1. Generally, little attention is given to the role of natural resources in economic development. This is particularly serious for developing countries (DCs), which depend on natural resources. Natural resources are commonly subdivided into renewable and non-renewable resources. Minerals are examples of nonrenewable resources that are of strategic importance to many DCs; their revenues are a one-time benefit to society. Renewable resources concern wildlife species, over a long period but this is subject to proper management. Research and policy have so far made limited progress with respect to the integration of the environment into development planning (see e.g., Dasmann et al., 1973: Sandford, 1983). The concept of sustainable development - as used by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987) - has had a catalytic impact in focusing policy and research attention on the interdependence of development and environment: natural resources should be considered as an economic production factor.
2. This perspective contrasts with most traditional development theories which usually neglect the role of natural resources. However, one school of thought, represented by e.g., Boserup (1965; 1990) and Wilkinson (1973) focuses on the role of natural resources in development. In this view, land pressure (in the case of Boserup) and general imbalances between natural resources and human activities (Wilkinson) lead to four types of adaptations in human activities:
* adjustment of population numbers by means of migration and/or fertility changes;
* expansion of the natural resource base by territorial conquests and/or trade;
* intensification of agriculture; and/or
* economic diversification.
Both authors assume that such adaptations - spontaneous or induced by government - will lead to a new equilibrium, although they do not indicate how much time is required for that.
3. Boserup's and Wilkinson's theories may have been applicable to relatively closed societies in the past. 1 Present-day conditions are, however, quite different, casting doubts on the validity of the dominance of stabilizing forces, we mention five potential sources of lasting natural resource imbalances. The first concerns the role of national governments in boosting development. Traditionally, few governments world-wide have taken the environment sufficiently into account (so-called government imperfections; see e.g., World Bank, 1987; Bojö et al., 1988) let alone specific rural environmental conditions. A bias towards short-term production increases is common in government programmes in order to rapidly meet basic needs. Recently, mounting environmental problems have increased environmental awareness among governments.
4. The second factor is the increasing influence of national and international factors on rural activities (e.g., the urban areas and international markets). These factors do not consider the rural natural resource base. Thirdly, socioeconomic stratification is increasing, resulting in distinct economic groups or strata with different goals, socioeconomic and ecological constraints and strategies. Consequently, it is likely that societal responses are heterogenous with an uncertain net impact on the resource base.
5. Fourthly, commercialisation implies an enhanced role of the market mechanism. Although the latter is an efficient and flexible allocation mechanism, it has significant environmental shortcomings (so-called market imperfections). Examples are that the market fails to take into account external effects (including environmental ones); it does not apply to all natural resources (e.g., grass is often "free"); and it is based on imperfect knowledge of ecosystems. Finally, labour and capital constraints may be perceived by natural resource users as more urgent than environmental ones, hence their possible larger impact on human activities; this argument particularly applies to the short term.
6. Having cast doubts about a renewed natural resource equilibrium, this paper addresses itself to the following issues:
i. assessment of the effect (balance or imbalance) of the present relationships between the natural resource base and human activities;ii. examination of the role of some potentially de stabilising forces, i.e. international markets, government programmes and socio-economic stratification; and
iii. review of government's role in terms of its contributions to prudent natural resource management and options for the promotion of sustainable rural development.
7. In examining these issues, we use empirical 1987 survey data from two rural areas in Botswana. The international literature suggests that our findings have wider applicability. 2 In this context, the paper first summaries government policies towards natural resources, rangelands and the relevant economic sectors. It then introduces the study regions and compares regional developments in land use. The analysis of household strategies as a response to land pressure addresses the main aspects in general, and specifically as they relate to livestock production. The main findings in terms of the three issues spelled out in paragraph 6 above are summarised in the concluding remarks.
