BETTER FARMING SERIES

Twenty-six titles have been published in this series, designed as handbooks for a two-year intermediate level agricultural education and training course. They may be purchased as a set or as individual documents.

FIRST YEAR

1. The plant: the living plant; the root

2. The plant: the stem; the buds; the leaves

3. The plant: the flower

4. The soil: how the soil is made up

5. The soil: how to conserve the soil

6. The soil: how to improve the soil

7. Crop farming

8. Animal husbandry: feeding and care of animals

9. Animal husbandry: animal diseases; how animals reproduce

SECOND YEAR

10. The farm business survey

11. Cattle breeding

12. Sheep and goat breeding

13. Keeping chickens

14. Farming with animal power

15. Cereals

16. Roots and tubers

17. Groundnuts

18. Bananas

19. Market gardening

20. Upland rice

21. Wet paddy or swamp rice

22. Cocoa

23. Coffee

24. The oil palm

25. The rubber tree

26. The modern farm business

Better Farming Series    7

Crop Farming

Published by arrangement with the Institut africain pour le développement économique et social B.P. 8008, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1976

FAO Economic and Social Development Series No. 3/7

First printing 1976

ISBN 92-5-1-00146-4

© French edition, lnstitut africain pour le développement économique et social (INADES) 1970

© English edition, FAO 1976

Contents

1. Preface

2. Outline Of Course

3. How to choose a field

4. Tilling

1. How to till

1. By hand

2. With animal power

2. Depth of tillage

3. How to plough

4. When to plough

5. Harrowing

6. Sowing

1. Choosing seed

2. When to sow

3. How to sow

1. Sowing in rows

2. Sowing with animal power

7. Transplanting

8. Looking after the crops

1. Weeding

2. Earthing up

3. Hoeing

4. Thinning

9. Harvesting

1. How to harvest

2. How to get a better price for the harvest

1. Grading

2. Storing

3. Farmers get together to sell

10. Suggested question paper

PREFACE

This manual is a translation and adaptation of “Les travaux de culture,” published by the Agri-Service-Afrique of the Institut africain pour le développement économique et social (INADES), and forms part of a series of 26 booklets. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the publishers for making available this text, which it is hoped will find widespread use at the intermediate level of agricultural education and training in English-speaking countries.

The original texts were prepared for an African environment and this is naturally reflected in the English version. However, it is expected that many of the manuals of the series — a list of which will be found on the inside front cover — will also be of value for training in many other parts of the world. Adaptations can be made to the text where necessary owing to different climatic and ecological conditions.

Applications for permission to issue this manual in other languages are welcomed. Such applications should be addressed to: Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

The author of this English version is Mr. A.J. Henderson, former Chief of the FAO Editorial Branch.

OUTLINE OF COURSE

• How to choose a field

• Tilling

How to till

By hand

With animal power

Depth of tillage

How to plough

When to plough

• Harrowing

• Sowing

Choosing seed

When to sow

How to sow

Sowing in rows

Sowing with animal power

• Transplanting

• Looking after the crops

Weeding

Earthing up

Hoeing

Thinning

• Harvesting

How to harvest

How to get a better price for the harvest

Grading

Storing

Farmers get together to sell

• Suggested question paper

PLAN OF WORK

FIRST WEEK

Tilling

Read pages 4 to 11.

We take a look at tilling done with a hand hoe

and tilling done with a plough.

Which is done quicker?

Which is done better?

Is tilling done at the right time?

Look carefully at a plough

and see how it works,

how it turns over the earth.

SECOND WEEK

Sowing

Reread pages 4 to 11.

Read pages 12 to 18.

Reread also Booklet No. 3, page 22 on choosing seed.

Let us take a look at sowing broadcast,

sowing in rows

and sowing in seed holes.

Why must we sow in rows, and how is it done?

Why must we sow as early as possible?

THIRD WEEK

Looking after crops

Reread pages 12 to 18.

Read pages 19 to 24.

Is the work of looking after the crops

done well and at the right time?

What about weeding?

Earthing up?

Thinning?

Do you understand

why it is important to look after the crops?

FOURTH WEEK

Harvesting

Reread pages 19 to 24.

Read pages 25 to 28.

This week's work is important.

It's no use having a fine harvest

if you sell it badly.

What do you do

to sell your harvest at a better price?

Reread the whole course.

Answer the question paper.

HOW TO CHOOSE A FIELD

You must choose carefully

the field you mean to farm.

Choose a field where plants grow well,

where the grasses are tall.

Choose good land.

Choose a field near the village

so as not to lose time going to and from the field.

