2.1. Introduction
2.2. Beans
2.3. Cassava
2.4. Rice
2.5. Tropical Forages
2.6. Cross Commodity Issues
Within the CGIAR system, CIAT has the global mandate for beans, for cassava, and for tropical forages for acid soils. It has a mandate for rice in Latin America and the Caribbean. A CIAT study, prepared for the strategic plan of 1991, assessed the production and consumption patterns of 19 commodities in Latin America, and confirmed the importance of these crops.
The world production of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) is about 10 million MT annually, 79% occurring in developing countries. The major production areas are Brazil (2.43 million MT), the highlands of eastern and southern Africa (2.26 million MT) and Mexico (1.11 million MT). The proportion of world production that takes place in Latin America is 46%, and in sub-Saharan Africa 25%. Beans are an important and cheap source of protein, calories, and minerals in the diet, and can enhance the use of rice and maize protein. In developing countries, beans are predominantly produced by small farmers. Demand for beans is projected to grow by 3.0% annually in Africa, and 1.7% in Latin America. Market trade in beans is increasing in both continents. The public sector develops almost all new varieties. This makes CIAT's support of the NARS all the more important. The Bean programme collaborates with NARS directly, but more often through a series of regional networks. The programme has been considerably reduced in size since 1989, and now has 12 fewer Senior Staff and much reduced activity in crop management research. It has undergone the largest budget change of any of the four commodity programmes.
Cassava is an important food for over 500 million people in Africa, Asia and Latin America. World production, confined to developing countries, has increased by 21% in the last decade to 154 million MT in 1993, with 29 million MT in Latin America, 21 million MT each in Nigeria and Zaire, 20 million MT in Thailand and 16 million MT in Indonesia. About 16 million ha is harvested annually with 60% of the area in Africa, 24% in Asia and 16% in Latin America. Area is increasing faster than yields, reflecting the movement of production into more marginal soils and/or areas of lower rainfall. Cassava is critically important to food security for households in sub-Saharan Africa and is an increasing source of cash income in all producing areas. Small-scale farmers and processors predominate in cassava production and in its transformation into food stuffs. Europe and Japan import about 15% of the production as chips or pellets, and starch. CIAT has made an important contribution to developing small-scale processing methods. In Africa, IITA takes the lead role in cassava research, CIAT collaborating particularly in providing germplasm to IITA, and in shipping natural enemies of insect pests such as the cassava mealybug and cassava green mite.
Rice production in Latin America and the Caribbean has nearly doubled since 1967 to about 19 million MT of paddy per year, produced on 7.3 million ha. Irrigated areas produce 60%, mostly from new varieties. CIAT has worked closely with Latin American NARS in variety development, and in facilitating the International Network for the Genetic Evaluation of Rice in Latin America and the Caribbean (INGER-LAC). About 40% of the nearly 250 varieties released in LAC since 1967 originated from CIAT and 15% directly from IRRI. Yields of irrigated rice have increased by 44% to a regional average of 4.6 MT/ha but there is much potential for further increases through new plant types and improved crop management. Rice consumption increased and prices fell during this period. Recently upland rice yields have increased as new higher yielding varieties have been released. CIAT has developed germplasm that is acid soil tolerant, and new management systems for both small farms of low-input and large, mechanized production systems. The land area potentially available for upland rice production is very large.
Forages are the basis of most animal production in the tropics. Natural and improved pastures can be managed to sustain or improve soil fertility and control erosion. Tropical savannahs cover about 20% of the earth's land surface or 23 million km2. Savannahs comprise about 63 % of the land in Africa, and 45 % in South America, or more than 243 million ha. The Brazilian Cerrado predominates with 180 million ha, but there are also large areas in Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia and Guyana. There is an increasing need for improved germplasm to expand the area of improved pastures and complement the native vegetation in the savannahs, hillsides and former forest areas.
Demand for beef and milk is rapidly growing in tropical countries. It is estimated that by the year 2000 demand will exceed production by 356,000 MT for beef and 8.9 million MT for milk in tropical America. The consequent need for improved forages will greatly stimulate the forage seed trade.
Since 1989, the Tropical Forages Programme has evolved from the much larger Tropical Pastures Programme. It aims to develop forages for farming systems in the humid and sub-humid tropics that will contribute both to increased and more efficient meat and milk production and to more sustainable production systems. CIAT's activities in management of animal production have decreased during this period. Some of the former programme personnel and activities were transferred to the Tropical Lowlands Programme. The research approach has been to select wild legume and grass forage species with improved production potential to overcome specific constraints by recombination and selection, and to integrate forage production into food-grain crop production systems. The ways in which CIAT's Tropical Forages Programme will be coordinated with ILRI's Livestock Programme are still under discussion. There is a regional forage network in south east Asia.
The delivery of improved planting materials to the farmer is an important objective for all commodity programmes. They are working with the Natural Resources Management Programmes (Hillsides and Tropical Lowlands) in testing germplasm and new production systems on farm. The African Bean Programme is likewise involving farmers in cultivar selection, seed multiplication and new ways of growing the crop.
The commodity programmes support extensive, multicountry networks of NARS (see Section 6.1.6).
2.2.1. Evolution
2.2.2. Achievements and Impact
2.2.3. Future Strategy
2.2.4. Overview and Assessment
CIAT holds the global mandate for bean research. The Bean Programme has seven Senior Staff at CIAT Headquarters, two outposted in Latin America and seven in Africa. The Programme goal is to "make a lasting increase in food availability and the incomes of the poor by improving bean productivity through technology developed in collaboration with national institutions". The Programme achieves this by germplasm improvement and strengthening the NARS capacity through bean research networks. Networks are the main recipients of the improved germplasm.
CIAT maintains the largest global collection of bean germplasm and related species. The Programme operates as a multidisciplinary team with project areas on Phaseolus diversity, bean yield stability, and sustaining bean productivity in both Latin America and the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa.
Since 1990 there has been a 41% reduction in Senior Staff, a 47% reduction in scientific and supervisory staff and a 39% reduction in the Budget to US$ 5.8 million. In 1993, non-core funding contributed US$ 2.01 million. A further Senior Staff position in Latin America will terminate in 1996. A 1992 external review of the Bean Programme was considered by CIAT's Programme Committee.
During this very rapid reduction, dialogue with Senior Management was difficult and this hindered development of a phased transition to minimise loss of materials and intellectual capital, and maintain morale. Programme Leadership has also changed. The transition to a new level of activity has been successfully negotiated, but laying the foundation for development of new technologies is proving difficult with constrained resources.
The Programme has recognised that technology per se will not close the gap between experimental station and farmer yield. It requires an understanding of the socioeconomic and anthropological dimensions of the change process in rural communities. To this end, the networks are involved with CIAT staff in developing on-farm, farmer participatory experiments on production methods, cultivar selection and seed production.
