20 Biodiversity for poverty alleviation in Indonesia

Suhardi^[30]

ABSTRACT

Indonesia has one of the most diverse megadiversities in the world. Although its land area is only about 1.3 percent of the world’s, Indonesia has about 17 percent of all species. If the diversity in the sea is also included then Indonesia would be regarded as the greatest megadiverse region in the world. The 47 ecosystem types in Indonesia can be divided into seven biogeographic regions which are centered on the major island groups and include their surrounding seas. Despite its megadiversity, Indonesia has great problems with poverty. Poverty in Indonesia may be related to the destruction of the biodiversity since about 1.6 million ha of forests are destroyed annually. Every single species loss is believed to be followed by that of 10 to 30 other species. It is very important therefore to manage the biodiversity sustainably for the benefit of the people.

INTRODUCTION

Strategy to alleviate poverty

Management of biodiversity to alleviate poverty should be based on biogeographic regions or specific site conditions. Biogeographic regions in Indonesia are as follows:

• Java and Bali: rain forests; natural monsoon forests; montane forests, temperate herbaceous formation, limestone karst, fresh water swamp forests; and mangroves;

• Kalimantan including the Natuna and Anambas islands: lowland evergreen forests; montane forests; extensive mangroves; peat and fresh water swamp forests; and large heath forests;

• Sumatra and offshore islands: dipterocarp forests; peat swamp forests; mangroves; montane rain forests; natural pine forests;

• Sulawesi and offshore islands including Sulu: montane rain forests; lowland rain forests; karst limestone, swamp forests; and mangroves;

• Nusa Tenggara: monsoon forests and extensive grasslands; natural sandalwood forests; and some montane rain forests;

• Maluku: lowland and montane forests; mangroves; and fresh water swamps;

• Irian: monsoon forests; savanna woodlands; tropical rain forests; lower montane forests; mangrove forests; upper montane forests; alpine heath land, fresh water swamp forests; peat swamp forests; limestone, grassland and beach forests.

Rifai (1983) (cited by Tri Sunarto (1988)) said that about 28 000 plant species are present in the whole of Indonesia but only about 6000 have been utilized in Indonesia, viz.

• for ornaments about 1100 species;
• medicinal plants about 940 species;
• fruits about 400 species;
• vegetables about 340 species;
• tannin about 228 species;
• timber about 267 species;
• spices about 54 species.

There are so many species that need to be explored in the interest of world biodiversity but the problems in Indonesia are serious, for example illegal logging destroys about 1.6 million ha of forests per year. Even in the national park in Central Kalimantan, at Gunung Leuser in north Sumatra and Aceh, forest degradation is taking place. It has been said that the loss of one species of tree will be followed by that of 10-30 other species such as insect and mamalia species and other types of plants.

The Government of Indonesia limits the supply to about 6 million m³ of logs per year for the wood industries in Indonesia although the demand of the timber industries (excluding pulp and paper) is about 50 million m³ per year. About 1.5 percent of the wood industries in south Kalimantan and only about 30 percent in Jambi Sumatra and 39 percent in east Kalimantan of these industries are still operating; east Kalimantan was the biggest timber producer in Indonesia until recently.

HOW TO SAVE THE BIODIVERSITY AND ALLEVIATE THE POVERTY IN INDONESIA?

Most of the destruction of biodiversity is due to several factors and one of the most important is that Indonesian people in fact depend on forest or biodiversity directly or indirectly for their needs such as food, clothing, medicine, education, culture and income.

People should therefore be aware of the importance of biodiversity and how to sustain the biodiversity. Most people only understand that they will earn money from logging but in Indonesia wood or timber actually provides a minor income. During the Dutch colonial period the forests in Java were utilized for the purpose of the Dutch Government, for example in their conversion into monocultures of coffee, cocoa, sugar cane and teak. The conversion benefited the Dutch Government but not biodiversity or the local people.

The problems of biodiversity became worse when the government, aiming for more income in a short period, started monoculture of Acacia mangium for their pulp industries without considering the need for biodiversity and for food, housing, clothing, health, culture and income.

Integrated farming management is a tool for sustainable biodiversity and for it to succeed, monocultures should be implemented only in limited areas in Indonesia. Integrated farming management for sustainable biodiversity should profit all stakeholders in the short, medium and long terms. Several cases have shown that mixed planting of forest with crops would benefit all stakeholders, as in the case of home gardens of farmers where the area could supply all their needs.

Teak forest dominates most of the forest areas in Java, mostly as monoculture. It has been suggested that integrated farming of teak could contribute to better biodiversity and nutrient availability, less risk of fire, and higher production of cattle, fruits, vegetables and other crops. There is also an increase in income for the farmer utilizing integrated farming of teak.

MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY BY INTEGRATED FARMING OF TEAK TO ALLEVIATE POVERTY

Teak has been planted widely in Java not only in state forests but also in the Hutan Rakyat. In PT Perhutani with a total area of about 1.5 million ha, most of the area is planted with teak and pine. Hutan Rakyat with an area of about 42 965 521 ha is planted with several trees including teak, mahogany and also food crops.

Teak forest is usually utilized by the timber companies but in fact the people living near the forest and other communities should utilize more of it for their needs. The teak forest especially should be designed to support such needs, with food as the first priority. Food is very important as the population in Java is the most dense in the country. Teak can be planted with food crops such as ganyong, garut (arrow root), sweet potatoes, cassava and corn. Table1 below shows the forest and non-wood products excluding food products from a teak dominated forest in Gunung Kidul area of Yogyakarta.

Table 1. Products from the teak forest community in Gunung Kidul area in year 2000/2001

Table 2 shows a comparison between a monoculture of teak and a mixed forest of Dalbergia latifolia. The heteroculture or mixed teak forest could contribute better to soil fertility than the monoculture of teak. P contents of root and leaves in the mixed forest are 1.23 percent and 1.21 percent respectively compared with only 1.21 percent and 1.20 percent in the teak forest. Available P in the soil is also higher in the heteroculture which is 0.0226 ppm compared with only 0.0134 ppm in the monoculture. Organic matter too is much higher in the heteroculture of teak than monocultures (4.51 vs. 1.51 percent respectively). This means that the former condition is better for soil microorganisms.

Table 2. Analysis of P, organic matter content and litter layer thickness

Source: Suhardi (1990).

Mixed teak forest with Dalbergia latifolia could reduce fire problems. Humidity increases but the microtemperature wind velocity decreases. The data below show fire damage to forests in Indonesia:

BIODIVERSITY FOR FOOD PRODUCTION

Many species can grow well under teak which provide food, cosmetics and medicine. An example is ganyong (Canna edulis) which is a source of carbohydrates, capsule filter, cure for stomach ache and others.

Food production can be developed not only after Tumpang Sari which lasts only about two years but for the whole forest rotation. Dioscera allata (uwi) and Dioscera hispida (gadung) are among the approximately 35 species that could thrive under teak forest after fire and they are sources of food, medicine, fertilizer, cattle feed and also vegetable (Adriyanti 1994). Several food crops even form synergism with teak in providing nitrogen and land cover. Examples are Dalbergia latofolia, Acacia arabica, Clitoria ternatea, otok-otok, tekik, Leucaena lecocephala and Acacia villosa (Sumardi and Winastuti 1993).

Tumpang Sari, which involves teak planting for two years, was introduced in Java, Indonesia, in 1883 when the population was still only 20 million; it has since then increased, by 2003, to more than 100 million. Therefore it is very important that land under teak forest is utilized as a source of food, medicine, vegetable and cattle feed; at the same time this cultivation can increase the productivity of the teak. The biggest forest area is under Perum Perhutani in Java, where the population has become the biggest in the country and utilizing the land under the teak forest has become urgent while conserving the water status of the forests.

Soybean for food industries has also been planted in trials in the teak forest. The results showed that the local variety is better than other exotic species (Team Peneliti Tumpang Sari UGM 1974b). Arachis hypogaea was also tested after two years Tumpang Sari to increase the benefit of teak forest for the whole rotation. By using Rhizobium inoculation the trials gave better production of A. hypogaea (Winastuti 1993)

The trails to increase food production involve not only increasing the area under cultivation but also planting different plant varieties. For rice, for example, varieties such as C-4, IR 127, Gama 318, O 56, IR 661-1-170-1-3; IR 1545-339, IR 1614-330-1 and galur IRRI have been tested (Team Peneliti Tumpang Sari UGM 1974a). Total volume in 3 ha is 100.1791 m³. Therefore volume per ha is 33.3930 m³ or 3.33 m³ha^-1y^-1. At Rp500 000 m^-3 the estimate value is Rp 1 650 000 ha^-1y^-1.

Table 3. Total volume of tree species in each plot (plot size 100 m x 30 m) at Bubung Village (m³ y^-1).

Table 4 shows that the average number of trees per ha is about 174. However, for a 15-ha teak forest interplanted with other crops with cattle rearing (Tables 5 and 6), the average number of tees per ha is 481 with an additional value of Rp32 624 000 per year.

