REPORT ON THE FORMULATION OF
A NATIONAL WATER VISION TO ACTION
IN THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Prepared by

a Special Working Team
established by the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and related agencies
Government of the Union of Myanmar

in cooperation with

Le Huu Ti
Economic Affairs Officer
Water Resources Section
Environment and Sustainable Development Division
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

and

Thierry Facon
Senior Water Management Officer
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

1. INTRODUCTION

The Union of Myanmar is rich in water resources. Estimated runoff from rivers in a normal year is
about 876 million acre-feet (or about 1 082 km³ ). The total amount of the nation's water resources utilized is only about five percent or 45 million acre-feet. It is clear that the physical potential for further development of water resources in Myanmar is quite substantial.

The country has now reached a turning point in the use of water resources for all-round development. Providing innovative and integrated solutions for the sustainable management of water resources to meet the country's development needs has become an absolute necessity.

1.1 Climate and rainfall

There are three seasons in Myanmar, namely summer, winter and the rainy season. Ninety percent of the annual rainfall occurs between May and October and is monsoonal. Precipitation varies countrywide, reaching 5 000 mm per year in the south and western coastal strips, 2 000 to 3 000 mm in the delta, 1 300 to 3 000 mm in the north and eastern hilly regions, and dropping to below 760 mm in central Myanmar. As a result of the differences in precipitation, moisture availability for plant growth is not sufficient in certain regions, even during the rainy season, and during the dry season the problem becomes more acute. Thus, it is obvious that successful crop production depends on the availability of stored water from rivulets and ponds.

Central Myanmar, especially the Bagan Nyaung Oo area, is vulnerable to desertification in the coming decades. Reforestation projects implemented in its 13 districts have had positive effects on climate and rainfall, but there is a need for sustainable development in the area.

1.2 Potential water resources

Water basin characteristics in Myanmar are quite variable due to the differences in physiographic features. The principal watercourses flowing separately in Myanmar are the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittoung, Thanlwin and Bago rivers and their main tributaries, such as the Chindwin, Myittha, Mu, Zawgyi, Paunglaung, Samon, Myitnge, Mone, Man, Salin, Yaw and Mindon. All rivers, with the exception of the Thanlwin, are wholly within Myanmar and can be considered nationally owned water assets. Their drainage area spreads widely over the country, endowing it with 876.73 million acre-feet (1 082 km³ ) of water volume per year, as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1     Potential water resources in Myanmar

The tributaries originating in the western hills and the southern part of the country cover about
ten percent of the catchment area and surface runoff. They have high hydropower potential. According to a UN report and various studies, the hydropower potential of Myanmar is estimated at 40 000 MW. At present, the total number of identified hydropower potential sites is about 270 and suggested installed capacity is about 39 700 MW, excluding small-scale hydropower schemes, as shown in Table 4.2 and Figure 4.1.

Table 4.2     Hydropower potential in Myanmar 

Figure 4.1 Hydropower potential in Myanmar

The estimated groundwater potential in Myanmar is of about 495 km³ , as shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3     Annual groundwater potential in Myanmar

1.3 Water resources use and key institutions

The agricultural sector is the basis of the economy and the main source of livelihood of the rural areas, where about 70 percent of the population lives. Hence, the state has laid down and implemented five rural development tasks to bring progress to the whole nation. One of these is adequate supply of water for irrigation and for drinking; others are development programmes for agriculture, livestock breeding and fishery.

In Myanmar, rural water supply activities were started in 1952 to provide safe drinking water and carry out environmental sanitation works for the rural populace. At present, with the assistance of international organizations, several water supply and sanitation projects are being implemented.

Urban water supply, including for industrial use, is implemented by city development committees (CDC), notably in Yangon (YCDC) and Mandalay (MCDC). The total volume of water for domestic use is estimated to amount to 3.0 km³ /year and 1.5 km³ /year for industrial use.

The state is systematically disseminating advanced techniques and supports to develop the nation's economy. A large number of irrigation facilities have been built within a short span of time. By the end of April 2003, 145 dams were irrigating over one million hectares of cropland.

