Small-scale aquaculture is a means for economic diversification in rural areas and improved utilization of the resource base: land, water and labour. Integration of aquaculture into agriculture production systems, for example, to store water for crop irrigation and recycle on-farm organic wastes, can lead to a better yield of existing resources, an increase in farm income and improved household food security. Small-scale aquaculture can also provide a means for fishing communities to improve their production. Provided there are local markets for the fish produced, the economic exploitation of aquaculture potential could increase the income of producers and contribute to food security in rural areas.
In 1990, FAO estimated the total aquaculture production in Sub-Saharan Africa at 14,700 t/yr, less than 0,5% of the total world production. In the SADC region (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe as members) only Zambia is among the larger producers: more than 1000 t/yr.
Despite the low total production, there have been important aquaculture developments in the SADC region during the last 5–10 years. Small-scale aquaculture has expanded in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, where some 25 000 earthen ponds, mainly with tilapia species, are in production. Aquaculture production has virtually ceased in Angola and Mozambique due to political instability, and is negligible in Lesotho, Swaziland, and Botswana.
The expansion of small-scale aquaculture has occurred in areas where there is a physical potential (land, water, temperature); where there is a perceived need for fish for food or income; and, most importantly, where extension services promote aquaculture. It has occurred primarily through increased surface area underwater as more and more farmers adopt fish farming as a complementary farming activity. Levels of productivity remain relatively low, in harmony with production levels of other small-holder crops.
While technical methods for small-scale production of tilapias in earthen ponds are well tested and known in the region, their promotion by extension services and adoption by farmers require increased local knowledge about integration with other farming activities. In this context, locally adapted production methods for species other than the commonly used tilapias (e.g., temperate species) need to be tested and demonstrated, as do systems which increase pond productivity through intensified use of inputs.
The SADCC (Southern Africa Development Coordination Conference) was established in 1980 and was changed into the SADC (Southern Africa Development Community) in 1990 to reflect the aspiration for economic integration in the region. Within the SADC organization, which is decentralized, individual countries have been given the responsibility for coordinating specific sectors. Malawi was appointed Sector Coordinator for inland fisheries and aquaculture, while Namibia is responsible for marine fisheries and resources. Fisheries and aquaculture fall within the Natural Resources group. SADC's general policy within this group of sectors seeks to ensure that the management of natural resources helps to improve productivity and increase incomes, while also ensuring that developments do not undermine the diversity and richness of the region's natural resources base.
The SADC's programmes and projects are intended to contribute to the three main dimensions of resources management: economic, social, and bio-technical by assisting in the formulation of sound economic and environmental policies, promoting natural resources-based generation of income, and establishing mechanisms for increased participation of communities and grassroot organizations in the management and protection of these resources.
The overall aim of SADC's fisheries development programme is to promote and expand fish production in order to attain regional self-sufficiency, increase supplies of animal protein by reducing post-harvest losses, and create employment in order to increase income. The SADC Programme of Action states that:
fish is a natural resource that has great importance for the production of good quality protein
management and utilization of fish resources aim at maximizing sustainable yields from natural waters
self-sufficiency will be attained by increased productivity of marine and inland fisheries through improved techniques, integration of aquaculture with agriculture and other rural development programmes, wherever socially and economically feasible, utilization of under-exploited species, and improvement of fish processing, distribution and marketing for domestic and export markets.
The SADC's fishery policy statements reflect those of the member countries. However, most of the member countries do not have explicit development policies or plans for fisheries and aquaculture and, where policy statements exist, they are mostly linked to agriculture. In Malawi and Namibia preparations for fisheries (including aquaculture) policies and plans are underway. Zambia and Zimbabwe have requested FAO assistance in the elaboration of such policies and plans.
The importance of fish as food and its contribution to food security are highlighted in the general policy statements that exist. The statements also often refer to fish as a provider of cheap protein, as a source of employment and foreign exchange earnings (the latter mainly for marine fisheries).
