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Authors: Kurochkina L.I., Makulbïekova G.B.
Title: K voprosu o fitomïelioratsii osushaïushchikhsïa pobïerïezhiï Arala (Vegetation restoration on the dried out seabed of the Aral Sea)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 4, pp. 27-31, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1984 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 2A2-3, 2B2f, 5C2, 5C4 |
| Region: | Aral Sea |
| Summary: | For 20 years, the Aral Sea
has receded to uncover 12,000 km2 of land
which has slowly transformed into desert. It is expected
that vegetation will eventually cover 30-70% of this land
(depending on the location), in the year 2000 at the
earliest. Vegetalization of these lands has not yet been accomplished. Experimental projects are necessary, beginning 4-5 years after drying, when the soil is still humid, even if the groundwater is saline. Several methods of vegetalization are advised, according to local conditions: the seeding of saxaouls in furrows, saxaouls and psammophytes in barkhans (by plane), the redevelopment of drying solonchaks by deep ploughing (min. 50 cm), vegetalization accompanied by irrigation with groundwater or with brackish lake water, planting accompanied by sand dune fixation with anti-deflation bituminous covers, and other methods. The drying up of 4,900 km2 of the lake is predicted for the years 1980-1990. Considering the increase in salinization, vegetalization will be very difficult. Areas devoid of vegetation cover 4,500 km2. It is estimated that during the years 1990-2000, 6,100 km2 will dry up. |
Author: Mainguet M.
Title: Desertification. Natural Background and Human Mismanagement
Publisher: Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 306 pp.
| Date: 1991 | Language: English |
| Available: | WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A1, 2A3-4, 3C3-5, 4A1-3, 5D |
| Region: | World, Central Asia |
| Summary: | This volume has two parts.
The first is a review of the ecological situation in arid
and semi-arid territories in different regions of the
world. The work contains a chapter entitled "Passage
from traditional subsistence agriculture to highly
industrialized agriculture, and land degradation in the
USSR" (pp. 97-121), based on publications by Soviet
authors written in English. Rich description of the
natural environment, discussion of the processes of
desertification in desert zones, ecological
considerations in the irrigation of arid lands (taking
into account the problem of the Aral Sea, which is
treated fairly extensively), environmental consequences
of the industrial development of drylands, and
information on wind erosion. Also included is information
on measures against desertification, which are
insufficient. "However, thanks to the knowledge we
have, it could be said that 'desertification' is not the
correct word, for degradation in the USSR could be
checked with human will and money" (p. 121). In the second part, devoted to prevention and to remedies at the global level, the Soviet Union is mentioned rarely (essentially, in discussing techniques of revegetalization, pp. 204-205, and techniques of sand dune fixation, p. 261). The process of desertification in zones adjacent to deserts is due to overgrazing, the cutting of trees and shrubs, and to construction projects. Circles of land degradation can be seen around water points:
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Author: Markov K.K.
Title: Vysykhaïet li Srïednïaïa i Tsïentral'naïa Aziïa? (Will Central Asia become drier?)
Publisher: Voprosy gïeografii. Fizichïeskaïa gïeografiïa, vol 24, pp. 98-116, Moscow
| Date: 1951 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | IG RAN Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 1C3, 3A, 3B |
| Region: | Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan |
| Summary: | The author presents the opinions of L. Berg on the probable aridification of Central Asia, published in the years 1900-1950, and shows their similarity to the results of other scientific work. An increasing dryness in the Central Asian climate took place in the distant geological past (between the Cretaceous and the Ice Age), but the aridification did not progress. There are also cyclic climate changes. In Eastern Europe, forests are moving onto the steppes, and in Kazakhstan and in Central Asia there is an increase in the water level of lakes. Works of other authors show that in southern Siberia and northern Kazakhstan the water level of lakes was high during the 14th and 15th centuries, then declined, and is currently beginning to rise. |
Author: Masson V.M.
