W.E.M. LOGAN
A GOOD DEAL of effort is at present being devoted to man-made forests and consideration is being given more and more to them as a means of meeting the world's future wood needs. It is perhaps not too fanciful to liken this trend to a sort of industrial revolution in production forestry, in which the emphasis is shifting from manipulation of the natural forest to intensive plantation methods in order to produce wood of the quality and quantity required. The problem is that demands for wood are expected to grow faster than the rate the natural forests are likely to be able to sustain, that a high proportion of these demands will be for large-scale supplies of wood having uniform processing characteristics and qualities, and that the cost of producing this wood will come under increasing pressure. Faced with these developments forest managers are being forced to apply mass production methods to wood production. In the majority of cases this will entail recourse to plantations.
The present is therefore an appropriate time to consider the present status and the future trends of development of man-made forests: what is their present role and importance, on what lines are they likely to develop, in what sectors or regions. are the opportunities greatest and what are the main problems to be overcome ?
Policy aspects of this trend are reviewed here. The present state of man-made forests is outlined and then their role in the supply of future wood needs and as conservation agencies is examined, and finally some conclusions are drawn which may serve as useful guidelines in framing future policies.
The figures quoted in the following paragraphs have been abstracted from Appendix 6. These figures are far from complete and in many cases reflect data that have been based on differing interpretations of the definition and classification of man-made forests. For these reasons they should be regarded as no more than indicative of the present state of development.
There is a need to secure a more uniform interpretation of man-made forests and for the gaps in the data requested to be filled in so that a more definite picture of the present state of these forests and their contribution to national economies can be drawn. It was recognized by the symposium that a single, simple definition and classification of man-made forests to suit all circumstances was not possible. The general feeling was that the ad hoc definition and interpretation in Appendix 1 were useful and should be followed by all countries in order to ensure consistency in the collection of statistics, though some delegates from Europe felt unable to accept their ready applicability to the intimate mixtures of natural and artificial regeneration which occur in parts of that region.
It was also considered desirable that the remainder of the data submitted to FAO and not yet processed should be summarized, analyzed and published.
AREA
Outside Europe man-made forests are mostly a development of the past 50 to 60 years. Indeed in many countries and especially those in the tropics and subtropics man-made forests are a good deal more recent, the majority being less than 20 years old. Despite their short history, the area of man-made forests now existing in the world is quite substantial and planting is proceeding apace.
In 1965 the total area of these forests for which figures have been reported amounted to about 34 million hectares. Adding to this figure those areas believed to be in existence, but for which no figures have yet been reported, the total area is reckoned to be about 81 million hectares, or about 2 ½ times the area reported.
It may be noted that roughly half the total world area of man-made forests consists of plantations in China (Mainland) and the U.S.S.R. for which figures have not been reported. The distribution of these forests by regions is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1. - REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF MAN-MADE FORESTS
|
|
Area recorded by reporting countries |
Approximate estimate of area in nonreporting countries |
Approximate estimate of total |
|
Million hectares |
|||
|
Africa |
1.71 |
(0.5) |
(2.21) |
|
Asia |
12.15 |
(30.8) |
(42.95) |
|
Australasia |
0.77 |
0.0 |
0.77 |
|
Europe |
7.00 |
(4.6) |
(11.60) |
|
Latin America |
1.47 |
(0.1) |
(1.57) |
|
Near East |
0.05 |
(0.1) |
(0.15) |
|
North America |
10.65 |
0.0 |
10.65 |
|
U.S.S.R. |
- |
(11.0) |
(11.00) |
|
TOTAL |
33.80 |
(47.1) |
(80.90) |
NOTE: Bracketed figures are estimated.
The major individual country areas of man-made forests are China (Mainland) (e. 30 million ha), U.S.S.R. (e. 11 million ha), United States (c. 10 million ha,), Japan (e. 7 million ha), Rep. of Korea, Indonesia, Spain, the United Kingdom and France (all with between 1 and 2 million ha). The figures for China (Mainland) and U.S.S.R. are estimates.
PRINCIPAL GENERA AND SPECIES
In the following subsections the figures relate only to man-made forests for which data have been reported. The picture of species composition and age class distribution, being thus a limited one, may be far from representative of the true world picture, if all areas could be analyzed. Nevertheless, it seems worthwhile to analyze what data there are as it may stimulate further information.
The composition of man-made forests in terms of conifer and broadleaved species in each region is roughly as set out in Table 2.