Ask the village headman

for permission to farm the field

for a very long time.

PREPARING THE FIELD

During the dry season prepare your field.

• Improve the field.

If the soil is wet,

drain it (see Booklet No. 6, page 20).

If the soil is short of water,

irrigate it (see Booklet No. 6, page 18).

If the soil is on a slope,

mark the contour lines (see Booklet No. 5, page 8).

• In order to use animal power (see Booklet No. 6, page 28),

mark out a rather large right-angled field.

Clear the land and grub the trees (see Booklet No. 6, page 21).

TILLING

Tilling means turning over the soil.

Tilling enables water and air

to get right into the soil.

It makes the soil less hard.

It loosens the soil.

In well-tilled soil

seeds germinate easily.

Roots penetrate easily.

Tilling mixes earth and herbage.

It cleans the soil.

The herbage rots and makes humus.

By tilling the soil,

you can mix fertilizers and manure with it.

HOW TO TILL

• By hand

You can till, that is turn over the soil,

with a hoe or a spade.

Usually this work is done

with a hoe (daba).

The hoe should be heavy enough

to cut into the soil

even if it is rather hard.

You can also do the work

with a spade.

With these tools you can turn over the soil

and bury organic matter.

But this work is slow and tiring.

• With animal power

The trees in the field have been grubbed.

The farmer uses a plough

drawn by donkeys or oxen.

The work is done better and done faster.

The plough.

Usually a simple plough is used.

The plough consists of a ploughshare, a mouldboard

and two handles.

The ploughshare cuts a strip of earth.

The mouldboard turns this strip over.

Tilling should never bring the subsoil to the surface

(see Booklet No. 4, page 6).

This layer of soil is poor in mineral salts.

Doing this also destroys the soil structure.

DEPTH OF TILLAGE

Tillage can be shallow, normal or deep.

• Shallow tillage.

Look at this drawing:

The ploughshare cuts a strip of soil

10 to 15 centimetres thick.

The tillage is said to be shallow

when its depth is from 10 to 15 centimetres.

• Normal tillage.

Look at this drawing:

Tillage is said to be normal

when the depth of tillage is 20 centimetres.

With normal tillage the soil can be well turned over

and the remains of plants can be well buried.

HOW TO PLOUGH

Make a first furrow

with the plough

across the whole length

of the field.

At the end

of the field,

turn.

Make a second furrow

alongside the first.

The second strip

of ploughed field

joins the first.

After that,

keep turning

round the strip

of ploughed field.

If the field is very big,

make several “lands.”lands

If the field is on a slope,

plough along the contour lines (see Booklet No. 5, page 8).

If the cultivated soil (see Booklet No.4, page 9) is not deep,

and if the soil is very light,

ploughing is not necessary (see Booklet No.4, page 17).

It may even be a bad thing (see page 7).

Instead use a machine with tines, drawn by animals.

The tines stir the soil without turning it over.

With oxen

use five to eight tines.

With one donkey,

use fewer tines, say three to five.

For other work,

such as hoeing, weeding, earthing up (see page 21)

change the tines of the cultivator.

WHEN TO PLOUGH

Ploughing can be done after the harvest

or after the first rains.

• After the harvest, at the beginning of the dry season,

the soil is not too hard,

you can begin to plough your fields.

Then the first rains will fall on soil already opened up,

on loosened soil.

The rain will penetrate easily

and less water will be wasted.

• If you do not have time

to plough after the harvest,

you should do so

as soon as the first rains have fallen.

Sow as soon as possible,

so that the plants can use all the water

of the rainy season (see Booklet No. 3, page 20).

Very often,

farmers plough all their fields

at the beginning of the rainy season

and spend a lot of time on the ploughing.

They sow much too late.

When the sowing is too late,

the plants do not grow well.

A modern farmer sows in good time.

A good farmer ploughs his fields

immediately after the harvest,

at the beginning of the dry season.

HARROWING

Ploughing often does not leave the soil flat.

There are big pieces of earth — clods.

The clods must be broken up

to make the soil quite flat,

and to give earth that is fine, not lumpy.

This is called harrowing.

You can break up the clods

with a hoe or rake.

But you can do the work more quickly

with a harrow drawn by an animal.

If you have no harrow,

you can make an animal pull big branches over the soil.

The branches will break up the clods.

SOWING

CHOOSING SEED

In Booklet No. 3, pages 20 to 26,

we dealt with seeds and sowing.

Reread these pages.

Seed must be carefully chosen;

seed must be from good varieties,

must be protected against disease,

must be graded.

