The care and management of the domesticated Asian elephant in Myanmar - U Tun Aung and U Thoung Nyunt

Introduction

The Union of Myanmar is situated in Southeast Asia. Its geographical coordinates are 9°53' to 28°25'N latitude and 92°10' to 101°10'E longitude. It comprises a total land area of 676 533 square km, spread over 14 administrative states and divisions. There are four main rivers, an extensive network of feeder streams, many mountain ranges and a long coastline. Approximately 75 percent of the country lies within the tropics and the remainder lies in the subtropical and temperate zones. The annual rainfall is 900 mm in the Dry Zone and over 5 000 mm in the coastal region and other parts of the country. The average temperature is below 10°C in the hilly region and over 40°C in the Central Dry Zone (Forest Resource Division, 1993). The great variation in rainfall, temperature, soil and topography results in many different forest types, such as evergreen, semi-evergreen, and mixed deciduous forest, which are the most important for the elephant. Bamboo, one of the preferred foods of the elephant, is abundant in Myanmar's forests.

The elephant is not only of great cultural and historical significance in Myanmar, but is also of major economic importance in the country's timber industry. There were 4 075 elephants in timber harvesting operations in the Union of Myanmar in 1999-2000. The elephants of Myanmar are providing an invaluable service to the country not merely by supporting the national economy but, more importantly, by conserving the environment. It is universally accepted that animal skidding is the most environmentally friendly method of logging. Elephant skidding will continue to play a vital role in the timber operations of Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE) for the foreseeable future, particularly in the many mountainous and swamp areas of Myanmar's forests.

MTE is the sole government agency involved in the timber industry and is responsible for the extraction, processing and marketing of the country's teak and other hard woods. MTE earns nearly 30 percent of the nation's foreign exchange.

Although the domesticated elephant populations (of known size and demographic characteristics) belonging to MTE and private owners are properly kept and receive regular and skilful veterinary care, the country's domesticated elephant population is declining year by year.

The great majority of domesticated elephants were procured directly from the wild elephant population by capturing and training them over several decades. Now the wild elephant population is also declining year by year. The main cause of the decline is poaching for ivory, skins and meat.

To ensure the protection and welfare of Asian elephants throughout their range in Myanmar and guarantee their long term survival, an effective management strategy, proper veterinary care of domesticated and wild elephants, a good education programme and projects and a public awareness campaign on the need to conserve wild elephants, adequate trained staff and funds, and collaboration with the Japan Wildlife Research Center (JWRC) and other organizations, associations, and groups are crucial.

Myanmar's elephants, both wild and captive, are widely distributed throughout the country.

Wild elephants

Wild elephants in Myanmar are widely distributed throughout the whole country except for the Dry Zone areas. The total area of wild elephant habitat is over 115 600 sq. km in 87 township areas (Myint Aung, 1994). According to a questionnaire survey done by the Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division in 1990-1991 (Tables 1 and 2) the estimated population was 4 639, which excluded Kayah State (U Uga, 2000).

The wild elephant population size has been estimated from time to time by the Forest Department, through reliable local informants and questionnaire surveys. Documented figures are as follows:

In 1999-2000, the wild elephant population was less than 4 000 widely distributed throughout Myanmar but mainly in the northern hills, the Arakan Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Taninthari Yoma, Shan State and Chin State (Myint Aung, 1994 and U Uga, 2000). Thus, the wild elephant population trend is downward and can be explained by three factors. First, elephant habitats are shrinking at a faster pace than ever before and habitat fragmentation and disturbances to elephant ranges and corridors are quite common nowadays. This has resulted in a reduced carrying capacity to hold a viable population in many elephant ranges, especially in heavily disturbed pockets of habitats. Second, serious physical disturbance to elephants and the blocking of their regular movements has resulted in a decreased birth rate among the wild elephants. Third, poaching for ivory has resulted in the death of many wild elephants (U Uga, 2000).

Further poaching, continued habitat loss and habitat fragmentation and also seasonal migration routes being blocked and cut, may cause homeless and frightened elephant to stray into paddy fields, sugarcane fields, banana plantations and other farm lands, resulting in more and more human-elephant conflicts in the near future. The continued survival of the country's elephants, which are internationally endangered and regarded as a worldwide flagship species (U Uga, 2000), is threatened and serious measures to tackle the problem must be urgently implemented.