In addition to the dams, various means have been applied to supply water for agriculture. River water pumping stations, underground water tapping stations and mini dams have been built throughout the nation. A total of 265 river water pumping projects have been implemented in 12 states and divisions, irrigating some 150 000 ha of cultivated land. In addition 7 478 tube wells are used to irrigate 36 000 ha of farmland. Urban and rural development tasks are carried out by 285 township committees and 42 urban development affairs committees under the supervision of the Department of Development Affairs of the Ministry for the Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs. Measures have also been taken to ensure water supply for 4 023 villages (in 2000/01 to 2002/03) out of the targeted 8 042 villages in Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway Division under a ten-year project. With the cooperation of Japan International Cooperation Agency, the Department of Development Affairs has been carrying out water supply projects in the Northern Shan State. Bridge Asia Japan and UNICEF are helping sinking tube wells in the arid zone. NGOs also cooperate in rural water supply projects and well-wishers have also contributed to the water supply tasks.

The Dry Zone Greening Department of the Ministry of Forestry has implemented greening projects in 13 districts of the dry zone to conserve nature and watershed areas. To prevent environment degradation, forest depletion, loss of soil and change of weather, the government formed the Highland Reclamation and Cultivation Committee in 2002 to carry out highland reclamation and cultivation projects in which slash-and-burn shifting cultivation will be replaced by terrace farming.

In the fishery sector, the state has given high priority to providing adequate support and assistance for further development of the fishery industry, and efforts have been made to enhance food security while protecting the environment and conserving natural resources. A mangrove-friendly aquaculture system was introduced a couple of years ago.

In addition to the adequacy of drinking water, water quality is given priority by the stakeholders in this sector. In harnessing resources, the Irrigation Department not only focuses on providing efficient increased irrigation for the development of agriculture, but also embraces objectives pertaining to the adequacy of drinking water, the protection of the environment and the generation of hydroelectricity.

The Water Resources Utilization Department also takes part in developing water resources, both surface and groundwater, for socio-economic development through the provision of irrigation and drinking water.

The Department of Hydroelectric Power, the primary user of water for power production, has been involved in planning and using water for its own needs without adverse effects on other users.

Under the Ministry of Forestry, the Forest and Dry Zone Greening Departments established watershed plantations and constructed small check dams and ponds and dug artesian wells to have safe and adequate water for domestic use in villages and forest nurseries.

The Department of Public Works, the Department of Development Affairs, city development committees and the Department of Human Settlement and Housing Development are responsible for domestic water supply and sanitation works in urban areas and underground water controlling works in the capital. After 1988, private construction companies were developed, and both surface and ground water were tapped for industrial and domestic use. The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology is responsible for measuring discharge of the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin, Sittoung and Thanlwin rivers yearly to compute runoff data for each station. It also monitors water quality at some places along the main rivers.

2. NATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

2.1 Country overview

Myanmar is situated in Southeast Asia between North Latitude 9°32' to 28°31' and East Longitude 92°29' to 101°10'. Its total land area is 676 565 km² (167.186 million acres). Its population
of about 52.434 million has an annual growth rate of 2.02 percent and it is estimated to reach 61 million by 2010 and 83 million by 2025. About 70 percent of the population resides in rural areas, about
80 percent of which are engaged in agricultural work.

Myanmar has many ethnic groups with different cultures, customs and beliefs, and this variety is the source of many issues and problems that hinder the implementation of the government's strategy of equitable socio-economic development. Nevertheless, Myanmar has a high socio-economic potential as a result of its abundant natural, especially water, resources, which are underused.

a. Overall aspects of economic development

Agriculture, comprising crop production, livestock, fishery and forestry, is the most important sector of the economy. It is the main source of livelihood for about 70 percent of the population and it accounts for about 64 percent of the employment of the labour force. It also contributes about 41 percent of export earnings and accounts for about 42 percent of the gross domestic product. Thus, the government has given high priority to agricultural development and views it as the base for all-round economic development.

The Government of the Union of Myanmar formed the National Commission for Environmental Affairs in 1990 to look after nature and environmental conservation. The National Commission for Environmental Affairs is the focal point for communication and collaboration with international organizations on environmental matters. In 1997, the commission formulated Myanmar Agenda 21, which provides guidelines for the protection of nature and for sustainable development.

b. Brief summary of economic development in the past decade

During the past decade, the economy has depended mainly on agricultural production and agriculture remains the main engine of economic growth. Table 4.4 shows the evolution of GDP from 1991/92 to 2000/01.

