The basic consideration in designing any research-extension system is technology flow. Knowledge of the process of technology flow facilitates diagnosis of research-extension linkage problems. The technology flow concept is based on the premise that technology is derived from science and flows from research station to users with or without an intermediary agency such as an extension service. In agriculture, the term 'technology' is used broadly to also include improved crop varieties and livestock, chemical inputs, farm implements and farm practices (Javier, 1989).
Technology flow processes
Technology flow involves sequential processes along the science-practice continuum. They are: science, technology generation, technology testing, technology adaptation research, technology integration, dissemination, diffusion and adoption (Roling, 1989). The transfer of technology model (Chambers, 1983) is most common, where breakthroughs developed by researchers are transferred to extension for delivery to users. This is a one-way, linear process and similar to the progressive farmer approach (Roling, 1989). This assumption of a linear, sequential flow of technology has been criticized by many social scientists as it ignores the actual contribution and potential of farmers as generators of technology (Javier, 1989). The model also neglects policy-driven, market-driven, and farmer-driven innovation.
Several other models - such as the technology innovation process (McDermott, 1987); the research-extension process (Bernardo, 1986); the technology generation and delivery process; and the agricultural technology development system - have been developed to describe technology flow. These models have been synthesized in the research-extension interface model (Javier, 1989) shown in Figure 1. The components of this model are: basic research, strategic research, technology generation (applied research), technology testing, technology integration, technology production, technology dissemination (technology transfer) and technology adoption. In this model, basic research refers to research conducted in the basic sciences. Strategic research, which mainly includes research on directly applicable basic knowledge, is taken as the boundary between science and technology.
Technology generation, testing, integration, production, dissemination and adoption constitute the technology development process. Technology generation has the same function as applied research, where the knowledge accumulated from basic science research is organized, interpreted, reformulated and translated into technology. Technology testing refers to verifying the results of new technology in the field to obtain early feedback. This is indeed a part of farming systems research (FSR) and on-farm trials. For the purpose of testing, participation of the extension service has been increasingly sought as its widespread networks help in reaching out to farmers, especially in less well endowed regions.
Figure 1 The research-extension interface in the technology flow process
Key: BR = Basic research; SR = strategic research; TG = technology generation; TT = technology testing; TI = technology integration; TD/TTr = technology dissemination and technology transfer; TA = technology adoption.Source: Javier, E.Q. 1989. Recent approaches in the study and management of the linkages between agricultural research and extension. ISNAR Staff Notes, No. 89-63.
Technology integration involves fine tuning and packaging of technologies into specific recommendations. Technology production involves designing and producing information materials, improved inputs, training programmes, etc. Technology dissemination is the process of delivery of technology to farmers.
Agricultural research includes activities from strategic research to technology production, and the extension function includes technology testing to technology dissemination. Thus technology testing, integration and production constitute the essential overlap area for linkage between research and extension.
The linkage problem
Agricultural research institutions usually concentrate their effort on strategic research and technology generation. Some efforts towards technology testing are also made. However, technology integration and production activities are generally neglected. In contrast, most extension agencies concentrate their effort on technology production and technology dissemination, with negligible attention given to technology integration and testing. Critical linkage problems therefore arise at the technology integration stage, followed by the technology testing and production stages.
In the absence of clear directions, research or extension personnel concentrate their effort on those activities which, in their judgment, are considered important. The judgment of these personnel are influenced principally by their background, experience and training. Usually, their background and training has not emphasized linkage activities. Often the institutions themselves give a low priority to linkage, especially when research and extension activities are administered by separate institutions. As a result, research institutions and personnel consider strategic research and technology generation to be their 'main activities,' while extension institutions and personnel consider technology production and dissemination to be their 'main activity.' In the process, linkage activities are neglected, or considered subsidiary by both. However, linkage activities cannot be performed in isolation; they require coordination of personnel from both research and extension functions, which demands additional efforts from both functions. Since background and training generally do not emphasize linkage activities, more effort is needed to build expertise in such activities. Thus the additional effort needed for coordinating and building expertise is also a major constraint when considering these activities to be 'main' for both research and extension personnel. The linkage problem is more severe in cases where research and extension functions are performed by separate public institutions.
In the absence of effective linkage, researchers do not receive enough information about the environment and resource constraints under which farmers are operating. This is an important piece of information for research institutions when setting their priorities and goals. Also, extension agents do not receive the necessary information and cooperation they need from researchers to adapt and then disseminate new technology. The linkage problems thus cause disruptions in technology flow and lead to low adoption rates, increased time lags between development and adoption of new technology, reduced efficiency in the use of resources, unnecessary competition and duplication of efforts, and increased cost of agricultural research and extension activities.
