handbook on seed insects of Prosopis species

TABLE 1. GENERA OF BRUCHIDAE WHOSE SPECIES FEED IN SEEDS OF PROSOPIS

Genus	Geographic Range	Number of Species in Prosopis	Specificity
Acanthoscelides	New World	3	Large genus with hosts mostly in Papilionoideae (Leguminosae)
Algarobius	North America to Venezuela, Hawaii	5	Specific to Prosopis
Amblycerus	New World	4	Large genus with many hosts. Feeds in Prosopis in West Indies, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Peru
Bruchidius	Old World	3	Large genus with many hosts in Old World. Feeds in Prosopis in Israel (Southgate 1979)
Caryedon	Old World, one tropicolitan	1	C. serratus primary host is Tamarindus but feeds in Prosopis in Israel and Hawaii
Mimosestes	North America, West Indies, Venezuela, Hawaii	4	M. protractus specific to Prosopis, other 3 also in Acacia, Cercidium, Parkinsonia
Neltumius	SW USA, northern Mexico	2	Specific to Prosopis
Pectinibruchus	Argentina	1	Specific to Prosopis
Rhipibruchus	Argentina, Chile, Uruguay	6	Specific to Prosopis
Scutobruchus	Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru	6	Specific to Prosopis

TABLE 2. PROSOPIS BRUCHIDS AND THEIR HOST PLANTS

	Bruchids	Host Plants
1.	Acanthoscelides longescutus (Pic)	Prosopis strombulifera
2.	A. sp. J	P. caldenia
3.	A. sp. K	P. nigra
4.	Algarobius bottimeri Kingsolver	P. glandulosa var. glandulosa P. juliflora P. pallida P. reptans
5.	A. prosopis (LeConte)	P. articulata P. glandulosa var. torreyana P. pubescens P. velutina
6.	A. sp. A	Prosopis sp.
7.	A. sp. B	P. juliflora
8.	A. sp. C	Prosopis sp.
9.	Amblycerus epsilon Kingsolver	P. juliflora
10.	A. martorelli Bridwell	P. chilensis
11.	A. piurae (Pierce)	Prosopis sp.
12.	A. sp. L	P. juliflora
13.	Bruchidius quinqueguttatus (01.)	P. farcta
14.	B. seminarius (L.)	P. farcta
15.	B. sp.	P. farcta
16.	Caryedon serratus (01.)	P. farcta P. pallida
17.	Mimosestes amicus (Horn)	Acacia constricta Benth. A. cymbispina Sprague & Riley A. farnesiana (L.) Willd. A. pennatula (Schlect. & Cham.) Benth. Cercidium floridum Benth. C. microphyllum (Torr.) Rose & Johnston C. praecox (Ruiz & Pav.) Harms Parkinsonia aculeata L. Prosopis juliflora P. pallida P. palmeri P. velutina
18.	M. insularis Kingsolver & Johnson	Acacia farnesiana Prosopis juliflora P. pallida
19.	M. nubigens (Motschulsky)	P. pallida
20.	M. protractus (Horn)	Prosopis laevigata P. juliflora P. velutina
21.	Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer)	Prosopis velutina
22.	N. gibbithorax (Schaeffer)	Prosopis pubescens
23.	Pectinibruchus longiscutus Kingsolver	P. alba var. panta
24.	Rhipibruchus atratus Kingsolver	P. abbreviata P. alba P. caldenia P. flexuosa P. nigra P. torquata
25.	R. oedipygus Kingsolver	P. kuntzei
26.	R. picturatus (Fähraeus)	P. alba P. affinis P. caldenia P. chilensis P. elata P. ferox P. flexuosa P. humilis P. nigra P. strombulifera P. torquata
27.	R. prosopis Kingsolver	P. alpataco P. calingastana P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. kuntzei P. nigra P. sericantha P. strombulifera
28.	R. psephenopygus Kingsolver	P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. nigra P. torquata
29.	R. rugicollis Kingsolver	P. kuntzei P. sericantha
30.	Scutobruchus ceratioborus (Philippi)	P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. nigra P. reptans P. ruscifolia P. sericantha P. strombulifera P. torquata
31.	S. gastoi Kingsolver	P. strombulifera P. tamarugo
32.	S. sp. F	P. abbreviata P. affinis P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. hassleri P. nigra P. rusciflora P. strombulifera P. torquata P. vinalillo
33.	S. sp. G	P. abbreviata P. alpataco P. argentina
34.	S. sp. H	P. alba P. chilensis P. nigra
35.	S. sp. I	P. ferox