In the past decade, a number of projects were implemented throughout the country for the sustainable development of the economy and natural resources. The greening project in the central dry zone covered 13 districts. Watershed management projects were implemented with the assistance of UN agencies in some major watershed areas such as the Kinda Reservoir's catchment area. Wildlife area reservations, establishment of ecotourism sites and sanctuary parks have been developed. Between 1980/81 and 2000/01, some 624 533 ha of forest plantation, including 79 197 ha of watershed plantation, were established by the Forest Department.

Table 4.4     Myanmar GDP (at 1985/86 constant producer prices)

(Billion Kyats)

Source: Statistical Yearbook, CSO 1999, 2000, 2001.

The aquatic ecosystems, including wetlands, are basic components of the global life-support system. They include rivers, freshwater lakes, deltaic and coastal areas. Wetlands are formed by the flooding of rivers during the monsoon and remain after the floods subside, especially downstream. Rivers and their tributaries provide waterways for transportation, fertile agricultural land, and feeding and breeding grounds for numerous aquatic and bird species.

Freshwater lakes in Myanmar are also of substantial economic importance. Indawgyi, Inle and Moyingyi lakes are the three main wetlands, which are rich in aquatic and bird life and provide significant waterways and recreational areas for tourists. There are also more than 100 reservoirs, either natural or man-made, throughout the country, providing drinking water and water for agriculture.

The 1 500-miles-long coast, the shallow water and offshore islands, and the Ayeyarwaddy deltaic region form the most important aquatic ecosystems of the country. Deltaic and coastal mangroves, which account for one percent of the total forested area of the country, are breeding grounds for numerous aquatic species and supply the local inhabitants with food and shelter. Many of these aquatic ecosystems are under pressure from settlement, economic development and overuse. The river systems are disturbed by navigation, sedimentation and activities such as gold prospecting and sand mining. There is no information on wetland pollution from toxic waste or insecticides.

Injudicious agricultural practices such as careless use of pesticides and fertilizers resulting in nutrient and toxic runoff and overharvesting are some of the most unsuitable uses of inland wetlands in Myanmar. The percentage of people covered by safe water facilities is still very low by any standard. Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation coupled with personal and environmental hygiene should receive high priority, as they are essential to public health and economic development. According to the 1995 survey, drinking water supply coverage was 60 percent countrywide and 50 percent in the rural areas.

2.2 Poverty

Rural development aims to enhance the quality of life of the people in rural areas by increasing their access to resources. It is based on the belief that all economic activities are interrelated and therefore must be developed together. Agricultural production alone is not enough, and must go hand in hand with the provision of human services and economic opportunities. Rural development focuses on poverty and strengthening the production capacity of the rural poor to increase their incomes.

The primary aims are:

1. Improvement of the living standard and the quality of the people through productive and social investment; and
2. development and use of productive resources.

One way agricultural development is implemented is by making resources available to increase farm productivity. The most common resources are irrigation water, improved seeds, fertilizers and agricultural credit. Such inputs are intended to increase the productivity of farm households.

a. People living below the poverty line

The Central Statistical Organization has estimated that at least 22.4 percent of the rural people and
23.9 percent of the urban people live below the poverty line.

1. Poverty indicators

The poverty level can be indicated by income and expenditure data. Development indexes are also derived from health data, ownership data and education data. Water consumption data should also be collected and evaluated to relate to other poverty indicators. The water quality and use should be considered in expressing water consumption data.

1. Food security

   People in Myanmar spent 60 to 70 percent of their income on food and beverages, and only 30 to 40 percent on non-food items. People who are unable to purchase sufficient food to meet the household requirements are defined as `poor'. If their income can be increased, the food security problem at the household level can be resolved.

2. Economy

   The lack of assets such as land or livestock is a strong indicator of rural poverty. The 1997 HDIBS of 20 000 rural households found that one-third owned no land, 40 percent owned no livestock and a quarter owned neither. Many families who do have land are also poor. Over 60 percent, or 2.8 million of all landholding households had less than five acres, which is roughly the minimum size for subsistence at current levels of technology and input use. The size of a subsistence plot may vary, of course, depending on agro-climatic conditions. In the upper dry zone a farm of three acres can be sufficient for multiple cropping, but a farm of that size is inadequate in single-crop rice-growing areas.

3. Health

   Health conditions are much worse for those living in rural areas. Infant and child mortality rates and malnutrition levels are worse in rural areas and access to health services, including trained birth attendants, is generally lower in rural than urban areas. However, vaccination coverage and treatment rates for acute respiratory infections are fairly similar between rural and urban areas, though they are likely to be worse in remote areas.