Genetic Diversity
The Bean Programme has made an important conceptual advance in its use of germplasm. A morphological and biochemical classification of beans combined with knowledge of agroecological regions of adaptation of the accessions in the germplasm collection and supported by a GIS analysis resulted in the identification of two major genepools. These are the Meso-American and the Andean with six major races of common bean. The work influenced the way basic germplasm materials are selected for testing and crossing. In 1993, the Programme developed a core collection of 1,500 entries from the 25,000 accessions held at CIAT - about 1,200 from primary centres of origin and 300 from secondary centres such as Africa. The GIS approach has also highlighted sites for further collecting, particularly of wild bean ancestors. A core-funded, senior staff position was created within the Bean Programme to characterise and use CIAT's germplasm collection more effectively.
Molecular markers, seed protein patterns, and phenotypic morphological characters have further characterised genetic diversity in the core collection. Awareness of these methods to analyse bean genetic diversity is increasing in the NARS and should greatly improve the ways bean germplasm is used.
Germplasm Development and Release
The Programme has recently refined breeding strategies to use the potential for recombination among the Meso-american races. Recombination between the two major Meso-American and Andean genepools remains an important challenge. CIAT is seeking ways to bridge these pools and to develop plants with desirable form and phenology. The main strategy for improving yield potential of Andean types is to increase indeterminacy and delay maturity. In 1994, two breeding nurseries were merged to create the biennial International Bean Nursery (IBN) containing around 500 entries. The Programme encourages NARS to contribute lines and to evaluate the IBN for constraints or adaptation in the local environments. The IBN is expected to become a major vehicle for international collaboration in bean improvement.
Over the last five years, NARS have released 61 lines developed at CIAT as cultivars in 21 countries. CIAT has also facilitated the release of 9 cultivars from other countries. By 1992, about 705,000 ha were planted to 135 varieties developed or distributed by CIAT. This is about 7% of the total area in new varieties. In Central America, 38% of the total area sown (175,000 ha), is planted to these new, CIAT-initiated varieties. In four states of Brazil, 23 CIAT based varieties accounted for a quarter of the area sown to new varieties. Another CIAT line, resistant to four diseases, is the second recommended variety in 12 Brazilian states. The African programme has 13 CIAT-introduced lines released to farmers in five countries with encouraging adoption rates. The value of increased production attributable to CIAT materials is about US$ 87 million per year with a 24.5% internal rate of return on funds invested in CIAT bean research since 1973. A study of the impact of 203 cultivars released in Latin America shows there has been steady progress in increasing diversity, traceable to increased use of interracial crosses.
Resistance Breeding and IPM
The Programme's approach to developing new plant materials is first to define the pests and environmental conditions affecting yield stability and then to assess variation in the germplasm response to them. The Programme has characterized races of the fungal pathogens causing angular leaf spot and anthracnose, and demonstrated probable coevolution with bean genepools. Strains of Bean Golden Mosaic Virus (BGMV) were also identified. Molecular genetic markers to indicate pathogen variation and identify strains are now in use. It has likewise differentiated common bacterial blight organisms into two groups. This information helped in the development of new, stable sources that are disease resistant for anthracnose and angular leaf spot, and will aid in pyramiding resistance genes in the one cultivar. The Programme has undertaken genetic analyses of tolerance or resistance to diseases.
For Africa, new CIAT materials have resistance to Bean Common Mosaic Virus and angular leaf spot, the most important biotic constraints to production. There are IPM systems and selected populations developed at CIAT Headquarters for tolerance of bean stem maggot, the worst insect pest in East Africa. Selected cultural practices and resistant bean populations control root rots caused by Fusarium.
The Programme is managing insect pests through developing host plant resistance, including a crossing programme with other Phaseolus species, and exploring the potential for use of insect deterrent factors in bean seeds, such as the protein arcelin. Segregating lines with multiple resistance to pod weevil, BGMV and anthracnose are being evaluated in Honduras. IPM systems for white flies, leafminers and pod borers, developed for small farms in Colombia, Peru and Ecuador are ready for pilot project development.
Tolerance of Low Soil P-Levels
Soil fertility has a major effect on bean production in farmers' fields with phosphorus the major limiting element on 60% of the area in Latin America and Africa. As fertilisers are unavailable or expensive, CIAT considers genetic improvement of P uptake and P-use efficiency as its primary strategy. Greenhouse field studies and GIS analysis identified germplasm from specific geographic regions as likely to tolerate low P-soils. This work gained new impetus with the appointment of a plant nutritionist in 1993. The Programme is developing new methods of screening beans for response to low P levels in soil solution, and has incorporated promising genotypes into a low soil fertility breeding programme. Field screening continues at three sites in Colombia and four in Africa. Cultural practices to increase soil fertility and reduce erosion are also under development in the African networks.
Nitrogen Fixation
Beans nodulate and fix nitrogen but often not well, particularly in Africa. CIAT has shown this can be due to host - Rhizobium genotype incompatibility, and/or low numbers of rhizobia in the soil. CIAT also contributed to the selection of Rhizobium strains now used commercially in Cuba and Peru. But in field trials, seed inoculation has seldom improved poor N-fixation. A collaborative project with CAMBIA to study factors affecting the competition between inoculant and indigenous Rhizobium strains has developed new molecular genetic techniques. The potential interaction between soil P levels and N-fixation are being examined. Glasshouse studies have identified lines with superior capacity for N-fixation, but field selection now relies on total plant N uptake. The bean team has developed non-nodulating lines as a control for measurement of N-fixation in the field.
Photoperiod Sensitivity
The Programme is using genetic manipulation of photoperiod sensitivity to find ways of improving plant phenology and yield potential without introducing the climbing habit. The inheritance has been elucidated and crosses made to produce day neutral, intermediate and photoperiod sensitive responses in elite, inbred lines. This has similar potential to the use of photoperiod sensitivity in developing soybean varieties, matching the cultivar phenology to the expected seasonal pattern of temperature and water availability.
Adaptation to Water Deficit
Selection for drought tolerance emphasizes yield selection, following inheritance and selection studies in Colombia and Mexico. In 1993, the Programme released its first lines selected for drought tolerance. Desiccation postponement through greater root growth, drought escape through earliness, and increased water use efficiency appear to be important mechanisms across genepools.
Networks
CIAT has initiated five Bean Research Networks: PROFIJOL in Central America and the Caribbean, PROFRIZA in the Andean Zone of South America, RESAPAC in the Great Lakes Region in Africa, EABRN in Eastern Africa and the Regional Project on Beans in Southern Africa. All bean networks are dependent on special project funding. PROFIJOL coordinates the CAC network and devolution is underway for other networks.