TABLE 3. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICAN PROSOPIS SPECIES AND SPECIES OF BRUCHIDAE THAT FEED IN THEIR SEEDS

Prosopis spp.		Bruchids
1.	P. abbreviata	Rhipibruchus atratus Scutobruchus sp. F S. sp. G
2.	P. affinis Sprengel	Rhipibruchus picturatus Scutobruchus sp. F
3.	P. alba Griseb.	Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H
4.	P. alba var. panta Burk.	Pectinibruchus longiscutus
5.	P. alpataco Phil.	Rhipibruchus prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. G S. sp. F
6.	P. argentina Burk.	S. sp. G
7.	P. articulata S. Wats.	Algarobius prosopis
8.	P. caldenia Burk.	Acanthoscelides sp. J Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp F
9.	P. calingastana Burk.	Rhipibruchus prosopis
10.	P. chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz	Amblycerus martorelli Rhipibruchus picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H
11.	P. elata (Burk.) Burk.	Rhipibruchus picturatus
12.	P. ferox Griseb.	Rhipibruchus picturatus Scutobruchus sp. I
13.	P. flexuosa DC.	Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus
14.	P. glandulosa var. glandulosa (Torr.)	Algarobius bottimeri
15.	P. glandulosa var. torreyana (L. Benson) M.C. Johnst.	A. prosopis
16.	P. hassleri Harms	Scutobruchus sp. F
17.	P. humilis Hook. & Arn.	Rhipibruchus picturatus
18.	P. juliflora (Swartz) DC.	Acanthoscelides sp. L Algarobius bottimeri Algarobius sp. B Amblycerus epsilon Mimosestes amicus Rhipibruchus prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus
19.	P. Kuntzei Harms	Rhipibruchus oedipygus R. prosopis R. rugicollis
20.	P. laevigata (H. & B. ex Willd.) M.C. Johnst.	Mimosestes protractus
21.	P. nigra (Griseb.) Hieron	Acanthoscelides sp. K Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H
22.	P. pallida (H. & B. ex Willd.) H.B.K.	Algarobius bottimeri Mimosestes amicus M. insularis M. nubigens
23.	P. palmeri S. Wats.	Mimosestes amicus
24.	P. pubescens Benth.	Algarobius prosopis Neltumius gibbithorax
25.	P. reptans Benth.	Algarobius bottimeri Scutobruchus ceratioborus
26.	P. ruscifolia Griseb.	S. ceratioborus S. sp. F
27.	P. sericantha Hook. & Arn.	Rhipibruchus prosopis R. rugicollis Scutobruchus ceratioborus
28.	P. strombulifera (Lam.) Benth.	Acanthoscelides longescutus Rhipibruchus picturatus R. prosopis Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. gastoi S. sp. F
29.	P. tamarugo Phil.	Scutobruchus gastoi
30.	P. torquata (Lag.) DC.	Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F
31.	P. velutina Wooton	Algarobius prosopis Mimosestes amicus M. protractus Neltumius arizonensis
32.	P. vinalillo Stuckert	Scutobruchus sp. F

