WATER MANAGEMENT IN BALUCHISTAN - Muhammad Ramzan Chaudhry

Muhammad Ramzan Chaudhry
Director, International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute
Lahore, Pakistan

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Baluchistan lies in the desert belt between 25° N and 32° N. It has an arid to semi-arid climate, and water resources are limited compared to other provinces of Pakistan. The main sources of water on which people depend are springs, streams, rivers and karezes. In most of the area, karezes were persistent and sufficient water was available to meet requirements. But with the widespread introduction of tubewell technology, many karezes dried because of overexploitation. Tubewells helped to increase cropping intensities and yields, but overexploitation led to mining of groundwater, especially near large cities. Baluchistan's annual surface water allocation by the National Water Accord is about 5 billion m³, which is not sufficient to meet crop water requirements; groundwater is being used to augment it. Uncontrolled installation of numerous public and private tubewells has resulted in groundwater mining.

Rainfall is scanty and unevenly distributed. About 50 percent of the area is irrigated through sailaba (flooding) and khushkaba (water harvesting), the other 50 percent through canals, karezes, springs and tubewells. Monitoring has revealed a fall in groundwater levels in many areas, indicating groundwater mining. Investigations have shown that there are some groundwater resources that can be exploited, because the water varies from good to marginal and can be used for irrigation.

Groundwater-management problems include poor governance and lack of commitment from the public and private sectors. Development and management of groundwater can be improved by controlling overexploitation, introducing legislation and strengthening institutions. Measures have been taken to recharge groundwater, including delayed-action dams, development of ponds, dikes and check dams and rehabilitation of karezes; these need further improvements. Watershed management can play a significant role in improving water resources.

A groundwater development and conservation authority should be established to improve water management, groundwater investigations should be given priority, groundwater mining should be controlled and recharge techniques and efficient technologies such as sprinkler/drip systems should be introduced. There is a need for more research. An integrated surface and groundwater management programme should be introduced.

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture, which is largely dependent on irrigation, plays a pivotal role in Pakistan's economy. Baluchistan is the largest province in terms of area, but has the smallest number of people per unit area. It is situated in the desert belt, between 250 N and 320 N. The climate is arid to semi-arid with low rainfall, dry winds, cold winters and hot summers. Irrigation is essential to agriculture in most of the province, but water resources are limited and uncertain compared to the other provinces.

The water resources in the province have been used for centuries, but they are not sufficient to meet crop water requirements, which hampers development of land resources. Of an area of 34.7 million ha, about 18.5 million ha are reported as used, of which 1.7 million ha are cultivated.

The people of Baluchistan have always depended on natural water sources such as springs, streams, rivers and karezes. Among these, the karezes are the most persistent; other sources are seasonal and depend on climatic conditions.

With the passage of time, water resources are being overexploited, especially in urban areas, and groundwater levels are sinking. If this process continues, there is a danger that water may not be available even for human consumption. The population and provincial authorities must pay immediate and special attention to careful and efficient use of available resources. The objective is to assess Baluchistan's water resources and their management.

CLIMATE

Extreme temperature variations have been observed: at Quetta, a temperature of -12°C has been recorded in winter, and at Sibi, the hottest place in Pakistan, a temperature of 51°C has been recorded in summer. Precipitation over a large part of the province is about 100 mm per year. Mean annual evaporation rates vary from 3 000 to 5 000 mm. Isohyetal contours identify three distinct regions; contours drawn on the basis of data from 1910 to 1950 show higher rainfall compared to 1960 to 1985 in all three regions, which may indicate a change in regional weather patterns.

LAND UTILIZATION IN BALUCHISTAN

Land utilization statistics are given in Table 1. It is clear that the area sown has increased considerably with the passage of time. To irrigate this additional area and increase production, more water resources are needed.

Table 1. Land-utilization statistics: Baluchistan; areas in millions of ha

Source: Government of Pakistan (2000)

Rainfall is irregular and scanty with wide seasonal variations, a common feature of desert regions. The plains and lower highlands receive monsoon rainfall during July and August; the upper highlands receive rainfall from storms arriving from the Persian plateau in February and March.

Figure 1. Map showing rivers and streams in Baluchistan

WATER RESOURCES OF BALUCHISTAN

Water plays a significant role in the economy of the province. Development of the agricultural sector depends on secure supplies of good-quality water. There is an urgent need to use available water resources in the most efficient ways and to develop new resources to the maximum. The main water sources are detailed below.