TABLE 2. - COMPOSITION OF MAN-MADE FORESTS
|
|
Conifer |
Broad-leaved |
Not differentiated |
Total |
|
Thousand hectares |
||||
|
Europe |
4913 |
1213 |
878 |
7004 |
|
North America |
9819 |
829 |
- |
10648 |
|
U.S.S.R. |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Near East |
4 |
42 |
- |
46 |
|
Africa |
675 |
1036 |
- |
1711 |
|
Latin America |
494 |
979 |
- |
1473 |
|
Asia |
7144 |
5008 |
- |
12152 |
|
Australasia |
723 |
44 |
- |
767 |
|
|
23772 |
9151 |
878 |
33801 |
Table 2 shows that the most widely planted group of species is that of the conifers. Together these comprise about 70 percent of the reported plantations. The greatest proportions are in the northern temperate regions of Europe and North America and in Australasia. In the warmer zones of the tropics and subtropics the predominant species are broadleaved, but in Africa the conifers nearly match them; this is largely due to the extensive planting of conifers in South Africa and in east and central Africa. There is a trend in many countries for tire proportion of conifers to increase.
In regard to species, the most important conifers are as follows.
In the colder zones:
Pinus sylvestris, P. koraiensis, P. tabulaeformis, P. massoniana, Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Larix spp.
In the warmer zones:
Pinus radiata, P. patula, P. pinaster, P. elliottii, P. merkusii, and Araucaria spp.
The great preponderance of pines is evident.
Of broadleaved genera and species the principal are: the eucalypts (mainly E. globulus, E. camaldulensis, E. saligna grandis), poplars (mainly P. nigra and P. deltoides), wattle (Acacia mearnsii) and teak (Tectona grandis). The eucalypts are probably the most extensive.
AGE CLASS DISTRIBUTION
In all regions the conifer plantations are mostly under 20 years old and in the majority of countries the greater part is under 10 years old. Australasia and Europe are two important exceptions to the latter; in Australia the proportion under 10 is only about 30 percent and in Europe it is about 50 percent.
For broadleaved plantations the picture is similar. Only in Australasia and in Europe and North America are there substantial proportions more than 20 years old; in Australasia the proportion is about 70 percent and in Europe and North America it is about 30 percent.
The overall picture is thus of a preponderance of young plantations.
RATES OF GROWTH; ROTATIONS
The rates of growth of man-made forests naturally vary enormously according to species, site, rainfall, temperature, length of growing season and a number of other factors. Some broad ranges of figures can be quoted, however, to give an indication of the relative performance of the various species groups under different climatic regimes.
For conifer plantations the following mean annual increments (MAI) appear to be reasonably representative:
1. North temperate zones and Mediterranean countries with a pronounced summer dry season: MAI 2 to 5 m3/ha/yr (under exceptionally favorable conditions MAIS of 10 to 20 m3/ha/yr have been achieved)2. Tropics and subtropics: MAI 15 to 30 m3/ha/yr.
For broadleaved species the pattern is broadly similar; the highest increments being achieved in the tropics and subtropics. Some representative figures are:
The quickest growing hardwoods such as eucalypts and poplars, 20 to 30 m3/ha/yr - (on exceptionally good sites or under irrigation up to 40 m3/ha/yr has been achieved). Quick growing hardwoods such as Gmelina and Maesopsis eminii, 10 to 15 m3/ha/yr, teak 6 to 10 m3/ha/yr.
A point which analysis of the detailed figures brings out is the great variability in growth of the same species resulting from different site conditions. Under the best conditions increments, both of height and volume, may be three or more times those on the poorest site.
These rates of growth enable the rotations of manmade forests in the tropics and subtropics to be very short. For saw and veneer logs rotations are commonly between 30 and 50 years for conifers, and between 20 and 30 for the quicker growing hardwoods such as eucalypts, Gmelina and Maesopsis; for the finer hardwoods, such as teak and mahogany, rotations are commonly 60 to 80 years. For pulpwood, rotations of 10 to 1,5 years are common and under optimum conditions may be less than 10.
By contrast, in the temperate zones rotations for saw and veneer logs are commonly 50 to 100 years for conifers, and 120 to 1.50 years for hardwoods; an exception is poplar which is widely grown on rotations of 15 to 30 years. For pulpwood, rotations are commonly between 20 and 30 years.
CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing very brief outline of the present state of man-made forests some interesting points emerge.
First may be mentioned the high proportion of manmade forests that exist in what may be termed the more developed regions or countries. Including estimated areas in nonreporting countries, nearly 90 percent of the world's man-made forests are in the countries of North America, Europe, the U.S.S.R., Japan, China (Mainland), Australasia and South Africa. In many of these the man-made forests clearly owe their origin to lack of natural forest, but in some the origin seems to be attributable more to the remoteness of the natural forest from the main wood markets or to its poverty in commercial species than to absolute lack of natural forest; in others the origin may be attributed to very rapid rises in wood consumption and the anticipation that these will outstrip the capacity of the natural forest in the fairly near future. Be these as they may it is worth keeping in mind, as a background to the view often urged that developing countries have great opportunities to create man-made forests to supply the more developed countries, how large a proportion of the existing man-made forests lies in the more developed countries and, as wild. be evident later, on how large a scale planting is planned to continue in these countries.