4. Education

   In Myanmar, poor households have lower levels of education attainment. Education level of household head by poverty status is shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5     Education status in Myanmar (%)

The 1997 Human Development Index Baseline Survey found that among families with children of
5-9 years of age, 28.8 percent of families defined as `poor' had children who had never been to school, compared with 18.7 percent for non-poor families.

2. Poverty profile

An estimated 70 percent of the country's poor live in rural areas with most living in Sagaing, Bago, Magway, Ayeyarwaddy and Mandalay divisions, which cover the country's most populated rice-growing region and the dry zone region.

Rural poverty rates vary considerably by region. Chin State has the highest rural poverty rate, with
47 percent of the state's rural households being classified as poor, more than double the national average of 22.4 percent. Kayah State and Magway Division also have very high rates of rural poverty, with over 36 percent of rural households being classified as poor, or over 1.5 times the national average. Saging, Bago and Mandalay Division also have rural poverty rates above the national average (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6     Estimated poverty rates by state and division (%)

3. Gender disparities

There is a low degree of gender bias in Myanmar compared to some South Asian countries. The gender issue is not a significant problem in Myanmar, as men and women have equal status in society. Women have been accorded equal opportunities in education, employment and other economic activities, as shown by the large percentage of women enrolled in school and universities and employed in both public and private institutions.

b. Previous poverty reduction efforts

Rural poverty and agriculture are closely linked in Myanmar. To reduce poverty, agricultural incomes must be raised. Since the country gained independence from the British in January 1948, the government has consistently accorded high priority to increasing rice production, which is the staple food and main export crop. During the British colonial era (1824–1941) the rice area reached 5.1 million ha, with total paddy production of about 8 million metric tonnes. At the time, Burma was a major rice exporting country.

Under the eight-year Pyidawtha Plan (1952/53–1959/60) the irrigation facilities built in the colonial era and destroyed during the Second World War were rehabilitated and improved. By 1960/61 about
536 000 ha or seven percent of the total sown area could be irrigated.

Under the all-township paddy production programme, the government undertook large-scale dissemin­ation of Green Revolution technologies in 82 townships, covering a total of 2.5 million ha. Under this programme, high-yielding varieties, improved technologies (proper tillage, application of chemical fertilizers and control of pests with pesticides), other farm inputs, and credit were made available to thousands of farmers. Starting 1992/93, the government launched a summer rice production programme in which farmers in irrigated areas were encouraged to grow two crops of rice a year. During this period, the government invested massively in irrigation development. These activities to increase paddy production were meant to increase agricultural production and were related to poverty reduction.

c. Existing activities related to water resources management for poverty reduction

Growth in agriculture productivity raises real incomes of the rural poor and thus reduces poverty. The agriculture sector could significantly contribute to overall poverty reduction. The strategy to improve agricultural production consists in putting more land under cultivation and practising crop diversification through greater cropping intensity thanks to better irrigation and drainage and flood protection works.

The development of water resources plays a major role in agricultural development. However, only 1.14 million ha of the total net sown area of 8.96 million ha (12.7 percent) were irrigated in 1992/93. Measures were taken in accordance with annual investment plans under the guidance and supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation to expand irrigated agriculture to promote further agricultural expansion, and they resulted in remarkable progress: in 1994/95 there were 1.6 million irrigated ha out of the total cultivated area of 9.2 million ha (17.4 percent).

The measures undertaken to expand the area under irrigation were:

• The construction of small and medium dams and weirs — these presented quick-yielding solutions for low yields and low cropping intensities and the benefits reached a large number of farmers in selected poverty-stricken areas;
• proper management for the storage and use of runoff water from the watershed areas;
• rehabilitation and renovation of existing government-maintained and village irrigation works requiring improvement for efficiency and economy in water use — greater emphasis given to on-farm water management;
• construction of dams and sluices to impound backwater of the Ayeyarwaddy and Chindwin rivers during floods for late-rain cropping;
• irrigation by pumps from rivers; and
• tapping groundwater for irrigation.

1. Availability of water

Only about five percent of the nation's water resources is utilized for irrigation, town water supply etc. In terms of the nation's potential this amount is very small and therefore irrigation is still far from reaching saturation point. The total irrigated area (government and private) is 3.79 million ha and
the total multiple cropping irrigated area is 0.73 million ha. Estimated total water used is 30.0 million
acre-feet, or 37 km³ .