Domesticated elephants

It is normally accepted that domesticated elephants were put into the service of man almost 2 000 years ago in Myanmar. Historical depictions of war elephants date back to the time of King Anawrahta of Bagan in the year 1044 AD. He conquered Thaton, a flourishing seaport at that time, and after subduing it, brought back to Bagan (together with other sacred relics of Lord Buddha) thirty sets of Tripitaka placed on the backs of thirty two white elephants that had been the property of King Manuha of Thaton (U Toke Gale, 1974).

Ancient kings possessed elephant forces. Indeed royal cavalry and infantry were of no use without an elephant corps that played a similar role to the tank regiments of present day armies. And there is a record showing that joust fighting on the backs of elephants took place during a war between the two powerful kings of Ava and Hanthawaddy.

Before 1942, the total number of elephants owned by the Timber Industry of Myanmar was about 10 000 and 6 500 of these were full grown, 2 500 were trained calves between the ages of five and eighteen and about 1 000 were calves.

By the end of the Second World War in 1945, only about 2 500 full grown elephants, less than one half of the pre-war amount, were available for the extraction of timber (U Toke Gale, 1974).

After 1948, the number of elephants owned and hired by MTE was as follows:

As can be seen from the data, elephants owned by MTE increased between 1962-63 and 1988-89 and then slightly decreased between the 1988-89 and 1999-2000 period (Tables 3 and 4). Map 1 shows the existing distribution of MTE's elephant camps.

An animal census carried out by the Livestock Breeding and Veterinary Department (1993-94), revealed the following picture of the privately owned domesticated elephants:

Source: L.B.V.D Headquarters, Yangon

In 1999-2000, the elephants registered with the Forest Department consisted of:

Source: Forest Department Headquarters, Yangon.

For fuller details by state/division see Table 5.

Apart from the above registered elephants, some elephants are being raised in zoological gardens, national parks and elephant sanctuaries, as follows:

Laws

With regard to elephant management in Myanmar, elephants were first legally protected under the Elephant Preservation Act 1879 (Saw Han, 1984) that regulated hunting and capture. They were then protected by the Burma Wildlife Protection Act, 1936 (revised in 1956), under which hunting was prohibited except by licence. According to the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and the Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994, elephants were listed as a completely protected species, and their capture was prohibited, except for scientific purposes. But even then one first had to obtain a licence (U Uga, 2000).

Regarding current legislation and law enforcement, the Forest Law, 1992 and the Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and the Conservation of Natural Areas Law, 1994 have been enacted. With regard to international obligations, Myanmar has been a party to CITES since 1997 and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) since 1994. In addition to law enforcement, and for the more effective conservation of wildlife species, including elephants, Myint Aung (1994) recommended that a nationwide anti-poaching campaign be carried out in Myanmar (cited in U Uga, 2000).

The Protection of Wildlife and Protected Area Law (The State Law and Order Restoration Council Law No. 6/94 dated 8 June, 1994) consists of 12 chapters: 1) Title and Definition, 2) Objectives, 3) Formation of the Committee and Functions and Duties Thereof, 4) Designation of Protected Areas and Establishment of Zoological Gardens and Botanical Gardens, 5) Protected Wildlife and Wild Plants, 6) Hunting, 7) Right to Establish Zoological Gardens and Botanical Gardens, 8) Registration, 9) Taking Administrative Action, 10) Appeals, 11) Offences and Penalties, and 12) Miscellaneous.

The objectives of this law are to:

a) implement the policy of protecting the country's wildlife;

b) implement the policy of conserving the country's protected areas;

c) carry out the country's obligations in accordance with the international conventions agreed by the state in respect of the protection of wild species of both flora and fauna and representative ecosystems occurring in the country;

d) protect endangered species of wild flora and fauna and their habitats;

e) contribute to the development of research on natural science;

f) establish zoological gardens and botanical gardens for the protection of flora and fauna.

Under Chapter 5, Protected Wildlife and Wild Plants, section 15 (a), elephants and another 38 mammals have been listed as completely protected wildlife species.

Under Chapter 11, Offences and Penalties, section 37 mentions that whoever commits any of the following acts shall on conviction be punished with imprisonment for a term that may amount to 7 years or with a fine which may amount to kyats 50 000 or with both: (a) killing, hunting or wounding a completely protected wildlife species without permission, and possessing, selling, transporting or transferring such wildlife or any part thereof; (b) exporting without the recommendation of the Director General of the Forest Department a completely protected wildlife or protected wild plant species or any parts thereof.