Secondly, great reliance is placed on conifers. A notable feature of planting in the tropics in recent years has been a swing to conifer planting, especially of pines. This is probably because of their particular utility for the two main future usages: general utility constructional or joinery work and pulping. Currently a very wide range of species is being tried. The eucalypts, pre-eminent for poles and fuel, would probably be much more widely planted for these purposes also if the problems of converting quick-grown relatively small trees to saw timber without excessive loss could be overcome, or if they could be used for a greater range of pulp products.
Thirdly, there is a relative scarcity of high-grade furniture and interior paneling quality hardwoods; what may be called fine timbers. Apart from teak, there does not appear to be any great area of this type of wood planted. This may be partly because supplies from the natural forests still largely suffice, but is probably also because of the long rotations usually required for this type of wood, which makes planting less attractive. Another reason, in the case of the Meliaceae and Chlorophora, lies in the limitations imposed by shoot borer and the Phytolyma gall.
Fourthly, there is a high proportion of plantations under 10 years old. On a world aggregate of reported figures more than half of both conifers and hardwoods are in this category. Much of these are no doubt short rotation crops for pulpwood and tan bark but for saw timber and veneers it, is evident that the contribution of man-made forests to world needs can only be small for many years yet.
Fifthly, high rates of' growth are commonly attainable with plantations and the great variability which exists under differing conditions of site. Under favorable conditions plantation growth rates, outside the colder parts of the temperate zones, usually considerably exceed those of the natural forest; for instance, in the tropics volume increments in plantations of ten times that of the unimproved natural forest are not uncommon and even with silvicultural treatment the natural forest is unlikely to match the plantation rates. In the colder regions tile plantations enjoy much less or no advantage in this respect.
As has been indicated, however, these growth rates vary greatly according to site, sometimes by as much as 3:1. To some extent this may be a reflection of the spread of planting on to a greater diversity of sites, a trend which has grown in recent years, as the easier, more favorable sites have been planted up. Whatever the reason, however, the moral is clear: very careful selection of planting site is essential. It is probably not unfair to say that insufficient attention has been paid to this in most countries in the past.
Besides their obvious advantages in terms of volume production, these high rates of growth may also have important advantages, particularly in the tropics, in respect of early weed suppression and hence a reduction in establishment and tending costs but, on the other hand, they can also give rise to considerable variations of wood quality.
In this respect their achievement may be a mixed blessing. Not enough is known of the effects of rapid growth or of site differences on wood quality and the possibility that the wood qualities of plantation-grown timber may differ from those of the same species grown naturally, or in its own habitat, must be taken into account in framing planting policies. Usually this will entail a program of wood testing at as early a stage as possible in the project.
So much for the present state of man-made forests. With this as background, what is their role in the future and the probable trend of development ?
Two factors which will largely govern these are the:
1. future pattern and scale of wood consumption
2. extent to which these future needs may be supplied from the natural forests.
FUTURE PATTERN OF WOOD CONSUMPTION
The trend of future world wood consumption has been comprehensively portrayed in Wood: world trends and prospects (FAO, 1966a) and only the chief features likely to affect the making of policy in regard to manmade forests are recalled here.
First of all there are quantitative changes. By 1975 the world is expected to be using about 560 million cubic meters more wood than in 1960/61. Of this, about 450 million cubic meters will be industrial wood.
In the aggregate, consumption of industrial wood is expected to go up from about 1,000 million cubic meters in 1960/61 to about 1,500 million in 1975.
Regionally, the increases are expected to be as shown in Table 3.
Taking into account that Japan and China (Mainland) are expected to use over 90 million cubic meters of the projected increase in the Asia-Pacific region, the greatest absolute increases are seen to be in the more developed countries. Relative to present consumption, however, the greatest changes are in the less developed regions, embracing the tropical and subtropical zones of the world. Moreover, these rates of change have accelerated greatly over the past decade or two.
Secondly, there are changes in usage. In this sector the most outstanding feature is the rise in the use of wood for pulping. Out of the 450 million cubic meters of additional wood required in 1975 it is expected that just over half, 231 million cubic meters, will be required for pulping. The next largest increase will be for sawnwood, the roundwood requirement for which is expected to rise by 141 million cubic meters. The remainder, 78 million cubic meters, wild be required for wood-based panels (including plywood, particle board and chipboard but excluding veneers) The use of industrial wood in the round (poles, posts, pitprops, etc.) is expected to decline by about 3 million cubic meters in the aggregate but this will be mainly due to decreases in the more developed countries; in the less developed countries there will be small increases.
TABLE 3. - PROJECTED INCREASES IN INDUSTRIAL WOOD - CONSUMPTION BETWEEN 1960/61 AND 1975
|
|
Absolute present |
Increase on present (1960/61) consumption |
|
Million cubic meters |
Percent |
|
|
Asia-Pacific |
141 |
70 |
|
Europe |
100 |
45 |
|
North America |
89 |
25 |
|
U.S.S.R. |
62 |
25 |
|
Latin America |
39 |
80 |
|
Africa |
15 |
50 |
Relative to present consumption the usages which are increasing fastest are wood-based panels and pulping, the roundwood consumption for both being expected to more than double by 1975, whereas consumption for sawnwood is expected to increase by only about one third.