The regional distribution of water utilization is shown in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7     Share of water resources used in river basins (km³)

2. Provision of sufficient irrigation water

After 1988 the government continued the construction of dams and reservoirs throughout the country using large capital investments, large amounts of manpower and heavy machinery, and making use of available domestic resources and expertise. As a result, irrigation facilities now exist in groups in localized zones throughout the country.

A total of 145 irrigation projects was completed between 1988/89 and 2003 (April), further increasing the irrigable area by 2.07 million acres. Another 41 irrigation projects are underway.

In parallel with the irrigation projects, 265 pump irrigation projects from main rivers, consisting of
83 electric-pump and 182 diesel-pump irrigation projects, and groundwater resources utilization projects were undertaken. The irrigation area increased from 12.5 percent of the sown area in 1988/89 to
18.2 percent in 2000/01 (Table 4.8). Rural water supply by the Water Resources Utilization Department reached 15.5 million of the 32.5 million rural people.

Table 4.8     Growth of irrigated area (1900-2001)

2.3 Developments in the agricultural sector

Besides being the main source of livelihood for the majority of the people, agriculture is a growing market for domestic manufacturing. Thus, the government has accorded high priority to agricultural development as the basis of all-round economic development.

Since 1988, the government has liberalized the agriculture sector by reducing the role of public procurement, loosening restrictions on the distribution of fertilizers and pesticides, permitting export of agricultural produce (except rice) by the private sector, and inviting large private-sector investors to assist in the development of fallow and cultivable wasteland. These reforms have resulted in more rapid economic progress than in the past. This agriculture sector assessment study examines the performance of the sector from 1990/91 to 2000/01 with a view to identifying critical issues and constraints to sustainable agricultural growth, and identifying investment needs on the basis of a sector roadmap. This assessment focuses on the identification of issues and investment priorities in the crop subsector (including irrigation development, rural finance and rural development) since this subsector is the largest in the country, accounting for about 42 percent of GDP, compared to about eight percent for livestock and fishery and one percent for forestry. To increase crop yields and cropping intensity, the government has given high priority to irrigation development, as reflected in the large share of the development budget allocated for the construction and maintenance of irrigation schemes under current and proposed plans for the agriculture sector. During the past 12 years, the Irrigation Department and the Water Resources Utilization Department were able to complete gravity schemes and pumping schemes at the impressive rate of about 0.2 million acre/year (8 000 ha/year). As a result, the irrigated areas have doubled, from 2.47 million acres (1.0 million ha) to 4.94 million acres (2.0 million ha). About 20 percent of the total cultivated area is now provided with irrigation facilities, indicating that 80 percent of the cultivated area is still subject to unreliable and insufficient rainfall.

a. Economic development and nature conservation in the agricultural sector

During the last decade, the Government of the Union of Myanmar emphasized the extension of cultivated land and the promotion of yield and the production of crops by constructing large, medium-sized and small-scale water resources development projects. The aim was to open up as much irrigated land as possible, to guarantee a sufficient quantity of water and reduce the risk of water shortages for multiple crop cultivation. In addition, the government is providing assistance in all possible ways and means to rural people to raise their living standard and increase their incomes, to ensure regional self-sufficiency in rice and an adequate supply of water for domestic use, as well as to protect and green the environment. The government is also emphasizing reclamation work in highland and main watershed areas to prevent deforestation and soil erosion. One of the projects currently underway is designed to change the practise of shifting cultivation in the hilly region to terrace farming.

Table 4.9     Production of selected crops

(Thousand tonnes)

Source: Statistical Year Book, CSO 2001.

^a Only for seeds; ^b Only for sugar production

Table 4.9 shows the increase in production of selected crops in the last two decades (1980/81 to
2000/01).

b. Economic development and nature conservation in the fishery sector

National waters, with their abundant marine and freshwater aquatic resources both renewable and
non-renewable, support a variety of important economic activities, including fishery. Over 700 common marine and freshwater species have been identified so far, and a number of other aquatic animals and plants with high economic value such as seaweed are also thriving.

Myanmar is increasingly exploiting its water resources to enhance development, food security, employment opportunities and recently as a source of foreign exchange earnings.

The production of fish and prawns by nature of catch since from 1980/81 to 2000/01 (provisional) is shown in Table 4.10.

So far there have been no reports of severe adverse effects on the water quality of main streams by industrial effluents, agriculture runoff and aquaculture discharge into the aquatic environment.