Surface-water resources

An agreement for sharing water among four provinces was signed in March 1991; the provincial allocations are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Provincial water allocation

Precipitation is the main source of surface water. Baluchistan has numerous rivers and streams flowing from mountain ranges and highlands, shown in Figure 1. No major storage dam exists in the province to store water from flash floods, which may cover many km².

Groundwater resources

Development of groundwater resources

Groundwater has always been and still is an important source of irrigation water in Baluchistan. It occurs in hard consolidated rock and unconsolidated alluvium rock. In hard rock, good aquifers exist in zones with many joints, fractures, fissures and caverns. Unconsolidated deposits with good aquifers are in gravel and sand. It is extracted from dug wells, tubewells and on a limited scale through the karez system. There has been a rapid increase in drilling over the last 20 years, resulting in some major benefits but with accompanying disadvantages. Until 1989, approximately 22 percent of land in the province was irrigated from underground water resources such as karezes, springs, open wells and tubewells. By 1998, however, land irrigated from these sources was 34.5 percent, with tubewells alone accounting for 22.8 percent. Domestic water requirements are largely met from groundwater (Khan and Mian, 2000).

The number of tubewells drilled by government agencies from 1950 to September 2000 is given in Table 3, which shows a significant increase in the installation of tubewells over time reflecting increased exploitation of groundwater for agricultural, industrial and urban consumption.

Table 3. Drilling of tubewells by government agencies

I&P Dept. = Irrigation and Power Department, Government of Baluchistan
BDA = Baluchistan Development Authority
PHE Dept. = Public Health Engineering Department, Government of Baluchistan.
Sources: Bureau of Water Resources (1997); Khan and Mian (2000).

The impact of groundwater development on socio-economic conditions

With tubewell technology ensuring a sufficient supply of water, there was significant increase in the area under orchards. This caused a major shift from traditional low-value crops to high-value cash crops, resulting in a positive impact on the provincial economy. Tubewell development increased cropping intensities by 100 percent, but indiscriminate and unplanned use of groundwater resources with tubewells has resulted in overexploitation in several valleys, leading to a steady fall in aquifer water levels. Such unsustainable use of groundwater has affected karez flows; collapsing tunnels have made these unusable. According to a WAPDA report of June 1992, of 1 000 karezes 464 are in good running condition, 266 have declining flows and 270 have gone dry. Most karezes that are drying or have declining inflows are in the Quetta valley, where excessive withdrawals are made to meet water requirements of the area. This is a major problems for Quetta.

Excessive withdrawal has resulted in a shift of population from rural to urban areas, which strains urban resources. Quetta has to bear the brunt of this migration, which has serious social and economic repercussions and which has disturbed the homogeneity of rural society, creating social problems for the urban and rural populations.

Rainwater

Rainfall in the province varies between 50 and 350 mm per annum. The plains and lower highlands receive rainfall in summer monsoons and the upper highlands in winter. Annual and seasonal rainfall is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Annual and seasonal rainfall in Baluchistan

Source: WAPDA, (1993)

In the continental highland, winters are characterized by cold, snowy weather; summers are cool, with irregular monsoon rains. The continental plateaus are the hottest and driest regions of the province; heat, dust storms and aridity predominate. Variations in monthly/annual rainfall are given in Tables 5, 6 and 7, which reflect considerable variations in different months and different years. Rainfall is one of the dependable sources of irrigation for economical crop production, because rainwater can be stored in small dams and be used when required.

Table 5. Monthly rainfall data for Qila Ladgasht (mm)

Sources: Annual reports: river and climatological data of Baluchistan, Bureau of Water Resources; Khan and Mian, 2000

Table 6. Monthly rainfall data for Mashkai (mm)

Sources: Annual reports: river and climatological data of Baluchistan, Bureau of Water Resources; Khan and Mian, 2000.

Table 7. Monthly rainfall data for Shadi Kaur (mm)

Sources: Annual reports: river and climatological data of Baluchistan, Bureau of Water Resources; Khan and Mian, 2000.

AREA IRRIGATED BY DIFFERENT SOURCES

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy; about 77 percent of the population live in rural areas. The area irrigated from various sources is given in Table 8, which shows that about 50 percent of the area is sailaba and the other 50 percent irrigated by canals (29.3 percent), karezes and springs (5.93 percent), tubewells (13.94 percent) and wells (0.83 percent). Of the 347 190 km² of the province, 149 467 km² are classified as arid and 197 723 km² as semi-arid (Khan and Mian, 2000). The increase in the irrigated area is presented in Table 9: in the 20 years during which the irrigated area has been growing, the major increase has resulted from the use of tubewells.