ALCOM was designed as a regional experimental Programme for small-scale aquaculture development, with emphasis on social and economic aspects. It is financed with core funds from SIDA and specific activity funds from Belgium, and has received financial assistance from Japan and Norway and the FAO/TCP. The Programme is executed by FAO.
The Programme began in October 1986, with desk studies commissioned by FAO-Rome on the socio-economic, socio-cultural, bio-environmental, and bio-technical aspects of small-scale aquaculture development. The first pilot project was designed to field-test the findings of those desk studies.
Fieldwork commenced in March, 1987, in Eastern Province, Zambia. Socio-economic surveys also began in Zambia in 1987 to further examine factors influencing the adoption of aquaculture.
In October 1987 a “Technical Consultation on Aquaculture in Rural Development” recommended that the following target areas be addressed: (1) aquaculture and farming systems, (2) utilization of small water bodies, (3) extension and training, (4) women and youth in aquaculture development, (5) environmental aspects, and (6) information needs for planning and project design.
In October 1992, three further target areas were added: (1) information service, (2) aquaculture and human nutrition and (3) developmental support.
An Advisory Committee, comprising members from SADC countries, donors and FAO, was established and first met in November 1987. The annual meetings of the Advisory Committee were designed to review progress toward attaining objectives and to advise the Programme on orientation and work plans.
In September 1989 it was reconstituted as a “Steering Committee” (SC) to facilitate intergovernmental cooperation. Besides providing guidance in the implementation of the Programme, the SC reviewed annual work plans and advised on priorities for implementation. The mandate of the SC is found in Annex 1 of Prodoc (GCP/INT/436/SWE).
In August 1989 the SADC Council of Ministers endorsed ALCOM as a programme in line with their action programme and for operation in the region. National Coordinators/Liaison Officers handle routine business. They are also responsible for implementing activities. Counterparts were appointed by the collaborating authorities to implement activities.
From 1987 to 1989, ALCOM was headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia. In 1989 the headquarters was relocated to Harare, Zimbabwe. ALCOM is staffed by a multi-disciplinary team of international and national experts and APOs. Staff members are based at pilot project sites depending on the design of sub-projects.
ALCOM's rationale has been to assist member countries to investigate aspects of aquaculture development, and to test and demonstrate methods and approaches that are socially and economically viable, as well as technically feasible. This is carried out through small pilot projects. Tested and demonstrated methods that yield positive results are intended for wider application, either at a government's own initiative or through external assistance projects.
An internal review of progress was conducted in 1992, and it was decided to reorganize the 9 Target Areas of the ALCOM Programme into four Action Programmes. These are:
Diversification of rural economies through aquaculture. The Programme continues work started under aquaculture and farming systems, but broadens the areas to include more economic considerations for aquaculture development;
Utilization of small water bodies for fisheries and aquaculture. The Programme continues work on assessment methods but for the remainder of the project period will concentrate more on enhancement and management;
Institutions for aquaculture extension, applying results from earlier extension projects; and
Institutions for planning, communications and information.
The 6th meeting of the Steering Committee (1993) endorsed this recommendation. Thus, it was decided to continue to test and demonstrate methods and approaches, because the target areas “aquaculture and farming systems” and “small water bodies” had not yet yielded conclusive results and so further work was required.
Two Action Programmes were established to strengthen institutions, a hitherto neglected area and one that is a major constraint to aquacultural development in the SADC region.
At that same meeting it was concluded that work in the target areas of “information needs for planning and project design”, “extension and training”, “the role of women and youth”, “environmental impact” and “aquaculture and human nutrition” be merged into the four Action Programmes.
As outlined earlier, in Southern Africa, aquaculture is a young and small subsector. Consequently, supporting institutions are generally weak, compared with agriculture and capture fisheries, and receive very little budgetary, technical or other support. Training facilities for aquaculture extension exist only in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Extension services are very uneven; Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia are strengthening their aquaculture extension capacity through collaboration with specialists in the agricultural extension services (assisted by ALCOM in the case of Mozambique and Zambia), and in Zimbabwe the agricultural extension service includes aquaculture. Research facilities have declined together with general neglect of government aquaculture stations. For inland fisheries, functioning stations now exist only in Lesotho, Malawi and Namibia. However, several others could be renovated with comparative ease, and several universities in the Region have simple facilities and offer courses. Libraries and documentation centres in aquaculture institutions are generally out-of-date, and lack trained staff and equipment. Exceptional are the ICLARM (Malawi) and ALCOM (Zimbabwe) libraries, which have the capacity to function as regional documentation centres (Haight 1994, presentation to SIDA Farming Systems workshop).
