Albania
· A newspaper report states that under the first Five-Year Plan for forest rehabilitation and planting, dating 1951, some 8,000 hectares of forest were to be restocked and improvement works carried out over 19,000 hectares. A total of 133 new tree nurseries were to be established with a production capacity of 48 million plants. This plan was fulfilled in four years.
The second national Five-Year Plan (1966-1960) also comprised a forestry program, involving the afforestation of 4,000 hectares, improvement works on 36,000 hectares, 120 kilometers of access roads and 60 kilometers of narrow-gauge railway. Additional sawmills with an annual production capacity of 40,000 cubic meters were to be set up. In 1948, there were 24 sawmills in the country with an output of about 60,000 cubic meters per year. At the end of 1951, an integrated wood industry plant (forestry combine) was set up at Elbasan with the help of Russian technicians. It has a yearly output capacity of 30,000 cubic meters of sawnwood and 5,000 cubic meters of plywood.
Since 1951, an Arbor Week has been organized annually, during which many thousands of trees of different species have been planted.
Australia
· An FAO representative was invited to attend the 7th British Commonwealth Forestry Conference which took place in Australia and New Zealand last year. Delegates from 18 countries of the Commonwealth, representing about one fifth of the world's forest wealth, joined in tours and discussions which lasted from the end of August until early October.
The substantive work of the Conference was done mainly in committee. The report of the Committee on Australian Forestry, adopted by the Conference, recommended that:
1. A detailed inventory of the indigenous forests, both those belonging to the Crown and those in private ownership, be undertaken urgently and completed by the time of the Commonwealth Conference in 1967.2. All indigenous forests of actual or potential value on crown lands be dedicated as part of the permanent forest estate as early as possible, recognizing that well-managed forests not only produce timber of value but can at the same time serve other valuable purposes, particularly protection of water catchment areas.
3. The program of obtaining more complete utilization of, and affording silvicultural treatment to, indigenous forests, and of rehabilitating those degraded by fire and postselective logging, be accelerated.
4. The urgent need for more forestry research be met by the establishment of a Central Research Institute, with regional stations, under the Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra. An adequately paid research staff of high caliber is essential. It is the duty of the Bureau to deal with more basic problems and to assist in the coordination of the research activities of the States. The Bureau should be assisted in this task by an Advisory Committee composed of representatives of the Commonwealth and the various State Forest Services and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, together with a limited number of eminent scientists in other fields.
Chile
· Last December, Mr. A. Consigny, an FAO technical assistance officer accompanied a group of foresters of the Department of Conservation and Forest Resources, Ministry of Agriculture, to the extreme southern part of the country, Magallanes and Tierra del Fuego. The purpose of the visit was to enable the new Chief of the Forestry Division to inspect this remote area and to study to what extent forestry could be adjusted to sheep farming which, with the oil industry, is the main occupation in this region.
The officer reports that, except for the Monte Alto and Rio Rubens areas where very fine forests of Nothofagus pumilio merit protection and improving because of the excel lent timber furnished, the entire territory is obviously destined, in time, to be used for sheep farming. The comparatively flat topography, combined with climate, relatively little cold and generally adequate moisture, favors the formation of extensive prairies. In the natural state there is a high proportion of nonpalatable plants and woody species called indiscriminately " mata negra " (Verbena tridens, Berberis calafate, Mulinum spinosum, Escallonia rubra, Senecio patagonensis)
The great enemy of the region is wind which, always very strong, frequently attains hurricane velocity. Periods of calm weather are, according to local inhabitants, quite exceptional. In many places the vegetation appears to drape the ground like a flag, a characteristic shape assumed as a result of the strong winds. The winds parch the herbaceous vegetation and cause severe drought in the absence of rain. The brush and scrub give the grasses some protection, but end by covering practically the entire ground. For the most part, the brush must be eradicated to permit extension of the sheep ranches. At present, the grazing capacity of an average ranch is one sheep per hectare. If the brush were cleared and the ground seeded with more palatable species, this capacity could easily be increased fivefold.