Table 8. Areas irrigated by different sources

Source: Agriculture statistics of Baluchistan, 1995-96.

Table 9. Increase in area irrigated by different sources in Baluchistan (million ha)

Source: Government of Pakistan (2000).

IMPACT OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT ON WATERTABLES

To evaluate the impact of groundwater development, monitoring of groundwater levels was started in 1988 at Quetta, Mastung, Mangochar and Pishin sub-basins of the Pishin Lora basin. The network was started with 222 monitoring points: 15 automatic water-level recorders, 12 piezometers and 195 open surface wells. These were reduced to 175 by December 1995 and 88 by August 2000 as open wells dried up or were converted to deep wells with pumps. Details of the monitoring are given in Table 10.

Monitoring has shown falls in groundwater levels in the Quetta, Pishin, Mastung and Mangochar valleys, indicating groundwater mining. This overexploitation calls for an immediate response by the Government of Baluchistan. The impact of three decades of mining is reflected in Table 11.

GROUNDWATER POTENTIALS

Results of the groundwater investigations carried out in Baluchistan by various organizations are given in Table 12. Groundwater resources are limited, so it is important that they are evaluated.

Table 10. Monitoring points: Pishin Lora basin

Source: Khan and Main, 2000.

GROUNDWATER BALANCE

In order to re-assess the groundwater potential of Pishin, Nari, Zhob, Porali, Hamun-e-Lora and Kachhi Plain basins, a study was sponsored by the Asian Development Bank and undertaken by A.D.B. Halcrow in 1996. It revealed that available groundwater in Pishin Lora, Nari and Zhob basins is limited and that groundwater mining is taking place from aquifer storage in Quetta, Mastung, Mangochar, Pishin, Loralai and Qila Saifullah sub-basins. Table 13 shows the water balance in these sub-basins.

Table 11. Monitoring results: Pishin Lora basin

Source: Khan and Mian, 2000.

GROUNDWATER QUALITY

The quality of water from karezes, springs, shallow and deep tubewells is given in Table 14 and Table 15. The pH range for all water is from 7.5 to 8.0. SAR is low, indicating that all water is suitable for irrigation. Values of Ca⁺⁺+ Mg⁺⁺ and the quantity of dissolved solids fall with groundwater depths. The quantity of sulphates in anions decreases, however. Table 14 and Table 15 show that use of this water will help to improve soil properties and lead to better crop yields.

Table 12. Groundwater resources in Baluchistan

Source: WAPDA (1994)

Changes in groundwater quality over time are minimal, except for a slight increase in calcium and magnesium concentrations that appear to increase in winter months. The high concentration of bicarbonates indicates that recharge occurs through the limestone in the north; the quantity is about the same in all the water samples. The concen-tration of sulphates appears to increase with Ca⁺⁺ + Mg⁺⁺. It may be noted that the quality of flood water is the best. Springs generally flow through solution channels and dissolve minerals from the rocks through which they pass. Concentra-tions of salts are therefore highest in spring. Shallow wells appear to intercept recharge from the limestone in the north. Karez water appears to be a mix of water recharged through fans and through adjacent rocks. Groundwater from deep tubewells appears to have been diluted from a recharge source other than the source for shallow wells and karezes.

Table 13. Groundwater balance in basins of Baluchistan

Source: A.D.B. Halcrow: Baluchistan groundwater assessment (1996).

Table 14. Water quality: various sources

* Residual sodium carbonate
Source: Government of Baluchistan (1986).

Table 15. Water quality of tubewells, karezes, spring and flood water in the project area

Source: Government of Baluchistan (2000).

MAJOR ISSUES IN GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Poor management

The private sector has been more active in groundwater exploitation and development; public sector exploitation has been limited. Groundwater-resources management problems arise from poor governance and lack of commitment from the public and private sectors.

Political interference

On March 22 1978, the Government of Baluchistan promulgated the Baluchistan Ground Water Rights Administration Ordinance in order to manage and regulate the use of groundwater. Under this ordinance, a provincial water board and district water committees were established, but because of political interference, the tribal system and a failure of government agencies to enforce the measures, the desired results have not been achieved.

Lack of integrated approach

In spite of the government ordinance of 22 March 1978, there is no integrated approach to groundwater management. Groundwater mining is on the increase and the situation in some valleys, especially the Quetta valley, is getting more serious day by day. The drilling of tubewells has directly affected karez flows, with the result that most karezes are drying up.