On a geographic basis, the salient features of these changes are expected to be as shown in Table 4.
TABLE 4. - PROJECTED INDUSTRIAL WOOD INCREASES BY REGION AND USAGE, IN MILLION CUBIC METERS OF ROUNDWOOD EQUIVALENT
|
|
Sawn logs |
Panel products |
Pulp products |
|||
|
+ |
Percent 1 |
+ |
Percent 1 |
+ |
Percent 1 |
|
|
EUROPE |
16 |
11 |
21 |
169 |
76 |
121 |
|
U.S.S.R. |
19 |
12 |
19 |
542 |
32 |
332 |
|
North America |
23 |
15 |
22 |
60 |
51 |
51 |
|
Latin America |
22 |
100 |
2 |
200 |
12 |
15 |
|
Africa |
6 |
75 |
2 |
200 |
4 |
183 |
|
Asia-Pacific |
55 |
61 |
12 |
260 |
56 |
200 |
|
|
141 |
78 |
231 |
|||
1 Figures in this column are the percentage change relative to present consumption.
Table 4 also shows that, although the greatest absolute increases in each usage will be in the more developed countries, the greatest rates of increase will be in the less developed ones.
In relation to raw wood production. the future pattern of wood needs is thus one in which:
1. The greater part of the extra wood. needed (about two thirds) will be for industrial processing for pulp and panel products, which is normally done on a large scale and for which the primary requirements are wood species with uniform processing characteristics, available cheaply and in large quantities. Large size and good form of log will be relatively unimportant desiderata, but accessibility and ease of extraction will be highly important.2. The greater part of the extra wood needed will be for use in the more developed countries.
3. The wood will need to be capable of rapid growth, because of the speed at which demands are increasing.
4. The most rapid increase, although not the greatest absolute terms, will be in the less developed countries, principally of the tropics and subtropics.
The foregoing gives -the essential aspects of the picture up to 1975. Later projections made by FAO Up to 1985 (FAO 1966b) suggest that industrial wood demands in 1985 will be greater by a third than those in 1975. While this may be just long enough ahead for planning and growing pulpwood supplies, for saw timber production a longer term forecast of needs is required. Such a forecast should cover at least the rotation needed to produce sawlogs. Unfortunately, there are insufficient long-range forecasts to provide a picture of prospective world demands say to the end of the century. They are urgently needed. Meanwhile, lacking them, one can only hazard that there is no reason to suppose that the trend of wood consumption over the 20 to 25 years beyond 1975 will differ greatly from that predicted for the years up to 1975.
EXTENT TO WHICH FUTURE WOOD NEEDS MAY BE MET FROM THE NATURAL FORESTS
An obvious first recourse for the supply of these future wood needs is to the natural forests. There are still very large areas of natural forest available in the world, but they are by no means well distributed in relation to the main current centers of wood consumption or processing. Broadly, the main concentrations of still untapped natural forest are the:
1. conifer forests in northeastern U.S.S.R., in northwestern North America and Mexico;
2. tropical moist mixed forest of the Amazon basin in Latin America, the Congo basin in west Africa and parts of southeast and insular Asia.
The large areas of tropical dry forest that exist are not counted in the above as a potential source of industrial wood because they contain so few species that are currently usable for these purposes.
Excluding the main reserve areas cited above, most countries are expected to be facing a shortage of industrial wood from their natural forests within the next 10 to 20 years. For instance, northwestern Europe, the United States and Japan are expected to become wood-deficit areas by 1975 or soon after, and the same applies to many tropical countries still with appreciable areas of high forests.
If the extra industrial wood that will be needed is to be supplied from the natural forests, it therefore seems likely that a large part of it will have to come from these major reserve areas.
The northern conifer forests are well suited in wood species and properties for this purpose and the main limiting factor is likely to be how far it will prove economic to open up such remote areas. Subject to that, very substantial additional supplies could be available from these forests.
The tropical forests, on the other hand, while equally subject to limitations of accessibility, are also subject to some important limitations of quality or composition.
Briefly, these may be summarized as:
1. great diversity of species, with many differences of properties and processing characteristics;
2. a substantial proportion of species having adverse qualities or processing properties;
3. commonly relatively low stockings of usable timber per unit area;
4. commonly low rates of volume production per unit area.
These are amplified in the secretariat note (FAO, 1967). Their effect in the present state of technology is to limit the productive role of these forests mainly to the supply of wood for sawing, veneers, and the manufacture of wood-based panels, and especially to the supply of the higher value woods for which low density of stocking is not such an economic obstacle to harvesting. They are rarely suitable for pulping, but advances in processing techniques could, of course, greatly alter this. Some of the unfavorable utilization characteristics could be ameliorated by silvicultural treatment, but such treatment will inevitably take time to effect results and on; present experience will certainly not produce results sufficient, either in speed or volume production, to keep pace with the predicted rising demands for industrial wood.