Except in the ease of some privately owned areas, there has been so far little enthusiasm for clearing operations which are very costly. The reason for this is the present system of land leases, under which state land suitable for farming is classified into three categories according to its quality, and divided into lots of from 2,600 to 100,000 hectares depending on its quality rating. These lots are leased for 16-year periods to private persons who may raise sheep or carry on other types of farming or even forestry However, at the end of the 16 years the land automatically reverts to the Government, without any indemnity to the former tenant for buildings, clearing, planting or improvement works.
The more the land has been improved, the more competitors there are for it and no priority is accorded a former tenant in allocating new leases. It is understandable that, under these circumstances, there is little incentive to make improvements.
In addition to the three categories of farming land referred to above, provision does exist for classifying areas as forest reserves. There is a reserve of around 6,000 hectares in Tierra del Fuego, of poor quality and containing mainly the species called " leña dura " (Maytenus magallanica) which provides an excellent fuelwood but has no other possible use. Another reserve of 16,000 hectares in Magallanes has been devastated in the past but is now being vigorously eared for by the local forest officer and good regeneration has begun to appear, mainly of Nothofagus pumilio and N. antarctica. Unfortunately, at about 10 meters below ground there are coal seams which are being worked in several places, causing land subsidence, and the reserve offers a tempting source of free pit props.
The reserve clothes the banks of the Rio de las Minas, which empties into the port of Punta Arenas. Earlier devastation of the forest cover has caused serious erosion of the entire catchment area and consequently the silting up of the port. Attempts have been made to canalize the lower reaches of the river in order to prevent the floods that frequently inundate low-lying quarters of the town. The real solution is obviously to build dams in the upper portion of the river and reforest the catchment area which, together with other similar areas, should be classified as reserved forest.
A problem for the forester in this region is how to plant and establish effective windbreaks. Very few trees will grow readily, although the fact that there are some fine stands of Nothofagus proves that it is not impossible. It is to be noted that very fine woodlots are often grown on ranches behind high palisades of cries-crossed fencing which breaks the force of the wind. If the problem of windbreaks could be solved, this tip of South America might be transformed, permitting both better stock farming and the introduction of root crops.
China
· The Editor of China Forestry, a monthly periodical published in Peking, writes that early in December 1957 a conference called jointly by the Ministeries of Forest Economy and of Forest Industries reviewed the forestry work carried out in China during the last five years At present, China has under 8 per cent of its total land area under forest, very irregularly distributed. The aim is to expand the proportion to nearly 20 percent by the end of 1967.
A series of protective measures have been taken in recent years to preserve the country's existing woodlands. The State has passed forestry laws that restrict reckless cutting and burning of forests. Reliance on the masses is also followed in the fight against forest fires. The people are being aroused to appreciate the importance of trees. Fire prevention organizations are being set up. Fire prevention contracts are signed between villages in the forest region.
In the last two or three years, 5,700 kilometers of forest roads have been built and more than 7,000 kilometers of telephone wire installed in the forests. The year 1967 saw the establishment of 37 weather and fire forecasting stations and 14 fire stations installed with chemical extinguishing equipment. In the northeast and the Inner Mongolian region where vast expanses of forests are located, aerial reconnaissance has been adopted. As a result, in many places no forest fires have occurred during these years.
An all-out onslaught has been launched against forest pests. Apart from chemicals dusted or sprayed either by hand or from planes, parasitic enemies of forest insects, such as the hymenopterous parasites, have been used. Forecasting outbreaks of forest pests has been started on a trial basis.
Once a sense of tree-consciousness is aroused among the masses, their initiative and creativeness brings many effective remedies. One measure accepted by the people is to facilitate natural regeneration by enclosing certain forest areas. It is claimed that 3,890,000 hectares were enclosed for natural regeneration in 1956 alone. In the five years, 1953-57, 5,910,000 hectares have been fenced off for natural regeneration.
