H. Jokiluoma and H. Tapola
Hannu Jokiluoma is Expert in Labour Inspection in Forestry at the International Labour Organisation, Geneva. Hannu Tapola is Chief Forest Inspector in the Ministry of Labour, Helsinki.
Forest work continues to be a profession with a high risk of physical accidents and illness but, in Finland, the accident rate has decreased significantly during the past two decades. This article shares experiences of the process behind the Finnish success as well as of the problems that remain.
A Finnish forest worker with a portable structure for rest in the forest
A variety of measures have contributed to the improvement of safety and health in forest work in Finland. It is possible to identify some basic features and milestones in the development of a coherent strategy resulting from continuous efforts by all concerned to improve the situation. One key has been the creation of a strong safety mentality and we feel this is the grain of gold to be preserved when responding to future challenges. To help in the understanding of the Finnish approach and the conditions under which it has been developed and applied, we have provided a brief overview of forestry and forest work in Finland before analysing the safety and health situation.
Forestry is Finland's most important industrial sector, earning 60 percent of its foreign income. The country's annual harvested volume is about 55 million m³, which is less than the sustainably allowable annual cut. Half of the volume comes from thinning, the other half from final fellings.
Sixty-three percent of forest land, producing 80 percent of the growth, is privately owned. Half the forest owners are farmers; forest industry owns another 9 percent of the land and the rest belongs to the state and municipalities.
Technology and human resources
Forest work underwent enormous changes from the late 1950s to the beginning of the 1970s. Manual saws and axes were replaced by chainsaws and the first logging machines also appeared while horsepower gave way to farm tractors and forwarders.
Today, 75 percent of stumpage (standing) sales is processed mechanically by tree harvesters and their share continues to rise. These machines cut, delimb and cross-cut the trees. Forest transport is done by forwarders or by forestry-equipped farm tractors.
Three-quarters of all logging is done by large forest industry companies, mainly in family-owned forests, and by the National Board of Forestry in its own forests. In both cases, forest transport and mechanized logging are contracted out to small firms. Twenty-five percent of felling and 15 percent of forest transport is done by forest owners themselves. In sylvicultural tasks, the share is more than 50 percent. Labour-intensive sylvicultural tasks include planting, tending of plantations and pruning. Soil preparation and ditching is done with heavy machinery. Pesticides are used to protect plants while herbicides are also used in some cases for weed and brush control.
The workforce
With the advent of mechanization, the number of forest workers has decreased over the past few decades and the pace of this trend has accelerated rapidly in the recent past. Since 1980, the number of forest workers has decreased from about 35 000 to only 20 000 (Juntunen and Örn, 1992). About one-third of the forestry workforce spends more than 151 days per year in forest work. Although only 10 percent are employed exclusively in forestry activities (i.e. more than 200 workdays per year), this group accounts for more than one-third of all the forest workdays. The role of casual labour is particularly important during seasonal work peaks.
Approximately 1500 machine entrepreneurs operate in forestry as contractors A typical entrepreneur has two to four machines and employs only a few operators.
The size of these contractor firms is increasing, as is their tendency to carry out the entire logging process: felling, delimbing and cross-cutting with harvesters, forest transport with forwarders and even undertaking long distance transport with logging trucks to the mill. Contractor firms also carry out sylvicultural tasks, including soil preparation and ditching.
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Key principles of forest worker safety programmes in Finland · Constructive cooperation between all parties concerned at the national level and in the workplace. · Respect of the interests of all parties concerned. · Sustainable forest management and long-term planning. · Effective training, incorporating safety and health aspects at all levels. · Training of safety specialists and labour protection delegates, managers and committee members. · Up-to-date legislation and guidelines. · A competent and effective labour protection administration, emphasizing advice and using enforcement as a last resort. Research on effective and safe work methods, technology, machinery and equipment. · Continuous improvement in the design of machines and equipment. |
The accident frequency in forest work decreased by a little more than the average rate for all industries in Finland during the 1980s. Nonetheless, forest work is still regarded as dangerous compared with other occupations because of the high frequency of fatal accidents and the large share of severe accidents. Between six and 12 people have died annually in forest work during the past few years. Most of them have been loggers but forest machine operators, entrepreneurs and supervisors and self-employed forest owners have also lost their lives. Two-thirds of fatal accidents in forest work have occurred in tree felling. Most of these were caused by hang-up trees that workers had tried to bring down with inappropriate work methods.