CIAT encourages greater participation of farmers in the research, cultivar selection and seed production processes, particularly in Africa. Coupled with the formation of farmer community groups, this development has much potential to speed up the process of technology adoption.
This is illustrated by the remarkable uptake of CIAT varieties, particularly of climbing beans, in Rwanda. CIAT began working with ISAR, the national research system, in 1984. By 1992, four out of ten farmers, or 500,000 families, were planting climbing beans, an 8-fold increase. There were production increases of up to 38%, with the new beans occupying 11 % of the total area planted to beans. This experience helped CIAT in its role as coordinating agency for the NARS, the NGOs, the donor community and four CGIAR Centres in the Seeds of Hope Mission to Rwanda to re-establish the supply of adapted varieties for farmers to plant after the civil war.
CIAT staff have visited Eastern Europe where Rumania is a large producer on 600,000 ha; the possibility of a network is under discussion.
The relationship between CIAT Headquarters and the Pan-African Bean Programme is special because its size. Although the line responsibility lies with the Programme Leader, staff report to the Pan-African Coordinator who reviews their activities and performance. Reciprocal annual visits by the Bean Programme Leader and the Pan-African Coordinator are planned, with somewhat less frequent visits by other Programme staff. The Pan-African Programme has recently instituted an efficient financial system managed from Uganda. Financial information is transmitted to CIAT Headquarters but delays in receiving updated information from Headquarters on expenditures create problems for the African Programme in reporting to donor review meetings. This exchange needs to be streamlined.
Consistently, the Bean Programme has given highest priority to NARS collaboration and support, mainly through networks. Devolution of management of these networks to the NARS will continue with CIAT's role becoming one of technical and communications support. The work on characterising the CIAT bean germplasm collection will continue to build the framework for more effective and efficient use of this unique resource. This will be coupled with analysis of genotype by environment interaction. The selection and breeding of materials which are resistant to, or tolerant of, biotic and abiotic constraints will be the approach to achieve yield stability. CIAT will increasingly supply the NARS with segregating material rather than lines.
Use of molecular genetic techniques to clarify host-pest interactions, and of molecular markers to follow resistance traits in crossing programmes, will speed development of stable lines with tolerance/resistance to pathogens and insects. These host plant resistances will underpin the development of IPM systems in Latin America and Africa.
The goal of improving P uptake from low fertility soils will continue through collaborative research with the University of Costa Rica. Selection for improved P-nutrition will be coupled with selection for improved N-fixation. Use of molecular markers as strain identifiers will help determine the parameters which affect Rhizobium competition in forming nodules and should lead to improved seed inoculation procedures and nodulation.
The Programme is to be commended for the balanced manner in which it has reduced and modified its activity in response to the last review and declining resources, particularly in the area of Headquarters versus country operations. This is approaching parity but most of the country operations (and basically all staff positions in Africa) are non-core funded. The Programme has been very successful in obtaining non-core funds but this can be a precarious solution. In order to demonstrate to donors CIAT's commitment to the Pan-African Bean activity, the Panel urges CIAT to fund the position of Pan-African Coordinator from core and give consideration to funding at least one further core position for Africa. This will necessitate a different pattern of funding between Headquarters and Africa for the core-like activity in the Programme. Funds should also be sought to maintain the CIAT support for the LAC networks at the present level.
The more focused breeding programme has developed improved mechanisms for generating and testing genetic variability, particularly through a more carefully generated and smaller IBN. However, more effort needs to be given to integrating all breeding activity with other thrusts within the Programme and to more careful matching of sites to the environment or stress for which the material is being selected particularly if yield per se is the major selection criterion. The identification of genetic variation in nutrient uptake efficiency particularly for P and for N-fixation, photoperiod and drought tolerance provides the potential for the breeding programme to contribute a great deal to crop management practices through improved germplasm. For this to eventuate requires more efforts to develop an across-programme consensus on the way it will achieve these goals and closer attention to reducing overlap in the breeding programme in selecting for environmental tolerances.
The Programme has made significant advances in methods to identify and locate germplasm of interest for both biotic and abiotic stresses through refining laboratory, greenhouse and field screening techniques and has been innovative in its use of molecular markers and GIS. The creation of the Bean BARN demonstrates the continuing close links with the BRU and recognition of the benefits from links with other institutions as CIAT's emphasis on upstream research increases.
The Programme has made major contributions to selection of pest resistant materials which have laid the foundation for integrated pest management. Complementary funds should be sought for piloting of these methods with NARS.
Nitrogen fixation should play a large role in the nutrition of the bean plant, with flow-on effects for the sustainability of the production system. In parts of LAC and Africa this is apparently not occurring. CIAT needs to focus more attention on defining the causes for this and on ways to rectify the problem. Furthermore, the role that the bean plays in nutrient cycling in cropping systems needs more understanding. For the African networks this may be achieved through collaboration with an overseas institution with experience in the area of plant nutrition and in optimising biological N-fixation in field crops. The Panel puts forward the following recommendation:
1. The Panel recommends that the Bean Programme give higher priority to research on nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling in bean production systems, particularly in Africa.
CIAT has developed collections of beneficial microorganisms (eg Rhizobium, mycorrhiza and biological control organisms) that greatly benefit plant growth, but there is at present little research on their use. There is a need to focus and coordinate the work on soil microbial ecology and to have the capacity to provide inoculants for research. To undertake this research, the Panel suggests that CIAT appoint a nationally recruited, Ph.D or M.Sc. level scientist, who could be located in the proposed Soils Unit.
2.3.1. Evolution
2.3.2. Achievements, Impact and Future Strategy
2.3.3. Overview and Assessment
Cassava is an important source of food in many countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa. In both fresh and processed form it provides income and employment for low income rural people. This crop is highly important in marginal areas because of its tolerance of low soil fertility and drought, and its recovery capacity after pest and disease damage. It is not a crop that developed countries grow or investigate. This indicates that there is a considerable need for further basic knowledge-generating research on the crop. CIAT's Cassava Programme aims to stimulate cassava's contribution to the well-being of poor farmers, processors and consumers. The Programme generates knowledge and technology components which will lead to a sustainable improvement in the production and quality of cassava and the diversification of its end uses.
CIAT has a world mandate for this crop. It is developing the cassava research programme in a way which stimulates not only its own research on this crop but also that of IITA with its mandate for Africa, that of the NARS in developing countries, and that of institutes and universities in the developed world. The outcome of this interdisciplinary research programme includes:
· germplasm preservation and developments in research on genetic conservation;· improvement of genepools by conventional means adapted to different agroecological zones and for quality traits;
· development of integrated crop and pest management practices for economically and environ mentally sustainable cassava production;
· developments in product and market research;
· enhanced interinstitutional collaboration.
In the last five-year period, the Programme had to reduce input on agronomic and postharvest processing aspects of cassava due to budget restrictions and increased research on genetic diversity.