Legislation for inland and marine aquaculture is generally not elaborated. Existing legislation relates more to conservation than development of the sector. In Lesotho, FAO is supporting the elaboration of legislation with consultancy services. Legislation is being developed in Botswana relating to ownership, control and exploitation of small water bodies.
The socio-economic environment of Southern Africa and the resultant factors that affect aquaculture development are complex and locally varied. The main such factors that impinge on the adoption of aquaculture by farm families are: (1) land tenure and inheritance systems, (2) access rights to land, (3) water and other related resources, (4) existing agricultural systems and their labour demands, (5) family size and structure, (6) social organization and traditional authority structure, (7) gender, and (8) perception of and ability to take economic and nutritional risk in a natural hazard-prone biophysical setting (ICLARM-GTZ 1992).
Efforts to transfer the traditional agriculture-aquaculture system from Asia to Latin America and Africa have had limited success. So far no conclusive reason for this phenomenon has been advanced. The present technical level of small-scale aquaculture in Southern Africa is generally low. The great majority of ponds are operated extensively (with none or very low levels of inputs). In some areas the beginning of increased use of pond inputs and rudimentary integration with agricultural crops, especially vegetables, is emerging. This could provide an opportunity to consolidate a low input sustainable aquaculture integrated with farming. Most ponds are small, earthen, undrainable, and with an unreliable water supply. Seasonal drying-out by seepage combined with drought is widespread. Production levels are low, averaging 500 kg/ha/yr.
The physical and biological environmental setting for aquaculture in Southern Africa is not optimal. The region is characterized by a relatively high elevation above sea level and consequent moderate temperatures. There are relatively small areas of lowland suitable for the culture of warm water species. However, if cooler water species are cultivated, the potential area increases greatly. Sandy soils, bare rock surfaces, steeply sloping land, and, especially, the lack of a regular water supply are all additional constraints that hinder the potential adoption of aquaculture. Recurrent drought is a major handicap. Nevertheless, a recent and conservative estimate (Kapetsky, 1994)1 of the physical potential for aquaculture development in Southern Africa is that 100,000 ha are suitable for development of warm water species culture. However, in the last analysis, motivation and skills are always the decisive factors.
The region is in a state of flux. The Republic of South Africa has just joined the SADC. Although it is too early to forecast, there will be possible changes in the institutional setting in the near future. Despite the minor and localized transformations resulting from specific projects, the overall environmental setting for aquaculture development in Southern Africa should not be underestimated.
One can be guardedly optimistic about likely changes in the technical and socio-economic environments surrounding aquaculture development. The ALCOM project activities in Eastern Zambia have demonstrated that adapted packages will be adopted by small-scale farmers, provided that they are extended appropriately and are likely to be sustainable if supported by an institutional structure. Small-holder farming responds to incentives, particularly when production diversification is perceived of as a risk avoidance mechanism.
In the aquaculture sub-sector, UNDP has been the largest donor and has also supported the largest number of countries. Other donors have concentrated their support on one country.
Many other regional and national programmes target the small-scale farming sector, though not all the activities are directly complementary to ALCOM.
(i) The FAO/SIDA Farming Systems Programme (GCP/RAF/258/SWE):
The approach taken in the ALCOM Programme is closely akin to that in Farming Systems (FS), namely that in research and development the ALCOM Programme was specifically designed to allow participation by small-scale farmers with limited resources. In helping to address the problems of the poorest farm families it indirectly promotes equity in development. FS provides a process for developing relevant strategies for helping resource-poor small-scale farmers, based on the principles that farmers participate in all phases of the FS process; that the persons involved in the process understand the whole farm system; and that individuals from many disciplines work together in an inter-disciplinary manner.