2.4 Economic development in other water-related agencies

According to field studies and reports (including by the UN) the hydropower potential in Myanmar is estimated to be 40 000 MW. By 2002, 35 hydropower stations, including 15 medium-sized projects had been completed. The total generated power is estimated at 382 MW, which is nearly one third of the power generated in Myanmar. Electric power installation in the last decade is shown in Table 4.11.

Table 4.10    Production of fish and prawns by nature of catch

(Thousand viss)

Source: Department of Fisheries

¹ “Flood fisheries” has included lease fisheries and open fisheries since 1994/95.

² “Onshore fishing” has included inshore and offshore fishing since 1994/95.

Table 4.11    Electric power installation by type and location

(Megawatt)

Source: Myanmar Electric Power Enterprise.

For tourism development, water-based transport, water sources and water supply systems are important items. The planning of hotels and integrated resorts includes:

• Protection of water sources;
• assurance of supply from the sources; and
• appropriate treatment of water from the sources, careful maintenance of water storage facilities, selection of sources well away from waste discharge and built-up areas.

Conservation does not only protect nature, but also is important for economic development. In Myanmar, tourism has become a vital sector for economic development and the number of visitors is increasing yearly, as shown in Tables 4.12 and 4.13.

Table 4.12    Overseas visitors

Source: Immigration and National Registration Department.

¹ Visitors with tourist visa only.
² Includes visitors with entry visa, business visa and multiple-journey visa.

Table 4.13    Hotels, motels and inns/guesthouses by type of ownership

Source: Directorate of Hotels and Tourism.

Various ecotourism sites have been defined in conjunction with the Forest Department. There are some 34 sanctuaries for wildlife species, 17 of which were enlarged in the last ten years.

3. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: POLICIES AND EMERGING ISSUES

3.1 National policy on water resources management

The main policies on water and water resources aim to increase water use efficiency and to ensure
environmental sustainability. Coordination systems will be established among the water and water resource subsectors. Water resource development projects and water resource management plans will be coordinated with land and forest management plans. The environmental impact of implementing plans will be assessed. Public involvement in the management, development and protection of water and water resources will be promoted.

Each subsector will encourage direct private and foreign investment to reduce demand on limited public funds and state budget. In the case of the state budget, the source of funds for operation and maintenance and level of contribution by beneficiaries to the projects will be clearly identified. Water allocation plans will take into account domestic uses, cultural and social activities, environmental protection, transportation and existing water users. The plans will also link with land and forest use management plans.

To improve data and information, collection methods, data analysis, exchange and management will strive for accuracy and reliability. All relevant institutions, capacity building efforts and public participation will be strengthened, with special emphasis on women. To ensure ecological balance and environmental stability in watershed areas, soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity and the environment will be protected.

The National Health Committee, a high-level policymaking body for health, has laid down the following policies with a direct bearing on the water sector: `to intensify and expand environmental health activities including the prevention and control of air and water pollution' and `to foresee any emerging health problem that poses a threat to the health and well-being of the people of Myanmar, so that preventive and curative measures can be initiated'. The mitigation of arsenic in water is in progress.

Based on the National Policy for Rural Development, the Rural Health Development Plan was formulated under the Ministry of Health. It includes water quality surveillance and control and communication for behavioural change.

3.2 Water-related national policies for economic development

In 1988 the then State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) ended the socialist economic system and introduced a market-oriented economy. The government laid down four economic objectives to improve the country's economy:

1. Development of agriculture as the economic base and for all-round development of the economy;
2. proper evolution of the market-oriented economic system;
3. development of the economy through technical know-how and financial investment from sources within the country and abroad; and
4. the initiative to shape the national economy must be kept in the hands of the state and the nation's peoples.

According to these objectives entrepreneurs are encouraged to participate in almost all economic fields, including agriculture, livestock, fishery and forestry.

The fishery sector has been charged not only to play a vital role in the current economic development plan, but also to conserve and optimize the use of resources in a sustainable manner for future generations.

The government adopted the Myanmar National Environment Policy in 1994 to establish sound management and conserve the environment. It says: `The wealth of a nation is its people, its cultural heritage, its environment and its natural resources. It is the responsibility of the state and every citizen to preserve its natural resources in the interest of present and future generations. Environmental protection should always be the primary objective in seeking development.'