Nevertheless these forests can play an important role in the supply of wood for sawing, veneers and wood-based panels, particularly the higher quality hardwoods, and their possibilities in these respects should not be ignored Rather should they be regarded as a useful auxiliary in the development of wood production and measures to increase production from them should be applied accordingly. In other words, production from natural forest and man-made forests should be regarded as complementary and this should be given expression, as appropriate, in framing policies. In this respect it is also important to remember that silvicultural improvement of natural forest is low in cost compared to plantations and can often be financed out of revenue, and that in consequence the costs per unit of wood produced may not compare unfavorably. Some instances of the risks involved in illjudged and indiscriminate conversion to man-made forests have been given by van Miegroet (1967b).
AFFORESTATION PROGRAMS IN RELATION TO NATIONAL ECONOMIES
The main purpose of afforestation programs is in the great majority of cases for the production of wood but they can, of course, also be undertaken for protective purposes. In this subsection only the wood production role is considered; the protective role, e.g., for the conservation of soil, water, and wildlife or for the provision of amenities, is considered separately in Chapter IV.
Opportunities for afforestation programs
The two preceding sections have shown that the greater part of the extra wood wanted by the world will be wood for large-scale industrial processing such as pulping and wood-based panel manufacture and that, outside certain parts of the northern temperate zones, the existing natural forests are not for the most part likely to provide very satisfactory sources of wood of this kind; in some cases there will be deficiencies of quantity or accessibility and in others deficiencies of quality.
Man-made forests on the other hand are particularly well suited for the production of this sort of wood. They offer the prospect of supplies of appropriate raw wood, of more or less uniform quality or processing characteristics, being created in large quantity close to the main processing or consuming centers and, in the warmer zones of the world, the prospects of very rapid production of such wood.
They also offer certain disadvantages. They are relatively expensive to create, in terms of capital investment, and they are subject to considerable risks from disease, insect attacks and damage by fire or very high winds. In the present state of knowledge in many areas, where planting is relatively new, they are also perhaps more liable to suffer as producers of wood from deficiencies of knowledge and techniques in their creation and tending than would be the natural forest.
These disadvantages are, fortunately, not insurmountable and, in view of the pattern of future wood needs and available natural forest resources, the opportunities for creating man-made forests appear to be very great. Indeed, a very considerable program of afforestation will be needed if the predicted wood needs of the world are to be met within the time available.
In view of:
1. very rapid rises in rates of wood consumption predicted in most tropical and subtropical countries;
2. the very rapid volume production attained by plantations in such countries;
3. in many cases, the availability of land not carrying heavy forest and the relatively low costs of making and tending plantations in such conditions;
it is concluded that there are particularly favorable opportunities for the creation of man-made forests in the tropical and subtropical zones. To some extent, however, these opportunities will be limited by the factor that, in terms of absolute volumes, the greatest amount of extra wood needed will be required in the more developed countries of the temperate zones.
Contribution of man-made forests to national economies
Man-made forests can contribute to national economies in the following ways, by:
1. alleviating wood deficiencies and by replacing imports of wood and wood products;
2. earnings from exports of forest products;
3. providing a base for the establishment of wood-processing industries;
4. providing employment;
5. putting land of low productivity to more productive use;
6. increasing revenue from taxation arising out of the profits of industry and employment based on manmade forests.
Some examples of their contributions in these respects in certain countries are given by Brown (1967), Mostyn (1967), Groulez (1967), and Zaman (1967).
In general, their main contribution in most countries has so far been in alleviating wood deficiencies and reducing imports. Data are somewhat scanty but, for example in South Africa, New Zealand and Chile, manmade forests now produce more than half these countries' requirements of wood, and in a number of others, for instance Australia, Kenya and Rhodesia, the proportion is substantial. As current planting plans mature, a far wider spectrum of countries will depend on manmade forests for a large part of their wood requirements, and this trend is likely to continue to expand as most countries appear to be pursuing policies of self-sufficiency in wood.
Export earnings are believed to have arisen in the majority of cases as a secondary phase, developing out of (1). The creation of man-made forests primarily for export ab initio appears to have been relatively infrequent up to the present but lately there has been a trend toward doing so. This trend has so far shown itself mainly in the less developed countries with balance of payments problems and is chiefly based on establishing exports of pulp or paper products. Examples of what can be achieved in the export field arc demonstrated by the figures for South Africa, New Zealand and Chile, which show export earnings of U.S. $21 million (1965), $24 million (1960), and $11 million (1965) respectively. In the less developed countries, some areas in east and central Africa appear to offer possibilities for export earnings.