Occupational diseases
Occupational diseases caused by excessive physical strain usually affect the back, shoulders and neck. In machine work, vibration and swinging of the machine as well as improper and static working positions cause health problems. The number of cases has fluctuated over the past decade but there appears to be a gradual decrease paralleling the introduction of improved safety measures.
Vibration-induced diseases (e.g. white-finger disease) have decreased substantially, primarily as a result of the introduction of improved machines, especially less vibrating and lighter chainsaws.
Noise continues to be a major risk and the number of noise-induced diseases has increased over the past few years. Even though ear muffs are, as a rule, used in noisy work, the quality of ear muffs is sometimes poor. Hearing damage also often dates from earlier years when the risk of excessive exposure to noise was not understood.
The 1920s to the 1960s
In the 1920s, special safety measures consisted of posters on the logging camp walls, safety films and instruction on tool maintenance and working techniques. The basic skills, however, were acquired at the work site and passed on between workers, often from father to son.
The first law on logging camps was issued in 1928 at which time inspectors were appointed. This was the first major nationwide effort to improve occupational safety and health and living conditions in the forest. Wage control by specialized inspectors started in the 1930s during the period of deep economic depression. Short courses and training material aimed at improving the preparation of food in the logging camps were also introduced in the 1930s.
In the 1940s and 1950s short courses on logging and tree planting were initiated and the instruction of trainers in the maintenance of hand tools and safe and efficient work methods was begun. Employers began to see the importance of training.
The introduction of forest machinery, and particularly chainsaws, in the 1950s led to changes in skill requirements. A major milestone of forest work in Finland was the setting up of systematic vocational training of forest workers in 1963.
Since the late 1950s, a nationwide wage agreement and later collective agreements have regulated the remuneration and many other working conditions in forestry and timber transportation. The accident, sickness and pension insurance systems (covering temporary as well as permanent forest workers) were founded at the beginning of the 1960s.
A Finnish forest worker inspects a mechanized feller
It was also in the 1960s that full recognition was given to the seriousness of health and safety problems in forestry, and the end of the decade through to the beginning of the 1970s saw a period of intense activity focused on improving safety and health in forestry as well as in other industries.
The 1970s
The National Board of Labour Protection, founded in 1973, became the central supervisory body for labour protection. A new district-level organizational structure was also established and provided with substantial resources (in 1993 the Board was absorbed into the Ministry of Labour).
The legislation on cooperation in labour protection at the workplace was issued and the social partners (employers' organizations and trade unions) made agreements on cooperation in labour protection. Cooperative bodies found their role at the workplace.
Occupational health services were introduced in the beginning of the 1970s, including specialized medical examinations for forest workers. First aid arrangements also improved. The ergonomics and safety of chainsaws and forest tractors improved. New types of personal protective equipment were introduced (safety footwear and safety trousers). Safety and health courses and on-the-job training were increased, leading to better working techniques and professional skills while research and development activities on safety and health received more resources.
The 1980s
In the 1980, the development of forest labour protection continued and received a new emphasis in certain aspects:
· safety and health was seen as an essential part of effective and profitable production;· legally binding regulations on the safety of logging were introduced;
· several measures were taken o improve safety in the use of chemicals;
· safety and health measures for forest machine operators, white-collar employees, and self-employed forest owners were intensified;
· the significance of the mental workload made news headlines and was accepted as part of occupational safety and health;
· working methods improved, skill requirements increased and work became more independent.