Genetic Diversity
Because of the world mandate for this crop, research on genetic diversity is important. It has been a multidisciplinary effort for many years. Genetic diversity includes developments in the areas of conservation, collection and evaluation. The Programme has screened germplasm under different conditions to identify new sources of desirable traits like resistance to (a)biotic stresses, photosynthetic capacity and quality. Fear of introducing exotic diseases still hinders quick distribution of improved germplasm to other continents. A significant start has been made in developing a genetic map of cassava for which basic information on the ploidy level of the crop is still needed. The isolation of many genetic markers will enable the detection of linkages with important agricultural traits. A number of conferences have stimulated research in, for example, the safety of cassava as a cyanogenic food crop, and postharvest deterioration. They have indicated that networking is an efficient way to develop this research.
Future research envisages a broader conservation strategy covering the primary genepool and that of other Manihot species. The ecogeographical aspect is an important factor in this respect to fill gaps in the cassava collection. The conservation of African germplasm will receive more attention. Cryopreservation is the preferred long-term safe preservation method. Screening of germplasm for adaptation or resistance to different (a)biotic factors, like arthropod pests, diseases, drought or temperature stress, and photo-synthetic efficiency will continue to be a principal activity. A stronger emphasis will be given to defining the mechanism, control and distribution in the genepool of these adaptive characteristics.
Improvement of Genepools
A main priority is the use of selection schemes to breed cassava adapted to different agroecological zones, like the sub-humid tropics, acid soil savannas, humid tropics, mid-altitude tropics, highland tropics, sub-tropics and semi-arid tropics. Genepools for each of these zones are created by a (cyclic) process of parental selection, crossing and progeny selection in each one. At all stages of development the enhanced genetic variability is introduced in national programmes to cover local needs.
In the past five years national programmes have released 17 improved varieties in Asia and Latin America originating directly from genepools or indirectly from CIAT parental material. These varieties cover 200,000 ha in Asia and 40,000 ha in Latin America. Their full impact will not be felt for a few years because of the slow multiplication rate of cassava planting material and the absence of rapid multiplication systems in these areas. The estimated productivity increase of these new varieties, across ecosystems, is 19%, with a price premium of approximately 15% being paid for their increased starch content in Asia.
The evaluation of over 3,000 accessions and 150,000 clones has underpinned these improvements. The result is 112 elite breeding parents for the next breeding cycle. The NARS in Latin America and Asia have produced about 350,000 hybrid seeds for selection programmes. IITA has introduced another 290,000 hybrid seeds from CIAT. This has broadened the genetic base in Africa for breeding cassava, for example with 33 adapted clones for the semi-arid tropics. The impact of new varieties is highly dependent on acceptance by the local farmer and consumer. To involve the local farmer and to understand his insights, on-farm evaluation programmes have successfully been started in Colombia and Brazil. The breeding networks in Latin America and Asia were the most prominent mechanism for germplasm and information exchange. China and Vietnam received priority attention during the last period.
The development of broad based genepools in different ecoagricultural systems and their release to national programmes will remain a chief goal. This long-term process of genetic recombination is needed to stabilize productivity and ensure a considerable increase in yield in the different ecosystems at the end of the next five-year period. A cycle with inbreeding will be investigated as a potential tool to eliminate deleterious alleles and to detect larger differences between quality traits. Transformation research in the biotech unit can provide another important tool for the breeder. Further exploratory research will be carried out on the feasibility of propagating cassava commercially using true seed.
Integrated Pest and Crop Management
Cassava is predominantly grown by small-scale farmers across a broad range of tropical and subtropical environments under sub-optimal conditions. Strategic and applied research has been carried out for more than 20 years in the area of 'integrated crop and pest management' (ICPM) of cassava. During the past five years research has concentrated on the biological control of mealybugs, mites, the hornworm and burrowing bug. Two mealybug parasites have been found in Venezuela and were successfully established in Colombia and Brazil. Several species of predatory mite have been found, studied at CIAT and released in Brazil by EMBRAPA and in Africa by IITA. A hornworm-specific bacolovirus successfully and simply controls the cassava hornworm and has reduced pesticide use by 60% to 100% in certain areas.
The team gave priority to integrated control of root rot pathogens, cassava bacterial blight, superelongation disease and witches' broom disease. Yield increases of up to 300% were due to many factors, including pathogen-free planting material, host plant resistance, planting on ridges, intercropping with sorghum or maize, and a set of technical recommendations. A UNDP-funded project has recently been started as a collaborative effort of CIAT, EMBRAPA and IITA for on-farm implementation of ICPM through farmer participation.
In the area of integrated crop-soil management (ICSM) the team focused attention on quality of planting materials, soil fertility and erosion control. In Colombia, moderate inputs of K and P result in a high response where there are poor soils with high organic matter. Selection of germplasm adapted to acid soils and low P and K levels was a key factor for success. In Asia, most soils are low in organic matter and relatively high in P and K. Under these conditions, green manures or N application were highly effective. The use of forage legume cover crops and live barriers were important in soil conservation practices for hillsides and tropical upland. The financial support of BMZ (Germany) and of the Sasakawa Foundation (Japan) was a key factor. It helped stimulate soil conservation research and implement farmers' evaluation of crop-soil management practices to minimize soil erosion in cassava-based cropping systems.
Strategic research on pest and disease management and low- input agriculture will continue. The two projects on ICPM in Brazil and Africa, and on ICSM in Asia, are major activities for the next five-year period. The integration of plant resistances, biological control and cultural practices by participating farmers is important. Research on crop-soil management will concentrate on the seasonally dry and semiarid ecosystems. Interprogramme studies with the Hillsides Programme have been initiated. Collaboration with Tropical Lowland Programmes for cassava-based cropping systems is the next step.
Product and Market Development
The impact of CIAT's Cassava Programme is often dependent on product and market development. This is of special importance where the role of cassava is changing from that of a rural staple to a multipurpose carbohydrate. Research effort focused on small scale processing of cassava in three areas:
Dry chips as animal feed: The team gave technical support to national programmes in Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia for the commercial expansion of dry cassava chip production by small farmer cooperatives.Flour for the food industry: Industrial trials showed that because of its quality, cassava flour has market niches in food and non-food applications. Its production is in the semicommercial phase in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
Starch: The joint research with CIRAD-SAR on fermented starch is an interesting endeavour. Fermented starch has self-raising characteristics of importance for bakery products. The EU is financing a new project now running to develop new products and markets for cassava in Latin America. Partners are CIAT, NRI, ORSTOM and universities in Colombia, Brazil, Argentina and Ecuador.
CIAT, CIP and IITA collaborated in the preparation of a manual on root and tuber postharvest research and development. There is a clear trend towards joint postharvest research on root and tuber crops amongst the CGIAR institutes.