DROUGHT CONDITIONS IN BALUCHISTAN

Rainfall has been below normal in 24 out of the 26 districts of Baluchistan in the last four years. Kharan, Chagai and Zhob districts have been the worst affected: famine conditions have caused the deaths of about seven million head of livestock and affected 1.3 million people (Khan and Mian, 2000). Dug wells are the main source of drinking-water for people and animals. The main economic activity is rearing livestock such as goats, sheep and camels; loss of vegetation for fodder during the drought resulted in the deaths of many animals.

To reduce the sufferings of the population, the Government of Baluchistan has adopted measures to supply drinking-water for people and animals through a scheme using windmills to abstract underground water. The wind in these areas is sufficient to operate the windmills and raise underground water from depths of 12 m to 30 m near settlements. The plan is to install 250 windmills in Kharan, Chagai, Zhob, along the coastal belt and around Quetta, all of which are badly affected by drought.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Control of groundwater mining

In the second half of 1960, government policies were directed towards groundwater development, which was seen as the key to Baluchistan's agricultural prosperity. Wells were drilled and pumping equipment supplied at subsidized rates or against interest-free loans with subsidized energy rates. This encouraged over-pumping, the effects of which are visible in the form of declining watertables and groundwater mining. To replenish groundwater resources, so-called delay-action dams have been constructed in several valleys, but results are not encouraging because silting hinders percolation and prevents aquifers from delivering the desired results.

Legislation and institutional strengthening

One practical way to control groundwater mining is to strengthen the institutions that are to oversee implementation of the Groundwater Rights Administration Ordinance. Legislation and practical measures are needed to discourage the drilling of new tubewells and to regulate groundwater use on the basis of hydrological criteria and groundwater availability, keeping future needs in view. Modern techniques such as mathematical modelling to predict groundwater yield in future should be used, and a programme of public awareness through radio, TV and leaflets should be be introduced.

DRAINAGE WATER

Waterlogging and salinity are creating serious problems for the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in Pakistan; control of these problems is fundamental. The areas affected in Baluchistan are given in Table 16 and Table 17, which show that there is some increase in the area with watertables between 0-152 cm and 0-305 cm. This indicates that effective manage-ment is needed to maintain land and agricultural sustainability in the province.

Table 16. Extent of waterlogging and salinity: 0-305 cm watertable depth (ha × 1 000)

Source: Government of Pakistan (2000).

Table 17. Extent of waterlogging and salinity: 0-152 cm watertable depth (ha × 1 000)

Source: Government of Pakistan (2000)

Good to marginal-quality drainage water can be reused for irrigation, with consequent increases in crop production and some reduction of disposal requirements. The drainage system is, however, being misused by industries and urban authorities, which discharge untreated industrial effluent and city sewage into the drains. This must be stopped. The provincial drainage system is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The drainage system in Baluchistan

Shortage of irrigation water means that farmers irrigate vegetables and crops with city sewage water. Such untreated water causes agricultural problems such as weed infestation and soil infertility and has residual effects on vegetables and fruit consumed by local populations. If this water is to be used for irrigation it must be treated.

WATERSHED PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

Mechanical management

Water-conservation measures adopted by the Government of Baluchistan are briefly described below.

• Seven earth dams have been completed, at Dargai Saifullah, Dillae, Uchwani (Loralai district), Tor Aghbergai (Pishin district), Hair Kush and Karez Qadi (Mastung; two dams). Two are near completion at Nauhisar in the Aghberg valley (Quetta district) and Shaikhan, Muslim Bagh (Killa Saifullah district).

• Seventy-two ponds and 20 valley dikes were constructed in the project area, with planting of fast-growing trees at some locations.

• Check dams holding a volume of 1 020 m³ and other watershed rehabilitation works were constructed on streams in the Tor Aghbergai (Pishin) catchment. Valley dike outlets were refurbished with stone drop structures.

• Delay-action dams are being constructed to store excess water for irrigation; 130 have been completed.

• During the reporting period, 83 karezes were rehabilitated in Pishin, Killa Saifullah and Loralai districts. The work was done on a cost-sharing basis; the project paid 50 percent of labour costs.

• Check dams reduce the spread of flowing water in a stream and allow the main volume of flash-flood water to pass over after unloading sediments in upper reaches. They are an old, cheap and practical feature of the uplands in Baluchistan, built of various materials: wood, loose stones, wire-bound rocks, cemented stone and brick.