The State has popularized this method and the peasants are keen on it, for it not only leads to flourishing forests, thus preventing soil erosion and inundation, but also provides rich supplies of firewood, fodder and manure. The example of Faku Hsiang (a hsiang is an administrative unit embracing several villages) in Liaoning Province of Northeast China is instructive. In 1961, the peasants of this hsiang enclosed 610 hectares for natural regeneration. Five years later, the enclosure was opened up for a time and yielded the villagers a total of 8,800 yuan (about $ 3,530) in forest products. What is more, thanks to the restored forest cover, more than 60 hectares of arid land could be turned into rice fields and the villagers bred silkworms in the regenerated forest. This brought the villagers another 20,000 yuan last autumn.
Courtesy, B. Clarke
The first Five-Year Plan provided for the planting of 3,550,000 hectares of timber trees. It is claimed that, by the end of 1957, 5,160,000 hectares were planted, topping the original plan by 46 percent. Eighty-five percent of the newly-planted forests are in the provinces south of the Yangtze River. More work has been done in the southern provinces because they have a long tradition of tree planting, and the warm climate, the high rainfall and the fertility of the soil bring on fast growth. For instance, in Chekiang Province pine trees need two thirds less time to form a close canopy than in the northeast provinces. Therefore, the area south of the Yangtze will become the main timber-producing region of the country in the future.
It is estimated that the new forests planted in the first Five-Year Plan period will have begun to yield within 30 to 40 years. Taking an average timber extraction ratio of 150-300 cubic meters per hectare, the timber output yielded by these new forests will total upwards of 1,000 million cubic meters.
China's giant water conservancy works in the Yangtze River valley and the Huai River valley are well-known. But if trees are not restored to the upper reaches of some of the big rivers, especially the Yellow River, and if the devastating Gobi Desert is not curbed, no conservancy work can be regarded as complete. In fact, it would be of little use. This is why the building of shelterbelts and the planting of trees for water and soil conservation are so important in the afforestation program.
Sandbreak shelterbelts have been planted in the western part of northeast China, eastern Inner Mongolia, Hopei, Shensi, Honan and Kansu Provinces. It is also planned to build shelterbelts in the Turfan basin of Sinkiang and on Hainan Island. Surveying and prospecting of these areas is under way.
Tree planting for special forest products has topped the original plan by nearly 400 percent, it is said. In 1956, tuna oil trees (Aleurites fordii) were planted on 600,000 hectares. Trees like the aniseed (Illicium verum), camelia (Thea oleosa), tallow (Sapium sebiferum), walnut and camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) have also been planted on a considerable scale, and the management of old forests of this category has been improved. The output of tuna oil in 1956 was about 45 percent more than in 1949, and output of edible camellia oil in 1954, 30 percent more than 1950. Forestry work in this field not only helps meet the growing demands of the home market, but also supplies a large amount of raw material for export. Statistics from the Ministry of Foreign Trade show that, among the 23 items of raw materials exported in the past four to five years, 12 were forest products.
China has three research institutes specializing in forestry the Institute of Forestry under the Forestry Ministry in Peking, the Institute of Forestry and Pedology in Shenyang (Mukden), and the South China Institute of Botany in Canton, the latter two under the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In addition, each province has its own research center.
Costa Rica
· In 1951, the Committee on Economic Co-operation of the five countries of Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) requested the Technical Assistance Board of the United Nations to make available, through FAO, the services of a forestry education expert for the purpose of expansion of the forestry education and training course already offered since 1950/51 by the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
In making this decision to assist the expansion of the forestry training program of the Turrialba Institute, the existence of forestry schools at Mérida, Venezuela, and Medellín, Colombia, was not forgotten but these schools are on a different basis in that undergraduates are admitted by them for a comprehensive forestry course including the basic sciences as well as their application to forestry, extending over four years, whereas Turrialba offers a one year's course of intensive training in advanced forestry to graduates only, especially agricultural graduates. In addition to the course of training, each graduate assistant (the title used at Turrialba Institute for students) is required to make a special study of a subject chosen by him, preferably a subject relevant to a specific forestry problem in his own country, and to prepare a thesis on this subject to qualify for the Masters degree conferred by the Turrialba Institute on successful graduate assistants. In other words, the course at Turrialba aims specifically at rounding off the training of graduates in science, giving it a definite forestry bias, thereby equipping them to be forestry leaders in their own countries.