The current situation
Over time, safety and health promotion in Finland developed a comprehensive set of measures involving a variety of actors: training, legislation, advice, motivation, cooperation, incentives, product development and - when necessary enforcement. These measures and the division of labour in safety are set out in the following paragraphs.
Training and education. Skills and knowledge are key factors in effective and safe work. Safety and health aspects have been incorporated in training at all levels. Occupational safety and health has thus become a natural part of working processes and working techniques.
Forest worker training is now well established and is offered in more than 20 technical schools. Training usually consists of a one-year introductory course followed by specialized one-year courses for forest workers and for forest machine operators. Training and education in forestry is also provided at university and postgraduate levels. Training includes practical work at the training institute and in the field, which allows future employees and managers to become familiar with everyday problems.
Forestry schools also have an extensive programme of short courses, partly carried out by mobile units. They are conducted for forest owners, workers and managers. The large variety of courses is based on needs analysis and cooperation with forest enterprises and other forestry organizations.
Legislation. Legislation on safety, health and working conditions plays an important role by setting minimum standards for the working environment and establishes the basic framework for cooperation between employees and employers. The main legislation consists of the Labour Protection Act, the Act on the Supervision of Labour Protection, the Act on the Protection of Young Workers, the Act on Occupational Health Services, and the acts covering employment contracts, collective bargaining and working hours and holidays.
The Labour Protection Act is a general law, laying down the broad safety and health obligations and responsibilities of employers, employees, designers and manufacturers of equipment, machines and chemicals. Several supplementary regulations cover, specific dangerous activities (e.g. logging), machines or other products.
Under the act on occupational health, all employers are required to provide occupational health services for their employees (in addition to the basic national health insurance). The main principle is the prevention of health hazards. Workplace inspections and surveillance by health personnel help to establish plans on how working methods and habits can be corrected.
Special regulations on safety and health in forestry. The Government Decision on Timber Harvesting includes provisions on the planning of logging sites, the felling of hang-up trees, communication and first aid arrangements in dangerous and isolated areas, work on ice, rest facilities, tools and machines and personal protective equipment. Other supplementary rules and regulations concern noise, chemicals, machines (chainsaws and brush saws, tractors, harvesters), personal protective equipment and medical examinations.
The role of labour inspection in forestry. Today the Labour Protection Inspectorate under the Ministry of Labour is the supervising and enforcing body for labour protection legislation. Labour protection authorities rely primarily on advisory means to get employers and employees to comply with the requirements of legislation. Enforcement and sanctions have been used as a last resort. In implementing and enforcing legislation, an important role has been played by cooperation with employees', employers', contractors' and farmers' organizations as well as with other authorities, occupational health care personnel, manufacturers and marketing firms. Particularly in forestry, the value of constructive cooperation between the social partners and the authorities has been accepted as a stimulating factor of development.
Cooperation between employers and employees
Employees' and employers' organizations are the key players in labour issues. Existing legislation guarantees the freedom of association, including the right to establish trade unions and the right for workers and employers to carry out collective bargaining. The unionization rate of forest workers is about 50 percent. Most forest employers belong to employers' associations.
Both parties have accepted each other as equal bargaining and cooperation partners. A binding collective agreement in forestry is negotiated for the whole country. It also includes provisions on cooperation in safety and health, working and personal protective equipment and social aspects.
Cooperation at the workplace. Every employer is required to name a labour protection supervisor responsible for cooperation between the employer and the employees. In small enterprises, the employer can act as labour protection supervisor himself. In larger enterprises, employees elect labour protection delegates or committees. Usually, labour protection supervisors take care of safety matters in addition to their main occupation.