With regard to types of export products, timber is at present one of the main products but is likely to be displaced in future by pulp and paper products where conditions are feasible for the manufacture of these, partly because of the very rapidly growing world demands for these products but also largely because they are of so much higher value.
The establishment of industries based on plantations has been so far mainly in the more developed countries. This is as would be expected but in recent years the possibilities have become much better realized in many developing countries and there is currently a great deal of interest and activity in this respect. One of the most difficult problems confronting policy makers is that of timing - in judging the time at which it will be right to embark on planting programs for this purpose. Another is that of regional coordination, for instance where there is only room in the economic sense for one or very few processing plants in a region.
The provision of employment can be an important contribution in countries faced with considerable numbers of the landless or unemployed. But this benefit should not be overrated nor is it necessarily always a blessing. For instance, pressure to reduce costs or to complete silvicultural operations within a limited time schedule may compel forest managers to mechanize operations as far as possible. Again, the creation of industries based on the plantations is likely to draw off labor to industry and, although there may be a net gain in employment over the whole complex, the forestry side may be hindered by lack of labor.
The more productive use of land of low productivity can be a significant contribution, provided other conditions such as accessibility and markets for the wood products are favorable. Examples are the afforestation in the tropics of grassland and savanna woodland which otherwise would only carry a light stocking of mediocre cattle or a scatter of subsistence agriculture, and the afforestation of hill sheep range in temperate zones.
Role of government and other agencies
So far the agencies usually responsible for creating and managing man-made forests have been governments, either national or state (or provincial), and industrial and private planters. Some examples of the relative areas planted by various agencies are given in Table 5.
This will illustrate the preponderant part played by governments up to the present but the figures are very scanty and the overall picture may be somewhat different. It is probable that in many countries reliable figures for private planting are not available.
The very small proportion planted by communal agencies is noteworthy and may reflect a lack of awareness on the part of these agencies of the benefits to be obtained from afforestation on land they control.
TABLE 5. - PERCENT OF AREA PLANTED BY VARIOUS AGENCIES
|
|
Year |
State |
Communal |
Industrial |
Private |
|
Australia |
1965 |
75 |
1 |
16 |
8 |
|
New Zealand |
1965 |
52 |
4 |
27 |
17 |
|
Malawi |
1962-63 |
65 |
3 |
- |
32 |
|
Chile* |
1966 |
10 |
- |
90 | |
|
United States |
1966 |
35 |
5 |
60 | |
|
Rhodesia |
1964 |
13 |
3 |
84 | |
|
Zambia* |
1965 |
95 |
- |
5 |
|
*Unofficial estimates. The official estimate for the United States in 1952 was:
|
|
Percent |
|
State |
47 |
|
Communal |
5 |
|
Industrial and private |
48 |
FUTURE PLANTING PROGRAMS
The areas that reporting countries expect to plant during the period 1965-85 are set out in Table 2 of Appendix 6. It should be noted that not all reporting countries were prepared to forecast planting plans up to 1985. Table 6 is therefore based on a smaller number of countries than those which supplied data on the present (1965) area of man-made forests. It includes the 59 countries used for the preparation of' Figures 1 and 2 of Appendix 7, plus some additional late returns.
TABLE 6. - COMPARISON OF MAN-WADE FORESTS IN 1965 AND 1985 IN CERTAIN REPORTING COUNTRIES
|
|
1965 |
1985 |
Ratio 1985/65 |
|
Million hectares |
|||
|
Africa |
1.7 |
4.4 |
2.6 |
|
Asia |
10.9 |
22.6 |
2.1 |
|
Australasia |
0. 8 |
1.8 |
2.3 |
|
Europe |
6.7 |
13.0 |
1.9 |
|
Latin America |
1.3 |
5.6 |
4.3 |
|
Near East |
0.05 |
0.16 |
3.2 |
|
North America |
10.6 |
27.8 |
2.6 |
|
|
32.05 |
75.36 |
2.3 |
The area of man-made forests in these countries is thus expected to be increased by about 43 million hectares over the next 20 years. The total figure for all countries may be very much greater. So far as the reported figures show, the increase will be shared regionally as follows in Table 7.
It may be noted that the total increase planned for the more developed regions of North America, Europe, Australasia and Japan greatly exceeds that planned for the remainder.
TABLE 7. - PROJECTED REGIONAL INCREASE IN AREA OF MAN-MADE FORESTS IN CERTAIN REPORTING COUNTRIES
|
|
Area |
|
Million hectares |
|
|
Africa |
2.7 |
|
Asia |
11.7 |
|
Australasia |
1.0 |
|
Europe |
6.3 |
|
Latin America |
4.3 |
|
Near East |
0.1 |
|
North America |
17.2 |
On a regional basis, the rates of increase planned are remarkably consistent, with the exception of Latin America. The rate of :increase planned in this region over the next 20 years, at 4.3 times the 1965 area, is high and it may be that this rate is too optimistic.