Forest officers who are to assume administrative and/or executive responsibilities on a territorial basis, and forest officers who wish to specialize in forest research are equally necessary for a well-balanced pro gram of forestry development. Experience of other countries, which have been fortunate in having had forest services for many years, shows that men who are successful administrators or executives are not always suitable for research, while gifted research officers may not fit in equally well in an administrative or executive post. The courses of training offered at Turrialba and Mérida Institutes, far from conflicting are complementary for forestry development.
It is obviously most desirable to have such forestry training available in Central America itself Also centralization of postgraduate forestry training has many obvious advantages, especially when a number of small countries are involved. The Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Turrialba, is unquestionably the most appropriate center in Central America. The Institute is supported by contributions from a number of member counties of the Organization of American States as an international co-operative project, has ample residential accommodation, classrooms and laboratories, an excellent technical reference library, facilities for experimental forestry on the Institute's estate, and is within easy reach of all important types of Central American forests. Further qualified teachers in physiology, taxonomy, pathology, agricultural economics and extension are available for giving training in these related fields if required. The total cost of training, including living and travelling expenses during the year's course, is reasonable, amounting to approximately $2,000.
Mr. E. J. Schreuder was assigned to be FAO Forester at the Turrialba Institute from June 1955 until September 1956, when he was transferred to the Instituto Latino Americano de Investigación y Capacitación Forestal, Mérida, Venezuela, an international project of FAO's Latin America Forestry Commission. He was succeeded by Mr. A. Hyndman Stein.
Iran
· An interesting work on forest management has recently been written by Gholam Ali Banan, of the Ministry of Agriculture, Iran, and published in Persian. It contains a detailed account of classical methods of European and American origin which are applicable in Iran.
Following an introduction in which the writer explains in particular the relationships between silviculture and management, the work is divided into two sections. The first deals with the general principles underlying the work of forest management. And here the writer stresses the ideas of normal stand and potential yields, as well as describing the different kinds of harvesting methods. The second section describes management techniques and examines in turn the preparatory work (surveying, inventory taking, subdividing of stands into management units, etc.) and then the basic preliminaries (determining the potential yield, choice of silvicultural treatment and stand regeneration methods, and cutting rules). Finally, he examines particular cases: management of converted stands, parks and forests used by tourists, etc.
The writer makes particular mention of the reserve fund system which is too often overlooked, although it has undeniable advantages in that it assures flexibility to management in coping with changes in economic situations.
The author does not make specific recommendations as to the methods best suited to the present forestry situation in Iran. He does not touch the possibility of management for multiple use in forests where grazing is permitted, as happens so frequently in this country, nor the use of mountain areas for both grazing and forestry. However, his work places within the reach of Persian-speaking students and technicians an excellent reference book on problems of forest management and the methods by which they are solved in other countries.
Courtesy, S. von der Recke
New Zealand
· The 7th Commonwealth Forestry Conference, to which reference has been made earlier in this issue, is described in detail in the December 1967 number of the Empire Forestry Review. In regard to the use of exotic species in planting programs, which formed one of the major themes of the Conference and in which of course New Zealand has considerable experience, the Conference invited the Forestry Institute at Oxford, England, to undertake the compilation and publication of a summary by species of the comprehensive information submitted to the Conference by member countries.
The venue of the next Conference in 1962 is to be East Africa - Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika.
In regard to New Zealand itself, the Conference made the following recommendations:
1. The minimum area of indigenous forest necessary in the national interest should be determined and steps be taken to see that this area is brought into sustained production. The work of restocking partly stocked land in state forests should be intensified. Research into the problems of the indigenous forests should be increased.2. In view of the high importance of controlled management of mountain catchments to New Zealand, where the whole standard of living is largely dependent upon a high level of agricultural and pastoral production for its lowlands, protection forest problems should, on completion of the protection forest survey already begun, receive the most careful attention from all appropriate authorities.