WHEN TO SOW

• When the soil is well prepared

sowing can be done.

In savanna country especially,

sowing should be done

at the beginning of the rainy season.

In this way the plants will make full use of the rains.

• If you sow very early,

the plants will grow up

before they are hindered by weeds.

Sowing must be done

at the right time.

HOW TO SOW

Farmers have the habit of sowing in seed holes.

The farmer makes a little hole

with a stick or hoe,

drops in several seeds

and covers them with soil.

Some seed, such as rice, is sown broadcast;

that is, it is thrown into the air,

and falls all over the place.

Then a harrow is drawn to mix the seed with the soil.

But the seed falls anywhere.

Sometimes the plants are too close together

and get in each other's way when growing.

Sometimes the plants are not close enough.

They do not make full use of the soil.

With broadcast sowing it is not possible

to get the right density (see Booklet No. 1, page 26).

When you want to get rid of weeds,

you walk on the young plants

and often spoil them.

SOWING IN ROWS

By sowing in rows you can:

• get rid of weeds more easily.

The animal drawing the cultivator

can walk between the rows.

The work is done more quickly,

and can be done more often.

• give each plant the same amount of fertilizer.

• apply water when possible.

It is better to sow in rows.

On sloping land,

make the rows across the slope

to stop erosion.

• As an example take groundnuts:

Leave 60 centimetres between rows.

Leave 15 centimetres between seeds.

This gives about 110 000 groundnut plants to the hectare.

SOWING IN ROWS BY HAND

When you sow or plant, make the lines quite straight.

Use a marker to make the lines.

This is a wooden bar with teeth.

Each tooth marks a row.

To get the first row quite straight,

stretch a string between two stakes.

Then follow the string with the marker.

The distance between rows changes

according to the size of the seed.

Put the seeds in the rows at the same distance apart

and at the same depth (see Booklet No. 3, page 21).

Cover the seeds with a little earth.

Walk over the row to press down the earth.

Then the field will be sown at the right density

(see Booklet No. 1, page 26).

• Certain plants such as cotton and millet

are sown in seed holes.

Seed holes too must be made in rows.

By that means you can be sure of the right density,

you can get rid of weeds

and apply pesticides more easily.

To put the seeds at the same distance apart,

you can use a spacing wheel.

The spacing wheel.

This can be made of wood or iron.

Each tooth of the wheel makes a little hole in the soil.

Put one or more seeds in each hole.

Cover the seeds with a little earth,

either with the hoe or your foot.

SOWING WITH ANIMAL POWER

The seed drill

In several countries

people are beginning to use the seed drill.

This is drawn by a donkey or an ox.

The seed drill makes furrows

and the seeds fall into the furrow

the same distance apart

and at the same depth.

At the same time, the drill

covers the seed

and presses down the soil.

TRANSPLANTING

Certain plants are first sown in a nursery.

In a nursery you can sow very thickly.

When the seeds have germinated,

when the plants have grown a little,

they are lifted

and planted out in the fields.

They are transplanted.

Tobacco, tomatoes, salad plants, rice

and many trees, such as oil palm, mango, avocado,

are first sown in a nursery and then transplanted.

Good transplanting.

Plants are lifted from the nursery.

But before transplanting them in the field,

they must be prepared.

Cut off roots that are too long.

Cut off damaged roots.

Take off half the leaves.

Put the plant in the soil up to the base of the stem.

Pack the earth well round the roots.

To protect the transplanted seedlings from the sun,

make a little shelter.

Bad transplanting.

The roots have not been trimmed;

they turn upward.

The earth has not been packed down;

the roots dry out.

If the transplanted seedling is not watered,

it will not grow well.

Cassava is not sown.

You put pieces of stem into the earth.

Cassava is planted.

You do not sow pineapples or bananas.

You put shoots into the earth.

Pineapples and bananas are planted.

This planting must also be done in rows,

to get the right density and

to get rid of weeds more easily.

LOOKING AFTER THE CROPS

WEEDING

Weeds prevent plants from growing well

(see Booklet No. 2, page 24).

They take out of the soil the mineral salts

that the crops need.

The weeds must be removed.

Weeding can be done with the hand hoe (see page 6),

or with an animal-drawn cultivator (see page 10).

Sowing in rows makes weeding easier.

The cultivator has tines

that cut the weeds between the seed rows.

You must weed each time new weeds grow.

For cotton and groundnuts

weed three or four times.

With an animal-drawn cultivator

you can only get rid of weeds

between seed rows.

Remove the weeds among the plants in a row

by using the hand hoe.