The main strategies for the next five years are to create additional income-generating activities for farmers and to strengthen links with food technology, product and consumer research. It is important to collaborate with groups in developing and developed countries that possess the infrastructure and knowledge to investigate the physical and chemical and functional properties of cassava products.
Interinstitutional collaboration
Collaboration between the CIAT Cassava Research Programme, IITA advanced labs and the NARS in the most important cassava producing countries forms the core of cassava research at the global level. Of crucial importance is the recent improvement in collaboration between CIAT and IITA. A few examples of collaborative efforts are the jointly produced biennial "Cassava Newsletter", the collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa (Cosca), work on genetic resources and genetic improvement and integrated management of pests and diseases. An important part of the Programme in Latin America is the setting up and operation of 'Integrated Cassava Research and Development Projects' (ICRDP). These projects appear to be important interinstitutional mechanisms for providing closer links between production and market aspects. The EU project on the 'development of new products and markets of cassava' is an additional activity in this area. The Southern Cone Cassava Development Network incorporated a successful 'training of trainers' project with an important impact. The Programme established networking activities in Asia governed by a regional Advisory Committee of country representatives, focusing on breeding and crop-soil management. The Cassava Biotechnology Network (CBN) is another example of the important link between the NARS and the developed world through CIAT. Two scientific meetings (Colombia, 1992; Indonesia, 1994) were important for exchanging information on biotechnology and inducing and directing the desired basic research on cassava in developed countries.
Possibilities for enhance Intel-institutional collaboration in the future is largely dependent on complementary funding which is not assured. New initiatives are to the ICRDP methodology to Africa, and to propose a regional Root and Tuber Network for Central America and the Caribbean with CIP, IITA, CATIE and CARDI.
The Panel recognizes the outstanding way the Cassava Programme has been organised and executed. The staff, both at Headquarters and outposted, are highly motivated. It is important that the long-term vision remain clear, and that it continue to guide the formulation of shorter term research activities. A complicating factor in this crop is the low degree of basic knowledge available. It is a crop for poor tropical regions. This means that the task of CIAT with its global mandate is highly important.
The various components of the Cassava Programme are covering the different aspects of this task. However, the recent financial reductions and the simultaneous implementation of the new strategic plan, including expansion of CIAT's research area, did do some harm to this commodity programme. Parts of cassava research needed for implementation of the results by the NARS and the farmers have been stopped. This has decreased the speed with which new improved varieties become available, and also their impact. The Panel feels it is important to note this setback.
While CIAT's new Action Plan was circulated to NARS after Board approval, it was not known to the national partners with whom it was discussed by Panel members. There were, of course, special circumstances in the speed with which the Action Plan had to be drawn up. As a general practice, the Panel urges CIAT to discuss major changes in the Programme with its partners in order to arrive at an integration of research with gaps being systematically filled and overlaps being avoided.
The Cassava Programme must continue to be a model for good integration with the new ecoregional programmes, so as to strengthen CIAT's research and its internal cohesion.
The Panel urges CIAT to press for arrangements that would permit the two-way intercontinental exchange of germplasm. This would allow the Centre to use germplasm from Africa in its programme for Latin America and Asia.
The molecular marker technology can only be of practical value when plant populations, segregating for a number of important traits, are available. The Panel proposes that localization of resistance to ACMV should be made at CIAT using DNA from a segregating population of cassava from IITA.
Maintenance of the cassava collection should be rationalised, with more time being devoted to evaluation and basic aspects of germplasm development.
CIAT's research on cassava processing and on product and market development has many aspects in common with work being carried out by IITA, NRI, CIRAD and several NARS and by CIP on potato and sweet potato. The Panel feels that inter-centre integration of this research could avoid overlap and partially compensate for the decrease of research in this area at CIAT. This might be considered by the Inter-Centre Review of Roots and Tubers. It should be stressed that for successful integration to occur a minimum core competence must be maintained in CIAT. Core competence has slipped below optimal (though not below minimum) level.
The Panel favours the development of contacts by CIAT with large processing industries in order to indicate the potential of cassava, and promote diversification of end uses. If this were to lead to forms of cooperation, the independent position of CIAT would have to be ensured.
2.4.1. Evolution
2.4.2. Achievements and Impact
2.4.3. Future Strategy
2.4.4. Overview and Assessment
A collaborative rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV) resistance breeding project between the Rockefeller Foundation and the Colombian Government operated for 10 years. In 1967 (with the founding of CIAT) this metamorphosed into one of CIAT's base commodity programmes. The initial objective of CIAT's Rice Programme (RP) was to effect a Green Revolution in LAC driven by irrigated rice. CIAT later modified the agroecological focus to include rainfed lowlands and well-watered uplands.
Within the CGIAR system, IRRI has global responsibility for rice while CIAT has regional responsibility for LAC, and WARDA for Western Africa. CIAT's RP conducts strategic research on problems where it has comparative advantage because of its location, i.e. issues that are unique to major rice ecologies of LAC. At the same time, CIAT closely collaborates with IRRI, WARDA and CIRAD to capture, adapt and deliver global strategic advances to LAC.
Among others, the RP's research agenda included: blast disease, savannah soil acidity, agronomic and socioeconomic studies, and IPM/ICM. By 1989, the maximum eight core scientist positions had been attained; these were supplemented by one CIRAD breeder and one JIRCAS physiologist, thereby constituting a critical mass for this LAC rice improvement programme.
With the unexpected CG Systemwide downward trend in funding during the early 1990s, and the simultaneous compelling necessity for CIAT to conduct natural resources management research, the core positions were reduced to 3.7 by mid-1994, with a concomitant reduction in the programme's research agenda. The appointment of an interim Programme Leader in late 1994 increased the core positions to 4.7 in 1995. However, with the expected termination of appointments of the Programme Leader (PL) and the Irrigated Rice Breeder by December 1995 and the addition of a 0.5 entomologist position by August 1995, as well as the reinstatement of the socioeconomist position in 1996, the RP will have 5.2 SYs from 1996. The situation has been exacerbated by the phasing out of CRIN in 1992 and the uncertainty about the future of INGER-LAC after 1994. However, some of the thrust in agronomic and systems research is maintained by collaboration with the Tropical Lowlands Programme, while appropriate technical support is provided by CIAT's BRU and VRU.
Having decided, at the end of 1993, not to core-fund irrigated rice breeding, CIAT devoted most of 1994 to mobilizing financial support for devolution of the funding, management and implementation of irrigated rice research to a consortium comprising primarily the private sector and the NARS of LAC. Progress has been remarkable. In January 1995, CIAT signed bilateral agreements with one institution in each of four countries (Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, and Venezuela) and with IICA, establishing FLAR (Latin America Irrigated Rice Fund), to be administered by CIAT, and to which total annual contributions of US$315,000 were pledged. While CIAT expects other LAC institutions to join the fund, it will also solicit the financial support of regional and international donors.