3.3 Status of water resources development in Myanmar

The development of water resources plays a major role in agricultural development. Waterworks for irrigation existed in Burma before the Bagan era and successive monarchs protected and maintained irrigation facilities. Before independence, from 1902 to 1906, the crib diversion weirs established by the Burmese kings were replaced by the British colonial administration with more stable, permanent concrete diversion weirs. However, the diversion weirs were functional only when the feeder rivers were in full flow, thereby warranting irrigation for only one crop.

The types and number of irrigation facilities, established by the Myanmar kings, together with those constructed before independence, and maintained by the Irrigation Department, are shown in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14    Pre-independence irrigation facilities

A five-year agriculture development programme was formulated to irrigate more than 200 000 ha annually by building dams and weirs and installing pumps. The introduction of a system of regulating dams according to the gradient of the Ayeyarwaddy river in order to increase the efficiency of water resources development and management has been under consideration for some time.

The tempo of irrigation works continued after independence. Works undertaken since independence are shown in Table 4.15.

Table 4.15   Post-independence irrigation facilities

Efforts have been made to balance development. Irrigation works and river water pumping systems have been installed without creating any problems related to the adequacy of water supply to downstream areas or in terms of navigation or ecological sustainability.

In Myanmar, rural water supply activities were started in 1952 to provide safe and clean drinking water and to implement environmental sanitation works for rural production. Up to 1977 they were carried out with the government's own resources. Since 1978, rural water supply and sanitation projects have been assisted by multilateral and bilateral donors. Up to the end of August 1995, the government implemented various rural water supply activities for some 12.5 million people. A total of 35 hydropower stations have been completed with total capacity of 382.04 MW (about one percent of the total hydropower potential), as shown in Table 4.16.

Table 4.16    Completed hydropower stations

3.4 Overview of water resources and of current water resources management activities

a. Water resources and current water resources management activities

Myanmar is endowed with abundant water resources, with available yearly surface and ground water of about 1 082 km³ and 495 km³ respectively. The bulk of the water resources is used for agriculture (about 91 percent of total consumption). Numerous irrigation facilities have been implemented during the present decade for irrigation and water supply to develop rural and urban areas. Several government agencies and departments are engaged independently in using both surface and ground water, but the extent and type of water use differ.

Long taken for granted, water must be seen as a finite resource that has to be used rationally. As population and economic activities grow, the water demand increases rapidly. Up to now, there have been no water-sharing policies and riparian rights and environmental impact assessment have not been defined in the country.

The rising water requirements of the country's rapidly expanding urban and industrial centres and the contamination by pollutants from industrial, municipal and agricultural effluents (the latter associated with the uncontrolled use of pesticides and fertilizers) have lead to the decreasing availability of freshwater. Moreover, salinity intrusion has been reported in the inland areas along the tidal reaches of the Ayeyarwaddy river system, and monitoring of the Ayeyarwaddy in the dry zone shows excessive pollution, particularly in summer. All of this calls for the integrated management and planning of water resources and higher investment in water conservation and resources protection, as well as the promotion of healthy behaviour among users.

Up to February 2003, Myanmar had built 280 dams and reservoirs, 127 of which were operational, with plans for protection and restoration of the watersheds by the Ministry of Forestry. Furthermore,
68 dams and reservoirs had established 163 823 ha of watershed plantation up to 2002.

The rapid construction of irrigation facilities such as dams, reservoirs, weirs and river pumping stations may lead to contamination and depletion of water resources rapidly.

As the water supply agencies established various facilities according to their own policies and practices and as they were as a result uncoordinated, in 1990 the government established the National Commission for Environ­mental Affairs, comprising all concerned departments' representatives, to offer systematic guidance in environmental management. Water conservation was seen as a key area to be addressed and laws and regulations to prevent water-related environmental degradation were seen as being essential.

With the increase of population and a greater need for water for economic activities, there is increasing pressure on groundwater extraction. Control and management of groundwater is therefore necessary. Unrestricted groundwater extraction could result in land subsidence and saltwater intrusion. Besides, in order to ensure the recharge of groundwater aquifers, surface water has to be managed along with groundwater in an integrated way.

Traditional water management systems can no longer meet the requirements of the market economy. Thus, the water management system must be reformed soon, and the function of the management agency strengthened. An important problem for water resource planning is insufficient information and data on watershed resources.

b. Law and administration

The legal enactments concerning water resources development in Myanmar are found either in special laws relating to one or more uses of water or in other acts, sections of which relate to specific aspects of water use. The water laws or other provisions are shown in Annex 4.1.