Title: Pustyniïa i obshchïestvo: dinamika vzaimodïeïstviïa vistorichïeskom aspïektïe (Desert and Society - the dynamics of their reciprocal relation in history)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 6, pp. 3-10, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1977 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1C2, 1C3, 2B2c, 2D |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | A presentation of the
results of archeological research by Russian and Turkoman
scientists in various regions of Central Asia,
particularly in southern Turkmenistan. Excavations were mainly carried out at the edge of two deserts: the Karakumy and the Kyzylkum. Artefacts were discovered which enabled researchers to determine the socio-economic development of populations inhabiting these regions and to study their influence on the desert during several historical eras, beginning with the Paleolithic. In each era, human economic activities adapted themselves to the biological conditions of the desert and semi-desert. The utilitarian nature of human activities often disturbed the natural biological cycles and caused the destruction of vegetation and the intensification of sand dune activity. In Antiquity, Turkmenistan was highly developed in certain economic fields: hunting, animal production, agriculture, commerce. Several examples attest to this: the aqueduct from Sumbara to Dekhistan, the road network, including the main trade route between Mary (formerly Merv) and Amol. Turkmenistan is also the region where the Bactrian camel was first domesticated. |
Author: Niechaïeva N.T.
Title: The Improvement of Arid Pastures in Central Asia
Publisher: Nature and Resources, vol XV, N° 1, pp. 14-15, UNESCO, Paris
| Date: 1979 | Language: English (French version in "Nature and Ressources) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 5D1d |
| Region: | Central Asia |
| Summary: | An informative text on pasture improvement in Central Asia. Seeding is carried out to form a mixed plant cover for animal forage, including shrubs, semi-shrubs and grasses. Shrubs reach a height of 2 to 5 m and their roots to 25 m deep. The natural plant cover reaches 25 to 50 cm in height and its roots up to 1 m in depth (p.14 - however, there is no information on the necessary conditions for achieving this improvement). In foothills (annual precipitation: 160-280 mm), the forage productivity of artificial pastures reaches 2.2 - 4.5 tonnes/ha, while natural pastures have only 0.2 - 0.3 tonnes/ha. Improvements in Karakumy pastures (annual precipitation: 140 mm) could be achieved in 4-5 years. |
Author: Niechaïeva N.T.
Title: Vliïaniïe rïejima ispol'zovanïa na produktivnost' rastitïelnosti Karakumov (Influence of the system of pasture use on the Karakumy Desert)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 6, pp. 8-18, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1979 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 2A3, 2B2c, 3C4, 5C4 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan (Karakumy Desert) |
| Summary: | This work presents detailed research results. On selected experimental fields, the effectiveness of systems of protection has been studied. Analyses have also been made of the effect of varying degrees of intensity of land use on the composition and density of the plant cover. Pastures degrade in 5-8 years following overgrazing and the cutting of shrubs. With a system of protection, vegetation on sands and takyrs regenerates in 6 years on surfaces with second-degree degradation, whereas it takes 17 years for complete regeneration on sands with third-degree degradation. One of the causes is the absence of seeds after the total destruction of the saxaoul (Haloxylon sp.). Productivity diminishes not only following overgrazing, but also following insufficient use; moderate grazing is recommended. On the most degraded lands, artificial pasture improvement is indispensable: cultivation of herbs, and harrowing. Charts are included which show the influence of revegetalization on pasture productivity (for example, on sandy fields the forage productivity increases from 0.2 tonnes/ha to 0.6 tonnes/ha). |
Author: Obïezliïev A.O. (ed.)
Title: Opyt izuchïeniïa i osvoïeniïa pustyn' Zapadnogo Turkmïenistana (Experiences in desert management in western Turkmenistan)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR. Institut Pustyn' (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan. Institute of Deserts), Ylym, Ashkhabad, 108 pp.
| Date: 1979 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 5C1-4 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan (western) |
| Summary: | This publication was
prepared for the 25th anniversary of the biological
research station at Nebet Dag. It includes information
about the station, a list of publications written by
Nebet Dag researchers, and eight articles. The subjects include: the natural environment near the station and a description of possible techniques for agricultural management; sand dune revegetalization; possibilities for using mineralized groundwater to irrigate some species of tree and shrub; means of developing takyrs by ploughing them (analysis of variations in ploughing, diversified in their form, size, and distance between furrows; study of the influence of ploughing on the water system); possibilities for cultivating pomegranates and cucurbitaceae. This document contains typically technical texts, illustrated with charts and graphs, presenting possible techniques for use in desert management and in combating desertification. |
Author: Ogar' N.P.