3. Exotic plantations should be diversified by the use of a wider range of species.
4. Early thinning and pruning should be carried out in all second-rotation crops of exotics, and, wherever practicable, in the younger first-rotation crops, even if such early treatment is not immediately remunerative.
5. There is need for new outlets and markets for forest produce in order that the exotic forests may be managed on a sound basis. Development of large integrated plants in the major forest areas is required, as is also the establishment of small-scale manufacturing units in other districts.
6. In view of the very real danger of disease and of insect attack, notably in exotic forests, there should be an intensification of precautionary and preventive measures.
6. Although there has been a notable expansion in forest research in New Zealand in recent years, there is urgent need for further increase in view of the numerous problems still awaiting solution.
Philippines
· The Forest Products Research Institute is located on a 2-hectare compound in Makiling Park, not far from Los Baños, Laguna. It is a semiautonomous government institution attached for policy purposes to the University of the Philippines. It was created because of a growing consciousness of the necessity for more efficient and more complete utilization of the products of the forests of the Philippines.
Investigations on the properties and uses of wood were conducted in a small way by the Bureau of Forestry and the Bureau of Science, beginning about 1906. In 1926, a Division of Forest Products was created in the Bureau of Forestry to conduct research in this field and in 1933 this was converted into a section of the Division of Forest Investigations. A number of valuable publications were issued during these years that are still useful. In 1962, the establishment of a forest products laboratory was ordered, as a separate division of the Bureau of Forestry. It began its research in November 1954. On 6 July 1957, an executive order was signed by the President, which merged the Forest Products Section of the Bureau of Forestry with the Forest Products Laboratory into a new entity, the Forest Products Research Institute. The reorganization gave the new institute much freedom of action in conducting its business and carrying on its research.
The present methods of getting logs out of the forest and converting them into useful products leave many trees standing because they are defective or are species that cannot be marketed profitably. In addition, high stumps, large branches, tree tops and broken parts are left on the ground and only the saleable logs are removed. After the logs reach the mill to be converted into lumber, plywood and other products, there are additional losses in the form of sawdust, slabs, edgings, shaving, trimmings, bark and defective or broken pieces. Altogether, one half to two thirds of the wood in a tree cut from the forest is lost along the way from the forest to the final user.
The enormous amount of unused wood has great potential value as a source of raw material for new wood-using industries and new products. For example, some of the wastes can be converted into wallboards, pulp and paper, charcoal, refined cellulose, bark extracts, small wood products, and various chemical products. These products can be made commercially only when it can be done at a profit. No commercial plant can operate long at a loss. One of the main problems of wood utilization research, therefore, is how to use wood residues profitably. This requires research and development on a large and continuing scale but big dividends will result to the nation in the long run.
Courtesy, S. von der Recke
The objectives of the research and development program of the institute may be stated briefly as follows:
a
) to study the properties of the 3,000 different species of Philippine woods to determine the uses for which they are suited;
b) to study and improve the chemical processing, seasoning, preservative treatment and other manufacturing or improving processes so that the wood may be converted into final products more efficiently and more profitably and may serve the user better;
c) to develop new industries based on wood residues not now profitably used, and thus provide additional employment opportunities and economic advantages;
d) to find profitable uses for species not now being used and for species found to have special properties of value;
e) to undertake any other kind of research that will assist in the more efficient utilization of the products of the forest.
The Forest Products Research Institute and its research program have developed mainly out of the co-operative efforts of the Philippine Government which provided the buildings and pays the salaries and operating costs, the United States International Cooperation Administration, which provided most of the original research and operating equipment, and FAO which furnishes technical advisers, headed by Mr. G.M. Hunt, to assist in selecting equipment, training personnel, and developing the research program. These and many additional organizations and individuals contributed books and other materials, scholarships for training abroad and/or cooperative funds.
The Institute operates under the supervision of a Governing Board. The business and research are under a Director, and Assistant Director and five Division Chiefs, as follows:
Administrative Services Division
- conducts the business and general operation and maintenance of the Institute.