Biological conservation

Organic mulching

Organic materials such as animal manure, human excreta and plant residues act like a sponge, improving soil structure and increasing porosity, thereby allowing greater water percolation.

Management by planting suitable tree species

A major feature of watershed conservation is the planting of suitable trees in river, stream and reservoir catchments. This reduces runoff and the level of silt carried in flood flows. An additional benefit is that trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses improve groundwater recharge by increasing infiltration: roots open soils and penetrate layers of consolidated rocks, subsoils and hard clay pans, forming new channels that allow rain and surface water to reach underground reservoirs. Such a potential increase in groundwater recharge through watershed management may have significant impacts on water conservation. Williamson (1987) reported that 80 mm of storm rain that fell on a catchment with vegetative cover produced a lower peak flow than 20 mm of storm rain on a catchment without cover. He predicted that watershed vegetation could increase groundwater recharge by 33 percent. Khan and Chaudhry (1967) proposed that effective watershed management must be coupled with appropriate steps for maximum recharge and minimum soil erosion, including planting of trees, shrubs and grasses and constructing check dams, benching, loose-stone walls, spurs, ridges, ditches, contours, terraces and gabions. Recharge is higher in catchments with vegetation cover than in those without.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has planted various trees and shrubs under the watershed rehabilitation programme in Karak valley near Quetta in order to identify suitable species.

• Trees

  - Usmani (Ailanthus alticima)

  - Bakain (Melia azadirachta)

  - Singit (Elaeagnus angustifolia)

  - Farash (Tamarix gallica)

  - Mulberry (Morus alba)

  - Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora)

  - Shina (Pistacia Khinjak)

  - Iranian kikar (Ceasal pinnae)

• Shrubs

  - Quel salt bush (Atriplex lentiformis)

  - Four-wing salt bush (Atriplex canescens)

Trees, shrubs and grasses, natural and cultivated, in arid and semi-arid areas have a number of uses, including soil stabilization, control of water runoff and wind erosion, biological soil reclamation, groundwater recharge, rehabilitation of desertified lands, sand dune stabilization. They offer shade and make wind breaks, shelter-belts, barriers for wildlife and roadside hedges; they provide forage for livestock, seeds, edible fruits, honey and oils; they supply wood for carving, furniture, building, agricultural implements, poles and fires, and charcoal, gum, tannin and resin. Mulberry trees are the habitat of silkworms.

PROPOSED GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT PLAN

Groundwater investigations have established about 1 116 cusecs of groundwater potential, of which about 400 cusecs is currently being exploited. This means that about 716 cusecs of groundwater still remains to be developed by installing about 1 600 additional 1.00 cusec capacity tubewells (see Table 18).

Table 18. Groundwater potential and proposed number of tubewells

Source: WAPDA (1994).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

• The cultivated area has increased with time.

• There is insufficient water to meet crop requirements.

• Precipitation is the main source of surface water.

• Groundwater occurs in consolidated and unconsolidated rocks.

• Groundwater has been developed and cropping intensity increased by about 100 percent.

• Overexploitation of groundwater has resulted in a fall in levels and drying up of many karezes.

• Groundwater quality is generally good for irrigation.

• Usable groundwater potential is available at some locations.

Recommendations

• A groundwater development and conservation authority should be established to manage resources.

• Groundwater investigation should be carried out as a priority.

• Optimum utilization of available water should be ensured.

• Efficient technologies such as sprinkler/drip should be adopted where possible.

• Urgent measures should be implemented to control groundwater exploitation.

• Artificial recharge techniques should be adopted - injection wells, vertical recharging wells and recharging galleries.

• Catchment areas should be increased to increase water stored in aquifers.

• Delay-action dams should be constructed.

• Watershed management in catchments should be implemented.

• Efficient water-harvesting techniques should be adopted.

• Legislation to prevent overexploitation should be enacted; institutions should be strengthened.

• Karezes should be rehabilitated and improved.

• Planting of Atriplex, which is drought- and cold-tolerant, should be encouraged.

• While using saline/sodic water, leaching fraction and amendments should be applied.

• A master plan should be finalized to include planning for drinking-water schemes, extensive watershed management, irrigation and agriculture projects, protection of water against contamination and monitoring of water quality.

• Research should be an integral part of the development and management of water resources.

• More research should be carried out on artificial recharge of valley aquifers and enhancement of karez discharge.

• Research results should be disseminated to water-resources planners, executives and end users.

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