Registration

Domesticated elephants (privately owned and state owned) have to be registered at the Forest Department under the Essential Supplies and Services Act, the Burma Act XLVII, 1974, and the Elephant Registration Act, 1951.

MTE elephants are registered at the Forest Department at the age of five years old and above. The renewal of registration is required every three years. If an elephant gives birth, MTE personnel must inform the nearest Forest Department office within three months of the birth.

To register a domesticated elephant with the Forest Department a registration fee and three photographs of the elephant (front, right side and behind) must be submitted with the application. The registration fees scale is as follows.

Captive born elephants and captured wild elephants belonging to MTE are also registered at the MTE headquarters from birth to death. A registration number and the name of the elephant are given after training. After receiving the name and registration number of the elephant, MTE personnel use a branding iron to affix the registration number and a star onto both buttocks of the elephants.

In former times, up to 1942, five European firms and one indigenous firm worked the country's teak forests, and they marked and registered their elephants as follows:

At present, MTEs mark their elephants with a star and the FD mark their elephants with the letters FD.

Under the Protection of Wildlife and Protected Area Law 1994, Chapter 8, Registration, Section 26(a) mentions that,"A person who possesses a souvenir or wears as a traditional custom any part of a completely protected wildlife species, before this law came into force, shall register it at the relevant township Forest Department in the manner described by the Minister of Forestry”.

In Section 27, the law mentions that a forest officer who has been assigned to perform the functions of registration by the Director General: (a) may scrutinize the application for registration under section 26 in the prescribed manner and register or refuse registration; (b) if registration is accepted under subsection (a) he shall issue a certificate of registration to the applicant.

Organizations and their major projects

MTE and FD have both been active in conserving and maintaining the population of domesticated and wild elephants. The Forest Department has prohibited the capture of wild elephants since 1994-95, although after 1994-95 MTE captured a few wild elephants in areas where there were conflicts between the elephants and people. To maintain the MTE elephants, MTE carried out the following projects with the assistance of the I.F.S. (International Foundation for Science - Sweden):

1) The development of RIA of serum progesterone to study the estrus cycle of Myanmar cow elephants to improve breeding management. (Daw Khyne U Mar, Manager of Research, MTE).

2) The study of spermiogram of elephants' semen with special reference to its employment for natural and artificial breeding. (U Aung Tun Khine, Assistant Lecturer, University of Veterinary Medicine, Yezin).

3) The establishment of a programme of captive breeding by natural mating of timber elephants in Bago Division. (U Soe Win - Assistant Manager (Vet) MTE).

4) The initiation of database management of a stud book of domesticated elephants from the Union of Myanmar. (U Thaung Nyunt - Assistant Manager (Vet) MTE).

The long-term survival of elephants is crucial to the Myanmar ecosystem. It cannot be ensured only by conservation of elephant habitat and the enactment of laws designed to protect them. A nationwide campaign is needed to educate people about the ecological interactions between elephants and their environment.

The Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AESG) meeting in Yangon in 1997, jointly sponsored by the Ministry of Forestry and IUCN/SSC), recommended the conservation of wild and captive elephants in Myanmar with the assistance of other countries and some relevant international organizations, such as the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), the Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AESG), the Smithsonian Institution (SI), etc.

The Forest Department has tried to establish Managed Elephant Ranges (MERs) that would be managed by the Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division. Five elephant ranges have been proposed (U Uga & Ye Htut, 1997) namely, Yakhine Yoma Elephant Range (Yakhine State), Tanine Elephant Range (Kachin State), Bago Yoma Elephant Range (Bago Division), Mayyu Elephant Range (Yakhine State), and Taninthari Elephant Range (Taninthari Division). These should be established as soon as possible (U Uga, 2000).

The work of domesticated elephants

Domesticated elephants are used mainly for the following purposes:

1) timber extraction (logging);

2) transportation (as baggage elephants in hilly forests);

3) religious ceremonies and processions;

4) capturing wild elephants (as kunchee elephants);

5) state functions and ceremonies;

6) tourism (for elephant shows and trekking in the jungle);

7) agriculture activities in difficult terrain, especially in the northern part of Myanmar.