Chemical Investigations Division - investigates the chemical composition of woods and other forest products, the manufacture of pulp, paper, wallboard and minor chemical products, and related problems.
Industrial Investigations Division - investigates the strength of woods, the problems of wood manufacturing industries, and the suitability of woods for special uses.
Wood Preservation Division - studies the physical properties of wood, durability of treated and untreated wood, preservative treatment and seasoning, the activities of insects and fungi that damage wood and methods for their control, and related investigations.
Wood Technology Division - investigates the microscopic structure and fiber characteristics of wood, methods for the identification of individual species, the relations between structure, properties and uses, the manufacture of veneer and plywood and other glued products, minor products of the forest, and related problems.
The staff of the Institute totaled 152 employees in January 1958. It consists of chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical engineers, chemists, technologists, botanists, foresters, entomologists, pathologists, administrators, clerks, skilled mechanics, woodworkers and laborers. It is necessary that all these skills be brought to bear on the research program in order that it may progress expeditiously on all its lines of investigation.
Switzerland
· The Forestry Division of FAO has noted with interest a publication entitled " La Forêt et l'Economie pastorale dans le Jura " (FORESTRY AND GRAZING IN THE JURA). This is a thesis prepared by Mr. E. Rieben, forestry officer at Vallorbes, for submission to the Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, and represents a thorough study of the alpine pastures of the Swiss Jura, and more particularly of the French-speaking sector, comprising the cantons of Vaud, Neuchâtel and Berne. However, because of the writer's broad treatment of land-use problems and more specifically of land under forest and pasture in mountain areas and the relation between the two, the book is of general interest to all foresters who have to deal with these controversial problems.
The first part of this book describes the physical environment and past conditions that have led to the present aspects of the alpine regions of the French-speaking Jura. Practically all the pastures in this zone have been carved out of the forest by man and his herds and flocks. When the population was sparse the land was put to dual use, grazing and forestry, a practice still continued on more than 18,000 hectares, and the consequence was a distribution of the two uses which proved often unsound and even inimical to soil conservation. The Federal Forest Law of 1902, by including wooded pastures as part of the forest and prescribing " the maintenance of the present forest area of wooded pastures ", has given foresters great responsibility in the treatment of alpine pastures.
The second part of the book is of more general interest The author studies the reciprocal effect of two kinds of land use: forestry and pasture. He shows in turn the effect of grazing on the species composition of forest stands, in this particular case, the retrogression of fir and beech in relation to spruce, then its effect on soils and, lastly, the dire consequences of overgrazing. In his conclusion to the second part, the writer very clearly shows the need, under ecological and soil conditions in the Jura and within the framework of an economy that, as in this case, must make the maximum use of its soil productivity, for a complete separation of the grazing and the forestry uses of the land. Naturally, this in no wise means that trees growing on pastures, especially shelter clumps or windbreaks, must necessarily be eliminated. Quite the contrary. These should be turned to the best account and, if necessary, trees should be planted and special measures taken to ensure their regeneration. They should, however, be considered as accessories to pastures where, if suitably placed, they are of great value. On the other hand, continuous tree cover occupying pasture-land areas capable of producing good quality forage should be removed.
On land reserved for timber production, grazing should be definitely and completely excluded. The distribution of trees to be left on grazing land will depend on local conditions and on the purposes in view, the main one in this region being to provide stock with a proper shelter against cold winds and bad weather, and to protect the soil against erosion caused on steep slopes. In general, single trees or thinly-stocked stands in which only poor quality and small quantities of forage are produced, should be eliminated, although under conditions other than those peculiar to the Jura (the author cites in particular the case of high-altitude larches in the Alps), such tree stands may be of particular value to pasture users.
The points that have to be taken into consideration in deciding on a judicious division of land for use as pasture and for forestry, now quite separate, are discussed in the third part of this book. The author examines successively the physical factors (site, geology, pedology, climate, and relief which together constitute the phytosociological group), then the economic and social factors. With regard to the economic factors, he notes that, taking as a basis the rentals from alpine pastures obtained by community owners, the cash income per hectare of pasture is usually only half the average income from forest land (60 as against 120 Swiss francs). He rightly concludes, however, that many other factors must be kept in mind; in particular, the considerable benefit derived by livestock and the mountain population from summering in alpine pastures.