Table 4. Number of tree species in each plot (100 m x 30 m)

Table 5. Total product or income per year of 15-ha plot of fruit trees, vegetables, tuber (yam group), medicinal plants and cattle

From the above, it is clear that planting teak in combination with other timber and non-timber crops would bring better returns than planting teak alone. Higher income would also come from the lower cost of maintenance. For the monoculture of teak, the maintenance cost is about Rp2 000 000 per ha but that of the heteroculture of cassava with teak is only Rp400 000 per ha (report from Inhutani V Kotabumi).

FRUITS AND ESTATE CROPS

Planting fruits and estate crops among teak could give more income (Table 6), and also earlier income which would help most of the farmers and companies concentrate on their activities. There is also better chance to get credit from the bank.

Table 6. Total income from fruit and estate crops planted with teak in a 15-ha plot

In addition to allowing more trees per ha and bringing better income, the heteroculture provides better shading from the trees for better growth to the non-timber crops as can be seen from the nutrient distribution in Table 2.

What needs to be developed?

• formal and informal education to the local community on the proper crop combination and establishment of home industries;
• more simple and appropriate technology, and local management;
• more credit from the bank.

MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY BY INTEGRATED PLANTING OF OIL PALM WITH DIPTEROCARPS

In Indonesia, there is also the conversion of large areas of forest into oil palm estates. The government and also most of the farmers are interested in planting oil palm due to the higher income from oil palm and thus also higher revenue for the government. As a result, oil palm estates have been established wherever the palms could be planted. Trials have shown that the growth of timber, especially of dipterocarps, is excellent and gives so little competition to oil palm production. The cost of management of dipterocarps in oil palm estate is cheaper than that of planting timber alone as plantation. Oil palm also plays a role as shading for the dipterocarps. Integrated oil palm estates can also act as a source of biodiversity, food and also medicinal plants.

BIODIVERSITY IN RUBBER PLANTATION

More than 600 000 ha of rubber plantations in Sumatra have matured and need to be replanted. Planting dipterocarps under rubber should be considered. If rubber is planted together with dipterocarps as shade trees then the farmers would have the two benefits of rubber and wood. There would be wood supply for the industries and the world could get more oxygen and more carbon would be fixed. Planting dipterocarps under rubber would therefore bring more income to farmers, and more biodiversity and probably better conservation of water and wildlife.

MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY UNDER SECONDARY FOREST

There are several issues that need to be clarified with more research to show that if secondary forest is not too much disturbed by illegal logging then the biodiversity will return. Certainly some plant species can grow well and faster, and some species of fauna can only thrive, under undisturbed conditions. However, how much the biodiversity is affected by the degree of forest disturbance has yet to be demonstrated.

CONCLUSION

• Teak forest planted in combination with non-wood crops suitable for food production and animal husbandry can alleviate poverty.

• Integrated farming of teak increases nutrient availability, reduces fire risk, increases income for the farmers and companies, and enhances food production.

• In areas with acidic soils, more diversity could be developed under oil palm and rubber, especially where the main trees are dipterocarps.

• While little is known about the fragility of biodiversity in a disturbed secondary forest, it is still important to protect this forest from illegal logging.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adriayanti, D.T. 1994. Deskripsi jenis tanaman pioner pada lahan bekas kebakaran dihutan jati. KPH Madiun, Fak. Kehutanan, UGM. 57 pp.

Rifai, M.A. 1993. Plasma nutfah. Erosi genetika dan usaha pelestarian tumbuhan obat Indonesia. Bio Indonesia 9: 15-28.

Suhardi. 1990. Konkurensi akar dan tajuk dari hutan jati campur di BKPH Kedungbrubus. KPH Saradan Lap Penelitian DPP UGM /10123/M/03/01. 26 pp.

Sumardi & Winastuti. 1993. Identifikasi agen-agen penambat nitrogen dalam hutan jati. Penelitian DPP UGM. UGM /85/M/09/01, Fak. Kehutanan. 19 pp.

Team Peneliti Tumpang Sari UGM. 1974a. Usaha penyempurnaan tanaman Tumpang Sari di wilayah hutan jati. Progress Report I/1974. Perum Perhutani/Dirjen, Kehutanan/Deptan, Fak. Kehutanan, UGM. 31 pp.

Team Peneliti Tumpang Sari UGM. 1974b. Usaha penyempurnaan tanaman Tumpang Sari di wilayah hutan jati. Progress Report II/1974. Perum Perhutani/Dirjen Kehutanan/Deptan, Fak. Kehutanan, UGM. 15 pp.

Winastuti, D.A. 1993. Intensifikasi kacang tanah (Arachis hypogaea) dengan inokulasi Rhizobium di bawah tegakan jati di Wanagama. DPP, UGM/85/M/09/01, 31 Des. 1992. 26 pp.