Trained domesticated elephants are used mainly for logging in Myanmar. Timber elephants enter the forest (work-sites) around mid-June when there is enough water and food for them. About 1 700 working elephants owned by MTE and about 1 500 owned by private contractors were engaged in timber extraction work in 1999-2000. Usually elephants work from mid-June to mid-February with a short break of two or three weeks at the end of October when the weather is extremely hot.

Usually, the working week is fixed at five days, but elderly elephants or elephants in poor health sometimes need extra resting days. The working hours are four to eight hours per day, depending on the weather, the dragging path, the health of the elephant, the topography, the size of the logs, and the amount of fodder and water available for the elephants. The baggage elephants are used to transport the equipment used for forest operations, the utensils of the inspection officers and forest rations. Logging by elephants is still widely practised and is the most suitable means under the prevailing selective felling system of Myanmar. The economic and environmental advantages of using trained elephants in forestry operations are numerous. A fully trained elephant is an investment for a lifetime. Such an elephant has a working life of 30 years (U Saw Richard et al., 2000).

Three kinds of working elephants

1) Trained calves (age 5 years to 17 years) are engaged in transporting the personal equipment of the staff involved in timber operations and rations for the elephants in the rainy reason and early winter season before the construction of logging roads.

Maximum loading capacity:

Travelling limits:

• Not more than 25 km per day in flat areas.

• Not more than 16 km per day in mountainous and muddy paths.

• Not more than 3 strenuous marches without any rest period.

2) Logging elephants (age 18 years to 55 years) are engaged in dragging logs and pushing logs according to their power or strength from tree stumps to the point where they are measured or to the streams in which they are floated.

3) Yelaiking elephants are engaged in freeing the jammed logs floating in the stream to enable them to continue on their way to the rafting depot.

Working capacity:

100 to 180 hoppus tons^[5]/head/year for teak logs

180 to 240 hoppus tons/head/year for other hard woods.

Maximum loading capacity:

Classification of working elephants according to their dragging power:

• A first class elephant can drag more than 2 hoppus tons logs at a time

• A second class elephant can drag 1 to 2 hoppus tons logs at a time

• A third class elephant can drag 1 hoppus ton logs at a time

• A fourth class elephant can drag less than 1 hoppus ton.

Veterinary care

For veterinary care of the domesticated elephants, the veterinarians go from camp to camp and elephant to elephant to give the necessary treatment with modern drugs and traditional medicines. The major health problems of the elephants in Myanmar are parasitic infestations and nutritional disorders. Contagious diseases such as anthrax and haemorrhagic septicemia (H.S.) are controlled by using vaccines and by segregation. The elephants undergo stool, skin and blood checks quarterly at the Central Laboratory or a Regional Laboratory of the Livestock Breeding & Veterinary Department.

In Myanmar there are 87 veterinarians caring for the health of domesticated elephants as follows:

The veterinarians from MTE inspect each elephant at least once a month routinely and if necessary to give treatment, they stay at the elephant camps, sometimes for long periods.

MTE purchases veterinary medicines from foreign and local companies. This involves considerable expense as can be seen from the following information:

The numbers of tool and blood tests given to timber elephants between 1996 and 2000 (Central lab - LBVD Yangon) are as follows:

The elephants of the MTE all receive excellent veterinary care. Caughley (1980) states that veterinary treatment and training in Burma is modern, highly developed and backed by an elaborate recording system.

Summary and recommendations

Elephants have had a relationship with Myanmar society for a long time in terms of religion, culture and the economy. Elephants still play an important role in logging because of the topography of the country and the selective felling system of Myanmar. Wild and domesticated elephants are found throughout the country. In the first half of the twentieth century there were about 5 500 wild elephants (in 1942) and about 10 000 captive elephants (in 1942), but in the latter part of the century there were about 4 000-6 000 wild elephants and about 6 000-7 000 captive elephants in Myanmar. So the population of elephants in Myanmar has declined gradually, because of poaching, deforestation, loss of habitat, habitat fragmentation and overload. Appropriate solutions are urgently required to ensure the long-term survival of both captive and wild elephants. The remaining population of Asian elephants is at a critically low level and is declining gradually throughout most of their ranges. The continuing loss of habitat for wild and domesticated elephants and the unbalanced death and birth rate of domesticated elephants are the primary obstacles to maintaining a viable elephant population in Myanmar.