Title: Untitled (maps of vegetation and its changes)
Publisher: Not published
| Date: Approx. 1975-1993 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | Ogar' N.P., Botanical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan (Russian: Institut Botaniki; Kazakh: Botanika Instituty), Alma Ata |
| Classification: | 1C4 (cartography), 2A3, 2B1 (Mongolia), 2B2b |
| Region: | Kazakhstan, Ili valley, Syr-Darya valley, other river valleys in Kazakhstan, Mongolian river valleys |
| Summary: | This entry consists of
several vegetation maps in manuscript form which for the
most part have never been published. These maps show the vegetation of various river valleys (including the Syr-Darya and the Ili delta). These maps also show human-caused changes, particularly changes caused by aridification. Some maps show the degree of vegetation change (light, moderate, strong), a few the vulnerability of ecosystems and the direction of change. Some maps have been prepared using analyses of satellite imagery (Salyut, sometimes also Landsat). The scale of the maps varies from 1:20,000 to 1:1,000,000; the document suggests methodolgies for general application. |
Author: Pïetrov M.P.
Title: Pustyni zïemnogo share (Deserts of the World)
Publisher: Naouka, Leningrad
| Date: 1973 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow |
| Classification: | 0, 5C, 5D |
| Region: | World |
| Summary: | This document is divided
into three parts. The first contains a regional
description of world deserts. Only the natural
environment is presented for the most part; Asiatic
deserts are covered in more detail. This section ends
with the morphological and climatic classification of
deserts. The second part deals with the conditions of
life in desert environments. The third part is concerned
with the natural resources of deserts and questions of
management. It is the shortest section (65 pp.); the
information is very general and simplified. No analysis
of cost, return, etc., is given. There is a description
of principal sites of mineral exploitation and of
large-scale hydrological projects. Bibliography (separate bibliographies for publications in Russian and in other languages), index of toponyms, annex (68 photographs and maps). |
Classification of deserts:
1. Morphological classification: A. bare deserts and pre-Quaternary tectonic deserts; B. plains of structural plates, Tertiary and calcareous plains; C. Quaternary and contemporary accumulation plains. More detailed classification within the framework of the above types.
2. Climatic classification: very arid, arid, semi-arid; with oceanic and continental variants for each type.
Author: Precoda N.
Title: Requiem for the Aral Sea
Publisher: Ambio, vol. XX, N° 3-4, pp. 109-114, Stockholm
| Date: 1991 | Language: English |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A1-4, 2A5 (), 2B2f, 4A1-4, 4B, 4C |
| Region: | Aral Sea |
| Summary: | A general discussion of the causes and consequences of the decline of the Aral Sea. This work was prepared mainly on the basis of Soviet press publications. The direct causes and consequences were studied: i) climate change (in general, increase in the temperature range); ii) wind erosion (It is estimated that each year the wind transports 75 million tonnes of dust and salt particles; according to the most recent estimations, up to 100 million tonnes are transported. Agriculture in Bukhara, Khorezm, Samarkand and Karakalpak is being destroyed by salt. Salt from the Aral Sea region reaches the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, and accumulates in the mountains where it accelerates the melting of glaciers); iii) decline of the water table (approximately 300,000 hectares of lakes and marshes have dried up; out of 700,000 hectares only 300,000 hectares of reeds survive); iv) decrease in fishing and shipping. Indirect causes and consequences are analyzed in the same way: large water losses, especially along the Karakumy Canal, high water consumption (it is estimated that the production of one tonne of cotton requires 2,000-3,000 m3 of water; in all of Central Asia, the ratios of water use are from 1.25 to 1.75 compared to established norms), secondary salinization, influence on collective and drainage waters, chemical effects, effects on public health (increase in illnesses, in infant mortality, locally up to 10% of births, blindness). |
Author: Rachkovskaïa I.I. et al.
Title: Karta Iliïskoï Kotloviny 1:50,000 (Maps of the Ili
Basin, 1:50,000)
Publisher: Not published
| Date: 1993 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | Rachkovskaïa I.I., Botanical Institute, Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan (Russian: Institut Botaniki; Kazakh: Botanika Instituty), Alma Ata |
| Classification: | 1C4 (cartography), 2A3 |
| Region: | Kazakhstan, Ili basin |
| Summary: | This project has not been
completed. The document consists of a collection of
vegetation maps (to the scale of 1:50,000) of the Ili
basin (in Kazakhstan, next to the Ili, near the Chinese
border). In addition to a classic vegetation map, there is another showing degrees of change (three types are identified: unchanged ecosystems or those with minimal change, ecosystems with moderate change, ecosystems which are extremely changed), and one which shows the most vulnerable ecosystems. One map shows the seasons of the year when various types of human activity or even the presence of man should be limited because of the fragility of the ecosystem or the presence of pests (new conception). These maps were prepared under orders from the Ministry of Ecology which plans to create a natural reserve. |
New conception: A map showing seasons of the year when different types of human activity or even the presence of man should be limited because of the fragility of the ecosystem or the presence of pests.
