD countries);

- a stabilisation of demand for ruminant meat (OECD countries, EE and CIS); and

- higher concentrate prices, mainly because subsidies are removed (veal production in EU, sheep fattening in WANA, and EE and the CIS).

Quantification of the environmental impact of LLR systems is seriously hampered by the weak statistical basis: the size of most subsystems is either completely unknown (urban dairies and LLR systems in EE and the CIS) or based on rather weak estimates (sheep fattening). Furthermore, even for veal and beef production in OECD countries some controversial information on the size of these LLR systems exists. Similar problems exist with information and data on livestock management systems. Basic data on average feed composition, FCR, relative importance of manure management systems, etc., could in nearly all cases only be estimated roughly, thus introducing large possible errors in quantification of LEI. Moreover, quantifiable indicators were lacking for various impact domains. Consequently quantification of several environmental aspects could be assessed only partially. However, as general trends and issues are in most cases fairly clear, qualitative assessments could be made.

The main environmental problems in the LLR systems are the result of 'point source pollution': unacceptable high concentration of emissions in a limited area. Likewise in the production process as well as the processing of livestock products. Pollution is mainly in the form of organic compounds which could be used directly or after composting as fertilizer.

The principal direct environmental impact from LLR systems is pollution from manure. The polluting effect is mainly caused by the insufficient care in handling and disposing of waste products. Areawise there is seldom a situation of manure surplus, LLR systems have access to sufficient land in the near surroundings to apply the manure at a rate not exceeding P equilibrium. In case of sheep fattening, manure is even a valuable product. However, manure collection and storage is largely inadequate, both in terms of storage capacity, to facilitate proper timing of manure application, as well as in terms of quality of manure management. The result is high leakage, run-off and volatilization losses. In some cases, manure is even dumped or discharged to surface water. When all manure or even only the liquid fraction is treated in lagoons before discharge to surface water, a major eutrophication can be expected as most of the nutrients are not removed. Moreover, lagoons incur high N and methane losses.

An environmental problem which is partly related to manure is the emission of methane from the digestive process of ruminants and from the anaerobic storage of manure. However, in LLR systems emissions per kg product are generally lower than in most other systems mainly due to the high livestock productivity in LLR systems compared to other livestock systems (except in EE and the CIS). A possible exception is the treatment of all manure in lagoons. Here the methane emission factor is 9 - 18 times higher than in other manure management systems. Next the N₂O emission in lagoons is also relatively high. The positive effect of lower methane emissions per kg output on global warming is not offset by the relatively high indirect fossil energy use and high CO₂ production of LLR systems, mainly for feed production. The global warming effect of CO₂ emission per kg output is negligible compared with that of methane emission.

LLR systems are characterized by the use of high levels of concentrates, which consist for a considerable part (50-80%) of basic products suitable for human consumption. The remaining part of the concentrates consists of crop-residues and by-products from the agro-processing industry. Alternative rations, using more by-products and still achieving comparable performance rates, are available, but for economic reasons rarely used.

LLR systems are highly dependent on the use of veterinary products for (sub)therapeutic use, partly due to the complexity and scale of the LLR systems and its focus on high production levels. However, this does not result in a high risk of antibiotic residues in animal products. Contamination with chemicals, mycotoxins, hormones and bacteria, antibiotic residues in products from LLR systems are incidental, mainly related to contamination of the feed and emergency slaughtering. Though monitoring systems are often, but not always better developed in intensive systems, they are deemed to be inadequate because screening for every possible contamination is highly laborious and costly.

The reduction in grazing pressure on grazing lands caused by an increase in LLR systems is not well documented. This presumed effect has been a major reason for stimulating LLR systems, e.g. through subsidizing concentrate feed. However, an opposite effect is likely as profitability of extensive livestock production will increase as the demand for animals increases.

LLR systems have little influence on animal genetic resources. Urban dairy production is the exception as in several countries high quality milk animals from rural areas are slaughtered at the end of the lactation, imposing a negative selection on the dairy cattle and especially dairy buffalo herds.

A more indirect but highly important environmental impact is the chromium-containing solid waste and waste water from tanning. These waste products are highly toxic but often discharged to the environment. In various countries waste water of tanneries is discharged to surface water without any or little treatment, thus also causing significant water pollution locally due to organic matter and nutrients.

Technical solutions available for some environmental problems of the LLR system include:

- replacement of manure treatment in lagoons by manure application on the land;

- improved manure management techniques (increased urine collection and manure storage, more and improved manure transportation and application facilities, etc.);

- better balanced feeding (particularly in EE and the CIS); and

- removal of chromium from waste water and separate dumping of chromium-containing solid waste.

The main obstacle in the path of these technical options is the cost of implementation. This can be circumvented to some extent by, for example:

- removing of subsidies on feed ingredients;

- introducing levies on artificial fertilizer, which would increase the value of animal manure;

- issuing permits for operation or expansion of LLR farms, including specifications on having sufficient access to land, on manure collection and storage systems and limits to the maximum size of a farm; and

- introducing certificates for environmentally friendly produced products.