The fourth part of the book is concerned with effective means of separating pastures from forests (by hedges and fencing) and methods of restocking or afforesting those areas where grazing is no longer permitted.
The elimination of grazing on land set aside for forests would normally entail the restriction of the number of head of livestock allowed to pasture. However, the author believes that there is absolutely no need for this in the Jura and that pasture improvement, described at length in the fifth part of his work, should make it possible amply to offset the loss of forage production of the areas withdrawn from grazing. It should be noted, however, that such improvement of pastures often requires complex technical methods and a labor forge, equipment and capital which can certainly be easily assembled in the Jura, although it would be difficult to find them under other conditions.
Here also, operations of this kind are greatly helped not only by the trade unions or go-operative associations, of which pasture owners or lessees are themselves the prime movers, but also by substantial cantonal and federal subsidies. This contribution of the various parties interested in seeing these forest-pasture improvements achieved is discussed in the sixth part of the book. In conclusion, the author galls attention to the need for coordinating the efforts of all the parties interested in sound land use, and suggests setting up " an agency staffed with persons who have the necessary knowledge of biology, technology and political economy, to deal especially with problems of alpine forestry and pasture economy, and which can also effect liaison between the agricultural, forestry and pasture improvement services... ", a very general recommendation which applies with equal force in many other regions.
United Kingdom
· Ultrasonic equipment has been used by the Timber Development Association for detecting flaws in wood, and its possible development for determining the presence of diseased tissues has been suggested. The principle of this type of flaw detection is to generate pressure (sound) waves of very high frequency which are transmitted through suspect materials such as metals or plastics. When flaws are present, the reduction of the degree of transmission in the defective area can be measured. Ultrasonic waves produced by commercial flaw detectors do not harm the materials being tested. The equipment is portable.
In these trials, transmission of ultrasonic energy through wood was measured both down and across the grain. After two areas, on exactly opposite sides of the samples, had been smoothed to give two flat surfaces, each about 25 square centimeters in area, the wood was smeared with a coupling agent to ensure good contact between the probes and the wood. To transmit across the grain the sampling areas had to be stripped of bark, which was found to be impenetrable to the ultrasonic energies employed.
The transmission of ultrasonic energy through wood is considerably reduced even when slight defects are present. The sensitivity could probably be increased with sets specially adapted for detecting flaws in timber. No transmission could be obtained through 5 centimeters of red pine infected with dry rot even though ultrasonic energy could be transmitted through 130 centimeters of sound seasoned beech.
Besides its potential value as a research tool for studying the ecology of tree disease organisms, the most important development of this technique would be the reduction of economic losses of timber. Trees of value are often lost because fungal infections (such as heart and butt rots) remain undetected for many years. The early detection of disease in an elite plantation would enable a decision to be made about its potential value and future management.
Courtesy, M. A. F. Dijkmans
United States
· Forest Service activity in the field of forest fire research has been expanding during the past few years. Many local studies and some of general interest are under way. Among these are:
1. Fire danger rating.2. Use for airplanes for dropping water and chemicals on fires in support of ground forces is being perfected (limited field use in California 1956 and 1957).
3. Helicopter accessories dropping and hose lays are being perfected for both small and large helicopters.
4. Tests of sodium calcium borate as a fire retardant have shown it effective on both small and large fires.
5. More information about thunderstorm origins and behaviors is being collected; it has been demonstrated that young, growing cumulus clouds, at least, can be broken up before they reach the lightning stage.
6. Development of drought indexes to help show cumulative effects of past adverse weather on current danger, has been initiated.
Plans call for continuing studies on some projects and new ones to be started as follows:
1. Use of airplanes will be tested in support of ground forces in the South.2. Sodium calcium borate fire retardant will be tested in the South in both air and ground applications.