Based on these principles, the process operates in four phases: (1) The FS of resource-poor farmers are identified and their problems diagnosed; (2) technical and policy solutions to problems are designed; (3) solutions are tested through on-farm work; and (4) successful test results are disseminated to development and extension agencies.
In the SADC Region, the FS Programme operates in Botswana, Tanzania and Zambia. However, it should be noted that it operated very differently from ALCOM. For example, it is decentralized, provides research grants, and has few international staff.
(ii) Agricultural Operation Technology (AGROTECH)
The AGROTECH Project evolved from an earlier Rural Structures Programme that began in 1972, and focuses on four areas of agricultural technology development: (1) Post-harvest methods and storage of cereals and legumes; (2) post-harvest storage and processing of crops; (3) building structures and functional planning; and (4) small-scale field mechanization and transport. In the SADC Region it operates in Lesotho, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. There is little direct complementarity between this project and ALCOM.
(iii) The SIDA/SUAS Plant Protection Improvement Programme in Southern Africa PPIP
The overall objective of PPIP is improvement of the standard of living of small-scale farm families by increasing their productivity on a sustainable basis through adoption of improved and environmentally sound plant protection methods. This means promotion of Integrated Pest Management, with emphasis on non-chemical control technologies. The activities of PPIP have concentrated on research and training. In the SADC Region the Programme operates in Botswana, Tanzania and Zambia.
Again, there is little direct complementarity between this project and ALCOM. But since there have been high field losses to pests and a negative environmental impact from pesticides, the broad concepts and methods applied in the PPIP Programme could be useful for the water quality of ponds.
(iv) “The Africa Aquaculture Project” of the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
Based in Zomba, Malawi, the objectives of this project are to develop in collaboration with African scientists aquaculture technologies appropriate to conditions in rural Africa; to strengthen aquaculture research, training and education and information exchange among African and Asian institutions; to train African research and training personnel to support aquaculture research and national development; to conduct research on fish species and aquaculture systems, using on-farm crops and natural plant residues widely available on smallholder farms in rural Africa; and to complement efforts to extend low input sustainable aquaculture to African smallholders, by farmer participatory research and the development of methods of measuring the impact of their adoption of aquaculture. There was a memorandum of understanding between FAO and ICLARM regarding ICLARM's collaboration with ALCOM in 1992–1993. ALCOM is exploring the suitability of applying aspects of the Farming Systems approach developed by ICLARM in its extension methodology.
(v) The Inland Fisheries Development Programme of SADC
There are 18 projects in this programme, 6 of which have been funded. Of these, 2 are for aquaculture development, ALCOM Phase 2 and a fish-cum-duck farming project in Lesotho.
(vi) The Regional Fisheries Training Programme of SADC
This programme has 3 sub-projects directly related to aquaculture, and has received funding for a preparatory phase.
(vii) National Projects
In the SADC Region, there are 8 ongoing national aquaculture projects; Malawi (4), Zambia (3) and Mozambique (1). In collaboration with ALCOM, the SADC-funded Integrated Rural Development Programmes in Eastern and Luapula provinces of Zambia have been funding aquaculture components. The ZAREP programme for agricultural extension in Zambia, funded by the World Bank, recently started extension activities in collaboration with the Department of Fisheries and ALCOM.
Due to uncertain financing that will be discussed later, the Programme was divided into four phases: a “Preparatory Phase”, with a duration of 3 years, ran from October 1986 until September 1989; a one-year “Interim Phase”, from October 1989 until September 1990; Phase 1 which had a planned duration from October 1990 until September 1992, and Phase 2, which had a planned duration from October 1992 until September 1995. However, owing to devaluation of the Swedish currency, the planned termination of the phase was brought forward until December 1994. A proposed Phase 3 would last 5 years, from 1995 until 1999.
The Belgian-funded small water bodies project has a planned duration of 5 years, from September 1992 until September 1997.