TABLE 4. POSSIBLE INSECTICIDES TO CONTROL PROSOPIS SEED-FEEDING INSECTS PRIOR TO HARVEST ¹

Insect	Insecticide	Reference
Algarobius prosopis	Orthene (O, S-dimethyl-acetyl-phosphoramide dethioate); malathion	Felker et al. 1981
Algarobius prosopis	Cythion (O, O-dimethyl-phosphorodithioate of diethyl mercaptosuccinate)	Smith & Ueckert 1974
Bruchidae	Parathion; malathion	Metcalf et al. 1962; Habit et al. 1981; Koch 1969
	Rotenone	Davidson & Peairs 1966
	DDT; methoxychlor	Melcalf et al. 1962; Davidson & Peairs 1966
Hemiptera	Furadan 10G	Felker (Personal communication)
	Malathion; fenitrotion; DDT; carbaryl	Rupérez 1978
	BHC; endosulfan; monocrotophos	Saxena 1978; Léon 1974
	BHC; endosulfan; monocrotophos	Habit et al. 1981
	Cythion	Smith & Ueckert 1974.

¹ Trade names used in the text do not imply preference for one commercial product over another but are only listed as an indication of the type of chemical recommended.

TABLE 5. INSECTICIDES THAT HAVE BEEN USED TO CONTROL VARIOUS STORED-PRODUCTS BRUCHIDS ¹

Insecticide	Reference
Pyrethrins, aluminum phosphide, methyl bromide, carbon disulfide, malathion	Schoonhoven 1978; Rupérez 1978; Southgate 1978; Davidson & Peairs 1966; Metcalf et al 1962
Mixtures of carbon disulfide and carbon tetrachloride, Bromofos, Pelitre, Piretrinas	Rupérez 1978
Hydrocyanic acid, mixture of carbon tetrachloride and ethylene dichloride	Southgate 1978
Phosphine	Hole et al. 1976
Pirimiphos methyl, Permethrin	Taylor & Evans 1980
Ethylene dibromide	National Academy of Sciences 1978
Gammexane, gamma BHC, sulfur Phostoxin	FAO 1980

¹ Trade names used in the text do not imply preference for one commercial product over another but are only listed as an indication of the type of chemical recommended.

TABLE 6. UNIQUE (TRADITIONAL) METHODS FOR CONTROLLING BRUCHID PESTS IN STORED SEEDS

Method				Reference
A.	Whole plants or parts of plants
		Azadirachta indica		Golob & Webley 1980
			(neem) kernels	Schmutterer 1981
		Acorus calamus		Pandey et al. 1976
			(powder of rhizomes)
		Capsicum		Golob & Webley 1980
			(pepper, chilies)
		Cactus spp.		Golob & Webley 1980
			(powdered)
		Annona reticulata		Golob & Webley 1980
			(custard apple seed powder)
		Mundulea sericea		Golob & Webley 1980
			(stem bark powder)
		Derris elliptica		Golob & Webley 1980
			(derris)
		Nicotiana tabacum		Golob & Webley 1980
			(tobacco)
		Thevetia nerifolia		Pandey et al. 1976
			(powder of drupes)
		Adhatoda vasica		Pandey et al. 1976
			(leaf powder)
		Piper nigrum		Golob & Webley 1980
			(black pepper)	Schoonhoven, 1978
		Madhuca latifolia		Golob & Webley 1980
			(mahua)
		Ipomoea cornea		Pandey et al. 1976
			(leaf powder)

B.	Plant Extracts
		Azadirachta indica		Golob & Webley 1980; Pandey et al. 1976
			(oil)	Golob & Webley 1980; Pandey et al. 1976
		Allium sativum & A. cepa		Pandey et al. 1976
			(garlic & onion)
		Acorus calamus		Golob & Webley 1980
			(oil)
		Derris elliptica		Golob & Webley 1980
			(derris)
		Pogostemon heyneanus		Golob & Webley 1980
			(patchouli oil)
		Nigella sativa		Golob & Webley 1980
			(black cumin)
		Phaseolus vulgaris		Golob & Webley 1980
			(bean)
		Piper nigrum		Su 1977
			(black pepper)
		Curcuma longa		Su et al. 1982
			(turmeric)
		Citrus oils		Su et al. 1972 a, b; Su 1977