Author: Rafikov A.A.
Title: Ustoïchivost' aridnykh gïeosistïem Uzbïekistana k vozdïeïstviiu antropogïennoï nagruzki (The stability of arid geosystems [ecosystems] in Uzbekistan under human pressure)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 3, pp. 70-77, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1992 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 0, 2A1-3, 2B2e, 3C5 |
| Region: | Uzbekistan |
| Summary: | This document is concerned
with the mechanisms of human pressure on geosystems (more
simply, ecosystems) of the arid zone of Uzbekistan. Not
only the intensity of the pressure must be considered,
but also the number of repetitions of the human action.
Trucking on the Ustyurt plateau is an example: when one
truck passes, the vegetation will later return to its
initial state, but when 2 or 3 trucks use the same route
the changes become irreversible. The author analyzes the natural factors which influence the vulnerability of an ecosystem (richness of flora, chemical composition, etc.). He identifies stable ecosystems (not very widespread), relatively stable ones, insufficiently stable, fragile, and very fragile. The latter include solonchaks around lakes and unstable sands. Also presented: a schematic map of the stability of ecosystems (p. 73); a chart with ecosystems grouped according to degrees of stability (pp. 74-75); information on lithological structure, water conditions, drainage, the possibilities for regenerating vegetation, and human pressure on ecosystems (their stability decreases as human pressure increases). |
Author: Rïedïepbaïev K.R., Charzhïev M.K.
Title: Borba z zasolïeniïem oroshaïemykh zïemïel v Srïednïeï Azii (Combating the salinization of irrigated lands in Central Asia)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 4, pp. 55-63, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1978 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 2B2, 2B1, 3C3 |
| Region: | Central Asia |
| Summary: | The salinization of soil in
the arid zone is a natural process; in the non-irrigated
zone, salinization remains almost constant. In the irrigated portion, the natural equilibrium is disturbed not only by irrigation but also by ploughing. The annual expansion of salinized soil is 1 - 1.5% of all irrigated lands. Lands surrounding water reservoirs are especially affected by salinization (rise in the water table, even seepage), as are those around canals (infiltration), river deltas and the Aral Sea region. Salinization has appeared where it did not exist before, e.g., in the Karshin steppe or in the steppes of the Kopet Dag foothills. Experiments were carried out where the soils of takyrs and solonchaks where salts had infiltrated to a depth of 1 m were desalinized by washing with large quantities of water. Then the order and quantity of the eliminated salt was analyzed. The washing of salt from soil is so costly and long that it is not now economically feasible to apply this method in oases. The authors propose that future irrigation projects be carried out in a more rational manner. |
Authors: Rïediïebaiïev K., Ovsïannikov A.S.
Title: Vliïanie Karakumskogo Kanala na zasolïeniïe pochv Murgabskogo Oazisa (Influence of the Karakumy Canal on the degree of soil salinity in the Murgab oasis)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 5, pp. 18-26, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1974 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 2A2, 2B2c, 3C3, 4A1 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan, Karakumy Canal, Murgab Oasis |
| Summary: | One of the first studies of salinization following a poorly-executed irrigation project. Earlier, water deficits in the Murgab oasis limited the extent of land use. After irrigation (20,000 m3/year), salinity has tripled. In 1958, irrigation water brought the oasis 725,000 tonnes of salt, and in 1970 - 2,475,000 tonnes of salt. The salinity of groundwater has increased locally to 15g/l and the balance has been disturbed. In the years 1966-1968, 47% of lands in the oasis managed to avoid salinization. 37 % were affected by moderate or high salinization, and on 16% of lands solonchaks have formed. Analyses of changes in salt concentration at the regional level have been made and the results correspond to the period of irrigation work. Soil salinity increases in the spring, beginning from 75 cm below the surface. The chemical composition of the salt has been studied; the results are presented in chart form. These phenomena intensified during the periods 1933-1939, 1952-1954 and 1963-1968. Recently, a local increase in salinization has been observed in the part of the oasis where there has been irrigation work. The technique of irrigation currently used does not allow for the desalinization of the soil for 20-30 years to come. |
Author: Rodïe A.A.