Again, examination in detail of the national figures shows that some extremely rapid increases are planned by some countries. In. quite a number of countries increases of 10 or more times the present planting rates are planned for the next 5 years. In most cases these are countries having only small programs in force at present. Such increases can be expected to place severe strains on the executive organization. By contrast it may be noted that most of the countries which already have large areas of man-made forests aim to continue planting at about the same rate as in the immediate past.
That production from man-made forests is increasing very rapidly is certain but owing to lack of data it is not possible to give any precise estimates of what future production may be, in terms of volume. A very arbitrary assessment can, however, be made, on the basis of the data and programs so far reported. An attempt to do this has been made in Appendix 3, from which it can be seen that current planting areas are unlikely to supply more than half of the future increase in demand for industrial wood. The assumptions on which this is based are so uncertain, however, that it is little more than an informed guess, but it has been thought worthwhile to include it as an appendix, if only to indicate what the position appears to be in the light of information so far available and to highlight the gaps in that information.
CONCLUSIONS
The foregoing review fragmentary and incomplete as it is, points to the following conclusions:
1. Man-made forests are likely to be called upon to supply a significant part of the extra industrial wood needed by the world over the next 20 to 30 years. For this purpose they have important advantages especially for the production of raw materials for large-scale processing, such as pulpwood.2. The opportunities for the development of manmade forests are particularly favorable in the tropics and subtropics because of: (a) the rapid rates of increase in wood consumption expected in these zones; (b) the relatively small areas of highly productive forest available; and (c) the very rapid rates of growth that are attainable by plantations in the tropics and subtropics.
3. In nearly all countries man-made forests can make 1 a very significant contribution to the national - economy by reducing wood imports, by earnings from exports, by creating a basis for the establishment of wood-processing industries and by providing employment. In underdeveloped countries lacking other resources urgently needing to improve their balance of payments and raise their standards of living, these contributions can be particularly valuable and are a powerful argument for including afforestation in national development plans. Unfortunately the benefits to be derived from afforestation programs are not always sufficiently appreciated, especially in countries having sizable reserves of natural forest and moderate resources for investment. There is therefore much need for more comprehensive factual information on both the economic and social contributions of manmade forests to national economies.
4. Planting policies and programs must be based on a firm appraisal of what would be the optimum allocation of a country's resources to the various sectors of development. In other words, in the case of state programs they must be considered in relation to the other investment options open to the government; in particular, the doctrine of self-sufficiency which appears to be a fundamental tenet of many such policies requires critical examination.
5. It is desirable that planting policies should, in certain circumstances, be co-ordinated on a regional or interterritorial basis; as when planting programs are being considered by neighboring countries to serve as bases for forest industries and where there is a danger of proliferating subeconomic units.
6. Very rapid increases in the rate of planting proposed in some countries pose considerable risks unless there is an adequate foundation of research knowledge and an experienced executive organization to implement the program. Until these are assured it would be wise to avoid very rapid rises in the planting rate.
7. One of the key factors in attaining efficient implementation of planting programs is training. In many countries this is deficient, particularly at the technical grade and forest and forest industry worker levels. One of the prime needs is, therefore, the establishment of training centers to meet these needs, which in some cases might be on a regional basis.
8. The unknown effects on wood properties that experience has shown may accompany very rapid growth, or the introduction of species to new environments, council caution in formulating planting programs until these effects have been evaluated. It is most desirable that wood grown under the conditions pertaining should. be tested for the end uses envisaged as early as possible in the program.
9. The large expansion of man-made forests currently planned, to about 2.3 times the present reported area by 1985, will require afforestation to spread on to a wider range of sites than has hitherto been planted; in general foresters can expect to have to plant poorer quality sites. These will pose a good deal of difficulty in many cases and will also give great variations in yield. It will therefore be necessary for planners to pay more attention to site selection and to be more selective in choice of site than has commonly been the practice hitherto.
10. The greater part of the planting up to the present appears to have been general utility timbers and wood for pulping and similar purposes; a comparatively small quantity of high quality hardwoods, apart from teak, has been planted. Demands for high quality hardwoods are likely to continue and, in view of the possibility that supplies from natural forests may become scarce and more inaccessible, the question arises whether planting more high quality hardwoods should not be undertaken, despite its obvious economic handicaps.
11. The costs of production from man-made forests are likely to come under increasing pressure and there will be a drive for higher yields and more and more economical planting, tending and harvesting methods. This will be especially important in creating and managing man-made forests to provide a base for setting up wood-processing industries in the less developed countries, where other factors are often inimical, and should be taken into full account in planning.
12. The trend toward integrating afforestation programs ab initio with the establishment of forest industries, coupled with increasing calls on state funds for other purposes, is likely to cause governments to look increasingly to industrial and private interests to undertake afforestation, either alone or in partnership with the state. There is likely to be a marked impetus, therefore, in policies aimed at encouraging private and industrial investment in afforestation.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Man-made forests contribute to the conservation of water, soil and wildlife and provide grazing, recreation and amenity benefits to the community and the public. The arguments for this and the ways in which manmade forests can contribute in these fields are given with special reference to North America in the paper by Bacon (1967).