Despite the above difficulties, the RP has recorded some notable achievements during the last five years. Thus, of all irrigated rice varieties released in LAC during 1991-94, 57% (or 29 out of 51) originated from CIAT-generated germplasm. In Central America and the Caribbean (CAC), 92% (or 11 out of 12) of the released varieties were CIAT-made crosses derived from the IR-8 plant type developed at IRRI. CIAT adapted them to LAC conditions in close collaboration with NARS, including, in particular, ICA, FEDEARROZ and CORPOICA in Colombia. CIAT also developed high-yielding upland rice varieties which have been released in Colombia (e.g., Oryzica Sabana, released in 1991) and Brazil (e.g., Progresso, released in 1994).
Rice improvement in LAC has also benefitted from IRRI's and CIAT's coordination of two productive networks: INGER-LAC and CRIN. INGER-LAC is the conduit through which national breeders access the elite breeding materials of almost any rice breeder in the world. It is estimated that 38% of all varieties released in LAC is attributed to germplasm distributed through INGER-LAC between 1976 and 1993. CRIN, created specifically for fragmented and poverty-stricken Caribbean countries, depended on INGER-LAC for germplasm and conducted adaptive research on IPM, ICM and small-scale mechanization. It has been estimated that CRIN's strong training agenda increased yields of participating farmers in the Dominican Republic by 46%.
Using a new technique (MGR-DNA fingerprinting), CIAT scientists and their Purdue University collaborators have made good progress in characterizing the genetic structure of the rice blast pathogen (Pyricularia oryzae). They identified 115 haplotypes clustered into six distinct genetic lineages, each one essentially consisting of non-overlapping subsets of pathotypes, pathogenic in a specific subset of cultivars. Their study of pathogen diversity revealed that the pathogen populations contain virulence for all resistance sources, but that no isolate was virulent to all rice genotypes. These results suggest that the durable resistance in Oryzica Llanos 5 may be attributable to pyramiding of resistance genes.
RHBV and its vector, Tagosodes oryzicola, constitute important constraints to rice production in LAC. The available resistance to each is based on a single source. However, the RP has recently identified four new sources and is using them to broaden the genetic base of RHBV resistance. Meanwhile, CIAT virologists have accomplished partial molecular characterization of RHBV, and in conjunction with RP and the Biotechnology Research Unit, are investigating novel control strategies (coat protein mediated cross protection and anti-sense strategy) involving genetic transformation of rice.
CIAT's thrust on IPM/ICM since 1989 has stimulated NARS scientists to educate farmers in Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela on rational insecticide and fungicide use, resulting in a substantial reduction in their unnecessary usage, e.g. Colombian farmers reduced the total volume of sprays by 55 % and their number by 33%.
An economic analysis showed that anther culture (AC) use could reduce the cost of varietal development by the pedigree method by up to 26%. In 1994, CIAT started to implement a two-year technology transfer programme on AC for the rice-breeding programmes of LA.
An important result of an interprogramme project catalyzed by the RP is the identification of silicone deficiency as a major, previously unrecognized, nutritional constraint for upland rice in LAC acid savannah soils; it reduces yields by 50% and greatly increases susceptibility to neck blast and grain discolouration.
CIAT's role in rice research is regional. To discharge its responsibilities, the Centre will continue to exploit synergies with other IARCs, NARS and NGOs. During the next five to six years, CIAT proposes to provide core funds for strategic and applied research in three major areas of upland rice: upland rice improvement; reducing losses due to diseases, arthropod pests and weeds; and integrating rice into three agroecosystems (tropical savannahs, forest margins, and hillsides). While proposing to devolve irrigated rice research to FLAR, CIAT has accepted the necessity for its continued but limited participation. Consequently, CIAT is requesting the CG to reinstate, in the 1996 core funding, the position of a socioeconomist who would catalyze and provide research inputs into FLAR's agenda.
CIAT's upland rice strategy is to develop germplasm as an ecosystem management component. Upland genepools and a diversified genetic base will be achieved through recurrent selection and provision of improved populations to NARS. CIAT also has a comparative advantage in addressing other medium- to long-term issues such as the genetics and physiological mechanisms of tolerance/resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses under acid soil conditions. Thus, the RP will elucidate soil acidity and nutrient constraints; screen germplasm for adaptation to these environments; and determine underlying mechanisms and plant-type implications for such adaptations, including those for intercropping.
To contribute to regional effort for reducing losses due to biotic constraints, CIAT will focus on durable resistance to blast, diversified resistance to Tagosodes/RHBV, and traits that enhance weed control. CIAT will collaborate with IRRI and US universities in the application of biotechnology in the characterization of the blast pathogen, resistance to blast, and resistance breeding.
A study of the inheritance of resistance to RHBV in the newly identified sources, and the crossability of the latter to LAC-adapted materials will facilitate pyramiding of complementary resistance mechanisms. CIAT will also develop gene constructs for rice transformation with viral coat protein (to inhibit viral replication in rice) and antisense genes (to inhibit virus transmission). The RP will intensify studies of traits that reduce damage by weeds: enhanced competitiveness and allelopathy against weeds, and tolerance of water seeding and submergence. It will continue to develop IPM/ICM components to reduce rice pesticide use and production costs through its strategic research on rice pests and on development of nutrient-efficient materials.
As part of IRRI's Global INGER, CIAT will attempt to develop financial support for the conduct of INGER-LAC.
Irrigated rice has been CIAT's most successful programme. The remarkable collaboration between IRRI, CIAT and national systems has had a tremendous impact in Latin America over the last quarter century. In Colombia, for instance, yields have been quintupled and the country has become self-sufficient in rice. The internal rate of return on CIAT's rice programme is calculated at 69%. Rice is mostly grown by large farmers, and consumed by the poor. The decision of CIAT to eliminate its work on irrigated rice in the face of financial problems was taken in the spirit of a mission successfully accomplished.
The move out of irrigated rice was made rather suddenly, and created hard feelings in some quarters. Nevertheless the Panel feels it was a right decision, and once it was made the transition was handled well. The Panel applauds the way in which CIAT has worked to develop FLAR, described above an innovative and appropriate formula for working with NARS and the private sector. The establishment of FLAR, and hopefully of a similar body for the Caribbean and Central America, leaves CIAT with some residual responsibilities as the administering agency, but without a need to devote core funding to biological research on irrigated rice. The Centre must, however, retain a modest level of in-house expertise if it is to help FLAR to become operational in the next few years, and ensure coverage of the needs of those tropical rice-growing countries in Central America and the Caribbean which require finished lines rather than segregating populations.