Forest machine contractors. Machine contractor firms in Finland run their own association to deal with economic and labour issues as well as business relations. The Contractors' Association also promotes the health and safety of its member entrepreneurs as well as that of their employees. The association is involved in several activities in this field. The positive attitude and achievements of this organization are crucial in ensuring that the working environment and conditions will continue to improve in forestry even though contracting is gaining ground.
Self-employed forest owners. Labour protection authorities also have responsibilities for the occupational safety and health of self-employed forest owners. Activities consist in information dissemination and projects undertaken with other organizations.
Most forest owners are members of their local forest management association. This kind of organization can reach forest owners easily.
Its role is to increase forest owners' professional knowledge and skills in forestry, to guide and develop sylviculture and forest utilization and to provide professional assistance in timber sales, sylviculture and logging. Local associations disseminate technical knowledge on forestry, arrange training courses - usually with forestry schools - and give personal guidance in forest work.
A specialized research institute has studied and developed working methods for more efficient and safe farm forestry, especially in felling and forest transport with forest-equipped farm tractors.
MELA is the insurance company for self-employed farmers and forest owners. Insurance cover is obligatory for occupational accidents, diseases and work-related pensions. MELA provides brochures, videos and other training material on safety in agriculture and forestry, participates in agricultural fairs and provides funds for studies and campaigns. The company produces annual statistics on the occupational accidents of farmers. These statistics, which provide a basis for prevention, have also shown some typical risks for forest owners such as accidents caused by machines that are not specifically designed for forest conditions.
Personal protective equipment
The collective agreement includes a clause on personal protective equipment that requires the employer to pay 70 percent of the cost of a worker's safety boots, leg protectors (cut-proof safety trousers) and safety jacket, protective gloves, thermos for food and hot drinks, waterproof cape, etc. The helmet, eye and ear protectors should be free for the worker. The use of well-designed personal protective equipment is now part of the forest worker's image.
In developing personal protective equipment, tools and machines, the feedback from the users has been a key factor. Most producers have contacts who test the products during the course of their work. Both domestic and imported products are tested. Manufacturers also appreciate negative feedback because it helps them to eliminate the deficiencies of their products.
Not only employees and employers but also their organizations as well as the labour protection authorities and training specialists have been active in advancing development.
During recent years, the European Committee for Standardization has been involved in preparing standards on the personal protective equipment for chainsaw users and other personal protective equipment used in forestry. Finland has been represented and its authorities, social partners and manufacturers have contributed actively to the preparation of the European committee's standards.
Well-managed and well-implemented safety and health programmes improve productivity and are economically profitable. Accidents do not only incur direct costs for medical treatment and salaries during an employee's absence from work, but also indirect costs, which are usually many times higher. These include material losses, the reorganization of work, training of substitutes for the injured worker, damage to the reputation of the employer, etc.
Particularly in large- and medium-sized companies, the accident insurance fee is often based on the real cost of accidents during a certain number of years. Thus, the employer in practice pays the accident costs and is therefore very motivated to take preventive action.
What are the prospects for the future? Mechanization will continue; the promotion of safety and health in machine work will become more and more important; and, as at present, the emphasis in promoting occupational safety and health will continue to shift from accident prevention to the prevention of other health hazards.
Because forest machines are owned by contractor firms, the share of workers employed by big forest companies will decline. More and more prevention activities will be directed at contractor firms and other small employers.
Following are areas where changes will be seen and where safety and health projects are needed:
· remuneration systems, e.g. from direct piece-rate to bonus systems and other payment systems;· the contents of occupational health services;
· the ergonomics of and maintenance procedures for forest machines;
· information services on safety and health in forestry;
· safety and health consequences of new work methods;
· the promotion of effective management systems, including mental health care;
· new systems of product control on the European market.
Even though forest work is still a risky activity in Finland, the situation has been much improved thanks to preventive efforts. In our experience, safety and health cannot be improved by waving a magic wand. Instead, they require effort, cooperation and perseverance by all concerned. Where these requirements can be met, substantial progress can be made and all parties should profit from it.
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