Weeding must be done

when the weeds are still small.

Then the work is easier and quicker.

Weeds are destroyed more easily

when they are still small.

Let the cut weeds dry between the rows.

They will rot and form humus.

They will also protect the soil against erosion.

EARTHING UP

Earthing up, sometimes called ridging up,

is putting earth round the collar, or crown, of plants

(see Booklet No. 1, page 15).

With certain plants, such as maize and millet,

adventitious roots then grow in the mound of earth.

HOEING

With some soils the surface gets hard after rain;

a crust of earth is formed.

Water rises in the crust

as it rises in lumps of earth (see Booklet No. 4, page 30).

• The earth crust must be broken up

to prevent the water rising.

This is called hoeing.

• Rain that falls on a well-hoed soil goes in easily.

It does not run off the surface.

It is not wasted.

• Hoeing is done with a hand hoe

or with an animal-drawn cultivator.

Weeding often serves both purposes:

it gets rid of weeds

and breaks up the soil crust.

THINNING

Thinning is removing surplus plants.

When you sow in seed holes,

you put in four or five seeds.

They grow together.

There are too many of them

and some must be taken out.

Then the plants that are left can grow better.

As a rule the two best plants in each seed hole are left.

Thinning should be done

when the plants have a few leaves,

but before they are too big.

In pulling out the surplus plants,

the soil is disturbed.

So it must be pressed down again

round the plants that are left.

The first weeding and thinning

are done at the same time.

HARVESTING

HOW TO HARVEST

As a rule harvesting is done by hand.

This work can be improved

by using better tools, for example:

a three-pronged lifting fork or hook for lifting cassava;

a sickle for cutting rice;

a scythe for cutting grass fodder.

Harvesting must be done at the right moment

when the crop is quite ripe.

For example:

The fruits of the oil palm cut at the right moment

yield more oil.

If you harvest cotton too late,

part of the cotton has already fallen to the ground.

It is dirty and sells for less.

If sorghum or millet is harvested too late,

the grains fall to the ground and are lost.

HOW TO GET A BETTER PRICE FOR THE HARVEST

• Grade your crops.

To get a better price,

separate what is good

from what is less good.

Grade your crops.

If the harvest is not graded,

if it is of poor quality,

you get a low price.

For example:

In Cameroon in 1969,

cocoa of first quality sold for 85 CFA francs;

cocoa of second quality sold for 80 francs;

In Upper Volta in 1969,

white cotton sold for 30 CFA francs;

yellow cotton sold for 28 francs.

At the market,

tomatoes and yams of good quality

sell at a better price.

To grade crops:

separate the good coffee beans

from the broken ones;

separate the white cotton

from the yellow cotton;

take out groundnut pods that are empty;

take out spoiled grain,

fruit that is rotten or eaten by insects.

If you do not grade your crops,

you will sell them at the lowest price.

Grading your harvest crops

means earning more money.

• Store your harvest well.

Cassava can be kept in the earth.

You can harvest it all through the year.

Maize and groundnuts cannot be kept in the ground.

Harvests are kept in houses, in granaries.

Sometimes they are hung on trees.

But rats and birds

eat part of the harvest.

Another part may rot.

Farmers lose part of their harvest.

To store your harvest well,

build granaries (see Booklet No. 3, page 27),

where rats can’t get in,

where the rain doesn’t get in.

Clean and disinfect the granary to kill insects

(see Booklet No. 3, page 28).

• Store your harvest

to earn more money.

For example:

Just after the harvest the price of millet is low.

Ten months after harvest the price of millet is higher.

Mamadou sells 700 kilogrammes of millet

just after the harvest at 12 francs the kilogramme.

Mamadou earns 700 × 12 - 8 400 francs.

Moussa sells 700 kilogrammes of millet

ten months after the harvest

at 25 francs the kilogramme.

Moussa earns 700 × 25 - 17 500 francs.

Because Moussa stored his millet,

he earned 9 100 francs (17 500 less 8 400) more

than Mamadou.

By keeping his harvest,

Moussa made a lot of money.

• Farmers get together to sell.

A farmer by himself

often sells his harvest badly.

When he is alone he cannot go and sell his crops

where the price is high.

A dishonest dealer can easily trick the seller

• on the weight of his harvest

by means of false scales,

by weighing very quickly.

The farmer can’t check him.

• on the quality.

The dealer often says

the quality of the harvest is bad

and buys at a lower price.

• on prices.

The farmer needs money.

The dealer knows this

and buys at low prices.

• on the reckoning.