A continuing CIAT role as a promoter (rather than as a conductor) of research is particularly important as IRRI breaks through the yield ceiling on irrigated rice and introduces a range of new plant types. These will require adaptation to the LAC environment, in particular for direct seeding.
In the meantime, the Panel endorses CIAT's decision to continue its work on upland rice. Latin America still has ample land in which rice could be grown, particularly in the savannahs with acid soils. Cultivation of these lands does, however, create problems of sustainability. There is a clear need to integrate rice production into well-designed production systems. The research agenda on upland rice is complex, but well suited to CIAT with its NRM programmes. The Centre can play a strategic role, working in collaboration with IRRI, WARDA and CIRAD. Downstream, it cooperates closely with NARS such as Brazil, Colombia and Bolivia. The Panel finds that CIAT's research programme on upland rice is well conceived, the constraints have been carefully analysed, and the research methodology for addressing them goes in the right direction. The work on rice blast is strategic in nature, and holds out great promise not only for Latin America but perhaps also for Africa.
The Rice Programme as a whole is now the smallest of all CIAT programmes, with only 3.7 SYs budgeted for 1995. The Panel has considered the possibility for CIAT to abolish rice completely as a separate programme, but does not feel this would be wise in present circumstances. Because of the crop's important role in the region there is a strong case for a continued strategic involvement in rice by CIAT. The Centre also needs to keep a high profile in the negotiations surrounding FLAR and a possible sister organization for the Caribbean and Central America. With some residual activities related to FLAR, and a promising research agenda for upland rice, there is a strong case for maintaining a rice programme with a single leader. This will ensure rational management in rice, keep up credibility with donors and NARS, and boost the morale of the programme scientists.
2.5.1. Evolution
2.5.2. Achievements and Impact
2.5.3. Future Strategy
2.5.4. Overview and Assessment
The Tropical Forages Programme (TFP) originated from the former Tropical Pastures Programme (TPP), and became operational in 1992. It contains components on Genetic Resources and Plant Improvement and Utilization from the old Tropical Pastures Programme. That Programme's components dealing with Ecophysiology, Nutrient Cycling, Farming Systems and Economics were transferred to the Savannahs Programme (now the Tropical Lowlands Programme). The new TFP has a staff of nine senior scientists.
The new TFP has a world mandate and is focused on the development of improved forage germplasm for agroecosystems with acid soils in the humid and subhumid tropics. This task involves the delivery of selected ecotypes to NARS in Tropical America, South East Asia and West Africa, as well as to the Natural Resources Programmes in CIAT. Close collaboration with these clients is essential in order to test new germplasms in the different production systems and to develop and investigate management strategies.
The specific objectives of the three areas of the TFP are:
Forage Diversity:a) To acquire, characterize, conserve, document and distribute forage germplasm, rhizobia and mycorrhizae for evaluation for environmental adaptation on acid infertile soils of the humid and subhumid tropics.b) To identify forage ecotypes adapted to climate and soil, and resistant to pests and diseases, for the humid and subhumid tropics, with persistence, high quality feed value and the potential for soil improvement.
Forage Improvement:
a) To improve the utility and productivity of Brachiaria forage grasses through the use of natural genetic resources complemented by genetic manipulation.b) To broaden the range of adaptation of forage Arachis species by increasing the available genetic base, to improve agronomic utility and to facilitate in situ conservation through population biology studies.
c) To develop genepools of Stylosanthes guianensis and S. capitata with durable resistance to anthracnose and high persistence under grazing.
d) To develop Centrosema brasilianum with resistance to foliar blight while maintaining high seed yield and other agronomic characteristics.
Forage Adaptation and Use:
a) To assess the quality and feed value of forage genetic resources for infertile acid soils in the humid and subhumid tropics.b) To identify attributes that confer tolerance to infertile soils and contribute to efficient acquisition and use of nutrients.
c) To develop and evaluate the productivity, and environmental and socioeconomic impact, of forage components for different production systems.
d) To facilitate interaction with national organizations, develop effective channels for disseminating information and provide non-degree training.
Because of resource limitations, interaction with the NARS and other research institutions has to some extent been curtailed. This, together with changes within participating NARS, has severely affected the functioning of the Red Internacional de Pasturas Tropicales (RIEPT) network in the past period. Other networks in Central America, Latin America and South East Asia operate well.
Forage Diversity
The TFP made progress with the evaluation of collections of rhizobia and forage species in close collaboration with the Genetic Resources Unit (GRU). To manage the whole forage species collection properly they established a new database. The TFP has published several catalogues of the existing tropical forages collections, which are maintained in the GRU.
In the genera Arachis, Calopogonium, Leucaena, Panicum and Paspalum, the evaluation of forage accessions resulted in the selection of new promising ecotypes. They are at present being evaluated as components of pasture production systems in different countries of LAC. Collaborating with the Cassava Programme the TFP has selected some legumes and grass species as soil covers for the control of erosion. Evaluation of accessions of legumes and grasses in South East Asia and in West Africa resulted in the selection of germplasm highly suitable for those areas. The TFP has distributed germplasm to 55 countries outside Colombia.
Forage Improvement
The TFP has made progress in the mapping of the apomixis locus. The identification of the nature of the leafcutter pest and of resistance to it permitted the development of a rapid screening method for resistance. In Brachiaria, the Programme progressed in work on resistance to spittlebug and foliar blight, plant establishment, and the use of fertiliser. The TFP improved seed quality in A. pintoi conservation and made progress among Stylosanthes spp in evaluating and characterizing S. guianensis and S. capitata, and in using natural resistance to anthracnose. For Centrosema spp the TFP developed a reliable inoculation method for screening of resistance to foliar blight.
Forages Adaptation and Utilization
The TFP made progress in research on the way tannins affect forage quality, how forage species respond to acid soils in nutrient partitioning, and in the development of grass-legume pastures for forage and as soil covers with a stable and high production.
Networks and Training
Communication with NARS, NGOs and IARCs was mainly through various networks in Latin America and South East Asia. The journal 'Pasturas Tropicales' remained an important means of reporting on tropical forage research in Latin America. In the last five years CIAT organised several workshops, conferences and training activities in LAC and South Asia.
Impact
Impact can be clearly identified in: the release of improved varieties, germplasm for breeding in tropical America, scientific publications, the training of scientific personnel of NARS and NGOs, and on-farm participation in forage evaluation experiments.
At the same time that the Programme was undergoing significant modifications in its structure and functions, important changes were occurring in the economic framework of many tropical countries, especially in Latin America. The new economic situation and the increase in public investments on road infrastructure in some countries (especially Brazil and Colombia), significantly raised land values and thus the need to improve land yields, which in turn created a demand for more intensive but sustainable technologies. So improved pastures are in greater demand and published forecasts predict a massive growth in international trade in forage seeds.