C.	Oils
		Peanut (groundnut)		Golob & Webley 1980; Singh et al. 1978; Varma & Pandey 1978
		Castor		Golob & Webley 1980; Ebeling 1971
		Palm kernel		Golob & Webley 1980
		Coconut		Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978
		Mustard		Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978
		Gingelly (Sesame)		Golob & Webley 1980
		Sunflower		Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978
		Palm		Golob & Webley 1980
		Rapeseed		Golob & Webley 1980
		Cottonseed		Golob & Webley 1980
		Honge		Golob & Webley 1980
		Neem		Golob & Webley 1980
		Sour orange		Golob & Webley 1980
		Sesame (Gingelly)		Varma & Pandey 1978
		Animal fat		Golob & Webley 1980

D.	Ashes
		Wood ashes		Golob & Webley 1980
		Tamarind ashes		Golob & Webley 1980

E.	Minerals
		Sand		Golob & Webley 1980
		Silica		Golob & Webley 1980; Schoonhoven 1978
		Aluminum silicate (synthetic)		Golob & Webley 1980
		Diatomite		Golob & Webley 1980
		Termite mound soil		Golob & Webley 1980
		Kaolin and lime		Golob & Webley 1980
		Kaolin (activated & unactivated)		Ebeling 1971
		Common salt		Golob & Webley 1980
		Attapulgite dusts		Golob & Webley 1980; Varma et al. 1976
		Bentonite		Schoonhoven 1978
		Magnesium carbonate		Schoonhoven 1978

F.	Miscellaneous
		Sawdust		Golob & Webley 1980
		Fire		Golob & Webley 1980
		Smoke		Golob & Webley 1980
		Controlled atmosphere storage		Kamel 1980; Burrel 1980

TABLE 7. POTENTIAL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS FOR BRUCHIDS AND OTHER PESTS OF PROSOPIS

Insect		Reference
Pteromalidae
	Dibrachys cavus (Walker)	Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981

Trichogrammatidae
	Trichogramma spp.	Conway 1980; Forister 1970

Torymidae
	Perissocentrus sp.	Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981

Eulophidae
	Horismenus productus (Ashmead)	Conway 1980
	Hyssopus evetriae (Girault)	Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976
	Tetrastichus dolosus Gahan	Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976

Eurytomidae
	Eurytoma sp.	Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976

Braconidae
	Bracon hebetor Say	Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981
	Heterospilus prosopidis Viereck	Conway 1980; Center 1971; Forister 1970; Center & Johnson 1976
	Urosigalphus bruchi Crawford	Conway 1980; Center 1971; Forister 1970; Center & Johnson 1976

Acari
	Pyemotidae
	Pyemotes spp. (=Pediculoides) National Academy of Sciences 1978

TABLE 8. PRIORITY RESEARCH NEEDS FOR CONTROLLING SEED-INFESTING INSECTS OF PROSOPIS
(listed in order of importance)

1.	Intensive studies of the life histories and ecology of the seed-infesting insects of Prosopis. This would include the damage inflicted by each species and a census of their natural enemies.
2.	Intensive studies of methods of control of seed-feeding insects of Prosopis. Initially this would probably include only the use of synthetic organic insecticides during the pre-harvest (field) phase and the storage phase.
3.	Intensive studies to determine host preferences of seed-infesting insects of Prosopis throughout its range in the New World.
4.	Intensive taxonomic studies of bruchid beetles that feed in Prosopis spp. seeds. This would be done in conjunction with numbers 1 and 3.
5.	Laboratory studies to determine host-switching capabilities of Prosopis bruchids.
6.	Studies of predators, parasites and diseases of seed-infesting insects of Prosopis throughout its range in the New World to establish biological control methods.
7.	Study of traditional methods of controlling seed-infesting insects in storage (Table 6) for possible future adoption and introduction into the technology of New World countries.
8.	Studies to develop a programme of Integrated Pest Management for seed-infesting insects of Prosopis.