The Ministry of Forestry has laid great stress on implementing a comprehensive management programme incorporating both wild and domesticated elephant populations. It is hoped that this will ensure the continued survival of this species. In other words, the Ministry of Forestry is giving priority to both the in situ and the ex situ conservation of elephants in Myanmar. Uga and Ye Htut (1997) recommended the expansion of the protected area network including managed elephant ranges. Myanmar has already established the first elephant range called Yakhine Yoma Elephant Sanctuary. In the long-term a network of elephant ranges throughout the country will be gradually established.

The average birth rate of timber elephants is 3.1 percent and the death rate is 3.3 percent (based on the total population). The breeding age of timber elephants is as early as eight years old and as late as 55 years old. But the average breeding age of cow-elephants is from 18 years old to 50 years old. To encourage captive elephant breeding, MTE appoints elephants of both sexes to the same logging teams and allows them a night out for free grazing and mating. To get better elephant breeding results, MTE has initiated a research programme to raise the calving rate of cow-elephants between the ages of 15 and 18 that are used for travelling and transport purposes (light work). For the sake of the long-term survival of elephants in Myanmar, all foresters belonging to the Ministry of Forestry, especially those in the Forest Department and MTE, and decision makers at all levels, are strongly urged to view the forests as complex ecosystems, to pay adequate attention to saving elephant habitat, to promote the welfare of staff working with elephants and to co-operate with other countries.

References

Anon. 1999. Minimum requirements for health status and management of Asian elephants' health care: program development. Paper presented at a conference on 12-13 March 1999. Chiang Mai, Thailand.

Forest Resource Division. 1993. Forestry Fact Sheet. Forest Department, Ministry of Forestry.

Khyne U Mar. No date. Elephant regeneration, natural breeding and trial on artificial insemination. Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE), Union of Myanmar. (mimeo).

Myint Aung. 1994. A view on the distribution, status and conservation of wild elephants in Myanmar. Wildlife Conservation & Sanctuary Division, Union of Myanmar.

U Khin Zaw. 1995. Utilization of elephants in timber harvesting. Union of Myanmar.

Union of Myanmar. 1969. Statistical Year Book - 1969. State Timber Board, Union of Myanmar.

U Saw Richard & others. 2000. Conservation and use of elephants (captive). Myanma Timber Enterprise. Union of Myanmar.

U Toke Gale. 1974. Burmese timber elephants. Union of Myanmar.

U Uga. 2000. Conservation and use of wild Asian elephants. Forest Department, Union of Myanmar.

Table 1. Population estimate of wild elephants

(Based on a questionnaire survey by Wildlife Division, FD, 1990-1991)

Source: Myint Aung, 1994

Table 2. Personal estimate of wild elephant population (1991)

Source: Myint Aung, 1994

Table 3. Distribution of MTE elephants (1999-2000)

Note: FG = Full grown; TC = Trained calf; CAH = Calf at heel

Table 4. Status of MTE elephants and hired elephants

Table 5. Registered elephants at Forest Department (1999-2000)

Question and answer session

Q1: What are the management links between wild and domesticated elephants?

A1: No real management links. Wild elephants are only counted, not managed. Domesticated elephants are generally worked for five to seven hours per day and let into the forest to rest. In such circumstances cows are generally impregnated by wild bulls.

Q2: Are wild elephants being domesticated?

A2: No, they are only caught for scientific purposes.

Q3: What do you do to enhance breeding success?

A3: In general there is only natural breeding but we do give the cows some nutritional supplements that helps with their pregnancies.

Q4: You need a constant supply of elephants for logging but if you rely on natural breeding don't you find that the supply goes down before it goes up?

A4: Yes, that is right.

Q5: Do all the vet technicians you employ have Bachelor's degrees?

A5: Yes.

Q6: Does MTE carry out reforestation to ensure that there will always be employment for elephants?

A6: Yes, we carry out reforestation.

Q7: Are there any official channels for talking about elephants among Myanmar, Thai and Indian institutions or agencies?

A7: No.

Q8: The best way to log sustainably is to use elephants rather than mechanize, is this official policy in Myanmar?

A8: Yes, selective logging using only elephants is the official policy.

Q9: Do private owners capture wild elephants?

A9: No. They do domestic breeding or release cows into the wild to get impregnated.

Fig. 1. Map of MTE elephant camps

Logging elephants - important partners in the teak forestry of Myanmar.