The TFP will give more emphasis to improving the grass species Brachiaria and the legumes Arachis, Stylosanthes and Centrosema in particular. A change towards more strategic research is foreseen. Main components will be: increasing and evaluating collections; developing and using host-plant resistance mechanisms; using biotechnological techniques to increase knowledge of genetic diversity and to fine-map the apomixis locus for indirect selection; increasing seed yield and seedling vigour in Stylosanthes; adapting to environmental stress by farmer participation and the knowledge of what influences anti-nutritional factors in forages; and networking.
The Panel recognizes the considerable task faced by the Tropical Forages Programme during the last two years in establishing itself as a global germplasm development programme within the new organizational structure of CIAT. Significant managerial abilities have been deployed in building up the programme and in developing efficient channels of communication with NARS and with the other programmes and research units of CIAT. From this process has emerged a scientific staff fully dedicated to collaboration in the improvement of tropical production systems.
The Programme has focused well on priority problems and has responded effectively to the demand of both external and internal clients for forage germplasm adapted to more fertile soil conditions and the use of purchased inputs. The Panel commends the Tropical Forages Programme for its efforts in its first two years, and endorses its initiatives in the CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme.
The problems of low yields of viable seed in tropical forages are of critical importance. CIAT has an outstanding comparative advantage in advanced genetic and biotechnological tools. The Panel therefore puts forward the following recommendation:
2. The Panel recommends that CIAT undertake genetic and ecophysiological research to increase both yield and viability of the seeds of the most important tropical grasses and legumes.
The Panel also encourages the Tropical Forages Programme:
a) To pursue the evaluation of legumes and grasses from South East Asia and West Africa, and to reinforce networking through SEAFRAD;b) To maintain support for RIEPT given the outstanding results obtained;
c) To create an Editorial Board for 'Pasturas Tropicales' including experienced outside research scientists;
d) To interact directly with universities and appropriate private organizations as well as with NARS;
e) To increase the participation of graduate students from developing and developed countries in its research projects.
Given its potential importance for the Tropical Forages Programme, the Panel suggests that close contact be maintained with the private seed production sector. As questions of intellectual property governing plant materials are resolved in Latin America, and a legal framework is established, rapid changes are likely to occur in the industry. These can be expected to have a favourable impact on germplasm testing, multiplication and demand. If the private sector does indeed expand its activities rapidly, the TFP should consider restricting its forage evaluation procedures to the initial steps of exploration and germplasm screening. At that point the later stages of improvement can be done more effectively by the seed companies.
There are several common themes running through some or all the commodity programmes, notably with regard to germplasm collection, its use in overcoming biotic and abiotic constraints, and its dissemination to farmers through NARS. In all these areas CIAT has made significant contributions but its job is far from over. The observations which follow are additional to those give in Chapter 4.1.1 dealing specifically with the GRU.
Genetic diversity
Links between the GRU and the commodity programmes have been strengthened by appointments in the programmes of germplasm characterization specialists. The use of GIS to help focus future collection activity and identify locales for in situ preservation, will need to be coupled with an increased input into the basic taxonomy of the crops and their wild relatives, and ways to introgress genes from wild species into crop genepools. The use of molecular markers and QTLs to help classify the genetic variation in the collections will enable a more efficient use of CIAT's unique germplasm collection. For cassava, compiling germplasm passport information at the location where the collection was made may increase efficiency. This enhanced GRU Programme interaction on genetic resources places CIAT in a good position to respond to global and regional biodiversity initiatives.
The backlog in the GRU screening and classifying of germplasm and the lack of an inventory indicating how materials are stored, how viable they are, and how duplicates are recognized remains an issue. For the wild relatives of beans and cassava and many forage species, this is of particular concern because they may not flower at CIAT, giving increasing importance to development of in situ conservation or locus of origin efforts. These and related issues will be addressed by an internal review by CIAT's Genetic Diversity SRG, which will be complemented by a CG Systemwide Review of Genebanks in 1995.
The storage and viability of propagules is a common concern, but particularly for forages, cassava and beans. For cassava, cryopreservation promises to reduce the need for maintenance by field grow-outs, enabling allocation of GRU resources to other activities. For forage species too little is yet known of the seed viability in the collection.
All programmes have embraced the opportunities offered by the newly emerging techniques in biotechnology and molecular genetics in a productive and balanced manner. The linkage between Units and the Programmes has been both stimulating and fruitful in this area. The Cassava BTN and Bean BARN are proving excellent vehicles for involving NARS (including universities) and institutions from developed countries in collaborative work in this area. The increasing use of CIAT's facilities and materials for post-graduate training is a positive development which the Panel endorses.
Technology Transfer
Collaborative networks involving CIAT and NARS are the main route by which CIAT is channelling its outputs, and all programmes have been productive in fostering and supporting these. NARS and CIAT are working together to develop participatory planning by objectives, in developing on-farm and farmer-involved selection and multiplication of seeds. There is a commendable recognition by the programmes of the importance of socioeconomic factors in technology adoption. The commodity and NRM programmes are working closely together in the evaluation of cultivars and crop management approaches on farm.
Commercial Involvement in Seed Production and Product Use
Except for irrigated rice, a major limitation to the adoption of new germplasm materials emanating from CIAT's and related NARS research is the lack of commercial demand for quality seed. This should be the driving force in the development of commercial seed production either by private or by government concerns. This may be because the end users of improved seed are mainly small farmers who traditionally produce their own planting material. Limited farmer awareness of the potential gains from using improved varieties is another element. The lack of appropriate legal instruments to protect variety rights in many tropical countries is a further factor inhibiting commercial activity.
For cassava, adoption of virus free, superior planting material will remain farmer-driven because of the small multiplication rate of 10-12 times and the difficulty in producing seed. Another alternative is the development of a micropropagation cottage industry for cassava as has occurred for potato in parts of South East Asia. The NARS will play a large role in this, with CIAT helping in the socioeconomic aspects of how to stimulate farmer and community demands for new technology. CIAT has given due recognition to the role of women farmers in this development.
The Panel suggests that CIAT continue to document in easily accessible form its experience in the production of seeds and propagules of its mandate crops. CIAT should also promote the production of improved seed and seek to ensure that appropriate advice is available for seed producers.
Product Diversification
For cassava there is much potential to stimulate industrial use, particularly of cassava starch for food products. Based on the commendable achievements from CIAT's collaboration with CIRAD, NRI, Colombia, Brazil and Ecuador in this area, the Centre could play a role by assembling information, and stimulating and coordinating research, on potential industrial uses, as any benefits from the increase in demand for cassava will flow on to producers.
Production in non-traditional areas (eg cassava in Asia and snap-beans in China) has the potential to expand the impact of CIAT's work.