3. Skyfire thunderstorm detection and tracking studies together with cloud seeding tests will be expanded.
4. Study of blow-up fires will be strengthened.
5. Techniques for making wind surveys in critical local areas.
6. Field trials of methods for breaking up extensive brush fields to facilitate control.
7. Ways to increase the effectiveness of initial attack through both faster and stronger attack.
8. Systematic ways to recognize and to type fuels.
9. Controlled burning techniques to get desired results with adequate safety.
· The quarterly Fire Control Notes of the United States Forest Service has, during 1957, been able to obtain more articles than usual which deal with broad aspects of fire control rather than with developments of implements and machinery, although the latter are not neglected.
One significant article by a senior officer of the Forest Service deals with the whole complex question of fire control planning as developed in the northern Rocky Mountain National Forest region. During the earlier years of Forest Service history beginning in 1905, this region was the scene of vast and tremendously damaging timber fires which, up to 1930, had burned an annual average of more than 252,000 acres (102,000 ha.). Much of the background reason for this tremendous loss was the inaccessibility of most of the forest areas, resulting in slow attack on many fires.
Then, with the invention of powerful machinery capable of building mountain roads rapidly and cheaply, the decade of 1931-40 was marked by a great extension of roads into inaccessible areas which resulted in the reduction of the average annual loss rate to 62,500 acres (25,300 ha.).
Toward the end of this period, the use of aircraft in forest fire control led to the development of the " smoke jumper " project and, during the years singe 1951, the average annual JOBS rate has been reduced to 8,000 acres (3,240 ha.), undoubtedly helped by favorable weather conditions.
As each major step ahead in technology was paralleled by serious study of the problem, new and more complex systems of fire control planning had to be developed, each plan dealing with prevention, presuppression - that is, organization in advance of fires - and suppression. The major lesson from this 50-year-old development is that each new step ahead in invention and in research necessarily involves development of new plans and methods, and thus fire control planning is, in essence, a continuing project. Each major unit, whether federal or state, has evolved its own system of planning, but the one herein reported is recognized as one of the very good ones.
Another significant article dealing with the new tool, the air tanker, as it is developing in California, may give notice that again a fresh look at fire control planning is imminent. The sir tanker As used in California in 1966 and in 1957 has some spectacular accomplishments to its credit. Initially, planes used in agricultural work were used to dump loads, first of water, then later of water with a heavy load of sodium borate, and to date this whole project is necessarily experimenting with a great number of special questions involving tactical use on difficult fires. So far, aerial bombing seems to be able to hold a small fire until initial attack forces arrive; cool down hot spots so that men can enter the area and work safely; knock down spot fires; build a fire-retardant line with borate in advance of a fire or where men cannot work; reduce the probability of crowning; strengthen existing fire-lines; directly support ground forges who are actively engaged in line construction; and fireproof local areas where spot fires are probable. But as yet the sir tanker cannot knock down hot rolling brush or timber fires; safely make drops in high winds; make drops in the bottoms of steep canyons or other inaccessible places; cool down hot fires with heavy fuels under timber stands; nor work at night.
Use of this new tool has necessarily involved invention of new organizational devices, since ordinarily a fleet of tankers is used on a given fire, and the whole field of correct organizing and timing the supplemental operation of ground forces and tankers, still under process of development. So, too, is the building of a fleet of aircraft suitable for close-to-ground operations on often precipitous and extremely rough terrain. Transfer of aircraft considered obsolete by the United States Navy has mesas a major advance in the sureness and safety with which bombing operations may be carried out.
Altogether, this very new method may again involve major reconsideration of the problems of suppression in the very hazardous heavy cover, fast spread types such as the brush in southern California and elsewhere, and in bad starts in inaccessible areas.
Any such technological advance connotes sad requires that the men actually charged with putting out fires have a larger body of information that they need to know in order to use the new method most effectively. One of these is information about the principles of combustion and their significance in forest fire behavior, and an article in Fire Control Notes by a recognized authority in the field summarizes in understandable language what is now known on the subject.
Thus this magazine is bringing to its readers up-to-date information which a modern fire control officer must know and use.