Some dealers make mistakes

in the reckoning on purpose.

Farmers who get together can defend themselves

against dishonest dealers.

Unity is strength.

SUGGESTED QUESTION PAPER

FILL IN THE MISSING WORDS

A good farmer ploughs his field immediately after the _________________

at the beginning of the _________________ season.

Then he will be able to sow at the _________________ of the rainy season.

The plants will use all the ________________ of the rainy season,

they will grow up without being hindered by _____________________.

A good farmer sows in _______________________________________,

so that he can get the weeds out better.

It is very important to harvest at the__________________ moment.

It is useless to farm well if you harvest ____________________.

Finally, a good farmer stores his harvest and sells when the price is ___________.

He can get together with other farmers to ____________________

himself better.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

When should ploughing be done?

When should sowing be done?

Why should plants be earthed up?

Why should plants be thinned?

What is a scythe used for?

Tell a friend why it is better to sow in rows.

What should a farmer do to sell his harvest at a better price?

What was most useful to you in the course on the soil (Booklets Nos. 4,5, 6,7)?

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Norway  Johan Grundt Tanum Bokhandel, Karl Johansgt. GT 41-43, Oslo 1.

Pakistan  Mirza Book Agency, 65 The Mall, Lahore 3.

Panamá  Distribuidora Lewis S.A., Edificio Dorasol, Calle 25 y Avenida Balboa, Apartado 1634, Panamá 1.

Perú  Libreria Juan Mejia Baca, Azangaro 722, Lima,

Philippines  The Modern Book Company, 928 Rizal Avenue, Manila.

Poland  Ars Polona-Ruch, Krakowskie Przedmiescie 7, Warsaw.

Portugal  Livraria Bertrand, S.A.R.L., Apartado 37, Amadora; Livraria Portugal, Dias y Andrade Ltda., Apartado 2681, Rua do Carmo 70-74, Lisbon - 2.

Rep. Dominicana  Fundación Dominicana de Desarrollo, Casa de las Gárgolas, Mercedes 4, Santo Domingo.

Roumanie  llexim, Calea Grivitei No. 64-66, P.O. Box.2001, Bucharest.

Saudi Arabia  Khazindar Establishment, King Faysal Street, Riyadh.

Singapore  MPH Distributors Sdn. Bhd., 71/77 Stamford Road, Singapore 6.

Somalia  “Samater’s”, P.O. Box 936, Mogadishu.

Sri Lanka  M.D. Gunasena and Co. Ltd., 217 Norris Road, Colombo 11.

Suisse  Librairie Payot S.A., Lausanne et Genéve; Hans Raunhardt, Kirchgasse 17, Zurich 1.

Sweden  C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2, 103 27 Stockholm 16.

Tanzania  Dar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. Box 9030, Dar es Salaam.

Thailand  Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajadamnern Avenue, Bangkok.

Togo  Librairie du Bon Pasteur, B.P. 1164, Lomé.

Turkey  Güven Kitabevi Mudafaa Cad., Güven Building 12/5, Ankara.

United Kingdom  Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 49 High Holborn, London, W.C.1; P.O. Box 569, London, S.E.1 (trade and London area mail orders); 13a Castle Street, Edinburgh EH2 3AR; 109 St. Mary Street, Cardiff CF1 1JW; 7 Linenhall Street, Belfast BT2 8AY; Brazennose Street, Manchester M60 8AS; 258 Broad Street, Birmingham 1; Southey House, Wine Street, Bristol BS1 2BO.

United States of America  UNIPUB, 650 First Avenue, P.O. Box 433, Murray Hill Station, New York, N.Y. 10016.

Uruguay  Juan Angel Peri, Alzaibar 1328, Casilla de Correos 1755, Montevideo.

Venezuela  Blume Distribuidora S.A., Calle 3, N° 508, Quinta Palmera Sola, Campo Alegre, Chacao, Caracas.

Yugoslavia  Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27/11, Belgrade; Cankarjeva Zalozba, P.O. Box 201-IV, Ljubljana.

Other countries  Requests from countries where sales agents have not yet been appointed may be sent to; Distribution and Sales Section, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

Autres pays  Les commandes ou les demandes de renseignements émanant de pays pour lesquels des agents ou des depositaires n’ont pas encore été désignés peuvent être adressées á: Section distribution et ventes, Organisation des Nations Unies pour I’alimentation et I’agriculture, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italie.

Otros países  Los pedidos procedentes de paises en donde aún no han sido designados agentes distribuidores, pueden hacerse directamente a la Sección de Distribución y Venta, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Roma, Italia.