Growing pressures of population and man's desire for a tree and water environment in which to enjoy his increasing leisure make conservation in the widest sense more than ever necessary and, because so much of the natural forest has been destroyed, greater use will have to be made of manmade forests.
Conservation for man-made as for the natural forest embraces the classical functions of protecting watersheds and catchment areas, stabilizing soils, reclaiming land that has been laid waste, providing shelter from winds and helping to preserve local climates, providing habitat for wildlife and amenities, such as recreation areas, for mankind.
As the demands for use of land increase it becomes apparent that man-made forests must be made to serve many purposes. The concept of exclusive purpose as, for example, production and protection forests, will become the exception. In selecting species for reclamation and protection consideration should be paid to wood production, wildlife and aesthetic potentials. Similarly, in the selection, arrangement and tending of species for production consideration should be paid to protection or aesthetic requirements. Especially would this be true for public lands where something less than the maximum production of wood might be accepted in recognition of these other benefits.
In pursuit of this conservational role a policy of multiple land use should be followed, aimed at realizing the widest possible range of benefits from the land. Such a policy, which is in fact now being practiced in many situations, involves much more than the chance combination of uses that has been traditional.
It must be recognized, however, that multiple use of manmade forests may give rise to conflict in some circumstances, in that the conservational need may require modification of the productive role, for example by requiring a mixture of species or special tending techniques. In most cases it should be possible to reconcile these without unbearable detriment to either role and thus pursue a policy of multiple land use, but in a few cases it may be necessary to opt firmly for one or the other.
Moreover, for the majority of conservational purposes man-made forests have no particular advantages over natural forest or bush. Indeed they may have positive disadvantages; for example, they may be more demanding in water requirements or less effective as a soil cover or less congenial as an environment for wildlife or for human recreation. This, coupled with their high cost, makes it difficult justify the creation of manmade forests purely for conservational purposes, except in cases where natural forest ii lacking and would take too long to recolonize the area to be protected or where their protective function can be offset to some extent by production.
In forming policy as to the conservational role of man-made forests it is important to bear these factors in mind and to be clear as to the relative costs and benefits involved, and who should bear them. Wood production costs should not carry the cost of other benefits. On the other hand, if programs are properly planned and co-ordinated, many of these other (nonproductive) benefits will accrue with little or no cost to the productive side. It would be undesirable to overstate the need for cost accounting and segregation of costs on the one hand and benefits on the other.
Nevertheless, there is a need for research to quantify the conservational benefits of man-made forests, both for the purpose of assessing their overall contribution to national economies and for evaluating the cost/benefit ratio of their conservational role. In this respect, account should be taken of the cost of the losses resulting from eroding lands, unprotected by natural forests and where man-made forests, though needed, have not yet been established.
Finally, an important element in fostering an understanding of multiple use is publicity. Publicity programs for this purpose can also result in considerable support for forestry. Extension services are also necessary to assist small-scale planting to serve multiple demands.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Man-made forests can play an important role in conservation and in providing social benefits such as recreation and amenity.2. Pressure for multiple use of forests is likely to rise and foresters should lead in developing this concept for man-made as well as for natural forests.
3. There is need, how-ever, for clear thinking as to how the concept should be applied and for determining how much a country can afford to devote to afforestation, for this purpose, in relation to the other calls on its resources.
4. Quantitative information on the conservational benefits to be derived from man-made forests is scarce and there is need for further research in this field.
5. Support for multiple use and for forestry generally can be greatly stimulated by; publicity programs. For small-scale planting for multiple use, effective extension services are necessary.
*BACON, E.M. 1967 Relation of man-made forests to soil, water, recreation, community development and multiple use of natural resources. Canberra.
*BROWN, C.H. 1967 Afforestation programs in relation to national economy (with special reference to North America, southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Chile). Canberra.
FAO. 1966a Wood: world trends and prospects. Unasylva Nos. 80-81, FFHC Basic Study No 16.
FAO. 1966b Agricultural commodities: projections for 1975 and 1985. Rome. FAO Committee on Commodity. Problems document CCP 67/3.
*FAO 1967 Actual and potential role of man-made forests in the changing world pattern of wood consumption. Canberra.
*GROULEZ, J. 1967 La politique d'afforestation au Congo-Brazzaville dans le cadre de l'économie rationale. Canberra.
*MOSTYN, H.P. 1967 The role of plantations in the industrial economy of Zambia. Canberra.
*VAN MIEGROET, M. 1967b La définition du but de la sylviculture. Canberra.
*ZAMAN, M.B. 1967 A new approach. for the man-made forest in relation to the national economy of West Pakistan. Canberra.
NOTE: *Paper submitted to World Symposium on Man-made Forests and their Industrial Importance, Canberra, April 1967.