Title: Bïogïeotsïenotichïeskiïe osnovy osvoïeniïa polupustyni sïevïernogo Prikaspiïa (Biocenosis of semi-deserts north of the Caspian Sea)
Publisher: Akademiïa Naouk SSR (Academy of Sciences of the USSR), Naouka, Moscow, 360 pp.
| Date: 1974 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 5C3, 5C4 |
| Region: | Kazakhstan, Russia (regions north of the Caspian Sea) |
| Summary: | A collection of eight articles on phytosociology. The problem of desertification is marginal here; the term is not even used. Three articles present the results of concrete projects in revegetalization: 1) drainage and revegetalization of saline soils (pp. 53-62 - to retain snow, the planting of bands of millet whose stalks are left for winter is highly recommended); 2) the influence of forest strips on the water balance and soil humidity (pp. 63-146 - detailed text illustrated with numerous diagrams and charts, analyzing the influence of forests strips with variable numbers of rows and internal structure; vegetation planted: mainly elms and tamarisk, occasionally wheat sown between the rows); 3) results of experiments in changing the natural biocenosis on saline soils (occupying approximately 75% of the area of lands north of the Caspian Sea) into agricultural and forestry complexes (pp. 337-356: ploughing, canals, "Sudan grass" and corn experimentally planted between rows, and, later, other plants). All of the articles are solidly supported by documentation on the natural environment, particularly on the chemical composition of soils. The economic aspect of these problems is almost entirely neglected, and the social aspect is totally ignored. |
Authors: Rubanov I.V., Bogdanova N.M.
Title: Kolichïestviennaïa otsïenka solovoï dïeflatsii na osushaïushïemsïa dnïe Aralskogo Morïa (Quantitative estimation of salt deflation on the Aral seabed during the process of drying out)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 3, pp. 9-16, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1987 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A2, 2B2f, 4A4 (salinization) |
| Region: | ex-USSR |
| Summary: | The process of soil salinization related to the decline in the level of the Aral Sea began in 1961. In the years 1977-1985, detailed research was undertaken in order to estimate the extent of salt deflation on the dried up seabed at that time and up to the year 2000. In the area where the seabed is emerging, three soil zones have been distinguished: terrigenous, carbonate, and gypseous; for each of these, there are sub-zones where the areas and degrees of salinity for 1 km2 have been determined (shown on the map). The probable extent of these zones in the year 2000 has also been determined. Accord to estimations, the extent of salt deflation on the dried up seabed in the year 2000 will be similar to today. Currently, annual deflation averages 2,286 tonnes of salt per km2, or approximately 43 million tonnes of salt per year. In some places, salt deflation reaches the extremely high level of 6,300 tonnes/km2. By the year 2000, in the regions which dried up in the years 1960-1984, it will have diminished to 311 tonnes/km2 while in newly-exposed areas it will reach 2,561 tonnes/km2. The total is approximately 39 million tonnes/year. This work is one of the most important publications on degradation, especially salinization, in the Aral Sea region. |
Author: Rudïenko L.G. et al.
Title: Nïeblagoprïatnyïe prirodnyïe protsïessy i ïavlïenïa, Ukrainskaïa SSR karts (Map: Unfavourable natural processes and phenomena, Ukraine)
Publisher: Kafiedra Gïegrafii, Institut Gïeofiziki A.N. Ukrainskoï SSR, Kiev
| Date: 1986 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | Geographical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the Ukraine, Kiev |
| Classification: | 1C4 (cartography), 1A, 2B2i |
| Region: | Ukraine |
| Summary: | A map illustrating negative
natural processes, aggravated by economic activities:
This map is complemented by several small-scale maps
presenting certain phenomena: the number of days without
rain, sand storms, etc. |
Author: Shiïeïer M.S.
Title: Sovïeshchaniïe po sïel'skokhozïaïstvïennomu osvoïenniiu pïeschanykh zïemïel' pustyn' i polupustyn' Srïednïeï Azii i Kazakhstana (Conference on the agricultural management of sand deserts and semi-deserts in Central Asia and Kazakhstan).
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 2, pp. 91-92, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1970 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1D, 5C4, 5D1b |
| Region: | Central Asia |
| Summary: | The conference on the
agricultural development of drylands in Central Asia and
Kazakhstan took place in Ashkhabad from 17-20 November
1970. The participants (150 scientists and experts on
agriculture and forest economy from Moscow, Volgograd,
Alma Ata, Tashkent, Samarkand and Elista) attended 16
lectures on desert management. Much attention was given
to the afforestation of deserts and semi deserts. The
main lectures were:
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