However, there is a need to take action to make polluters pay in both the water and the environment sectors.

c. Technical measures for water conservation

Water supply development is essential in Myanmar and the sustainability of water resources is imperative for perpetual usage. Thus, water conservation through proper management and planning is vital. The most widely accepted mechanism for water conservation is demand management, which is achieved through a combination of economic and non-economic means. Chief among economic measures is water pricing, including reduction and elimination of direct or indirect subsidies, based on the belief that water is an economic good whose value should be determined by market mechanisms. Other measures such as the use of water-saving devices, the enhancement of irrigation efficiency and watershed management are also needed. Installation of water-saving devices such as flow regulating valves and self-closing valves at public buildings should be encouraged. An awareness campaign on water conservation should be given priority.

d. Use of water-saving devices

Water-saving devices are an essential element of managing water demand and should be part of a large water conservation strategy of economic benefit to users. The use of sprinkle and drip irrigation systems is being introduced in some government-owned farms for frugal water consumption. However, due to its technical complexity and the high investment required, farmers are still reluctant to use such
a technology. Skills-based training and technology transfer on water saving should be introduced in the formal and informal education sector.

e. Use of water-pricing policies

Water pricing plays an important part in the management of urban and rural water supply systems; some data on water pricing is shown in Annex 4.2. Existing pricing systems need to be reviewed with the help of user communities.

Taxing water providers, users and polluters, with exemptions for the needy on social (e.g. health and education) grounds should be established.

f. Reuse of water

The use of wastewater in irrigation is rarely practised in some parts of the country. Wastewater, though degraded, can be suitable for irrigated agriculture. For example, the Yayni Paper Mill is using wastewater for irrigation purposes after treating the effluent through oxidation ponds, and most newly constructed industries are following suit. So far, there has been no significant negative impact in using wastewater for irrigation purposes, but research and studies in that area are needed.

g. Enhancement of water supply efficiency

Improvement of water use efficiency is very important for water conservation in the irrigation sector to reduce both water consumption and pollutant discharge by enterprises (point sources) and farmland (non-point source).

h. Improvement of urban water supply efficiency

The Yangon City Development Committee has enacted Law No. 6/99 to improve water distribution systems, including leak detection, construction, repair and maintenance of city water mains, charges in plumbing codes and prosecution of illegal connections.

In order to improve the efficiency of the urban water supply system both in design and in implementation, a code of practice for water service and drainage that is suitable and applicable for Myanmar should be established and enacted. Capacity building of personnel at various levels is also essential.

i. Improvement of irrigation efficiency

Some effective measures have been taken to save agricultural water, such as adjustment of cropping patterns, water supply scheduling, improvement of irrigation facilities and management, land levelling, water pricing, canal lining, and initiation of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems. Rehabilitation works for existing irrigation facilities have been carried out for efficient use of water instead of building new structures. Programmes that promote irrigation efficiency directly equate increased efficiency with savings for farmers (reduced energy, labour or cost) or improved productivity.

Under the technical cooperation programme between JICA and the Irrigation Department, Irrigation Technology Centre Project Phase II has been implemented since April 1999 to upgrade irrigation water management and efficiency.

j. Water quality protection and standards

The main sources of deteriorating water quality are sewage, solid waste, industrial waste and agrochemical waste. Water conservation through water quality protection is undertaken by the relevant city development committees. Actually, the control of wastewater is both a municipal and an industrial problem. In cities undergoing rapid industrialization, the municipal treatment issue is complicated by the addition of untreated or semi-treated industrial discharges into the municipal sewage system, thus
a stricter law to control water quality should be imposed. In the agricultural sector, the government has banned the import of some toxic pesticides and encourages the use of conventional bio-fertilizer as
a substitute for chemical fertilizer to mitigate water quality deterioration. At present, control of water quality for various purposes is based on the WHO standards. Deforestation in catchment areas and around water sources causes a serious problem of degradation in water quality and quantity. The resulting topsoil loss and land degradation by gully and sheet erosion leads to excessive levels of turbidity in incoming water and to offsite ecological and physical impact from deposition in rivers and lakebeds. The silt and clay fractions, which carry absorbed chemicals, are transported by the sediments into the aquatic system.

In order to control the quality of water resources the following standards should be established:

• Effluent quality standard of domestic wastewater discharged onto the landmass or into water bodies.
• Effluent quality standard of industrial wastewater discharged onto the landmass and into water bodies.
• Quality standard of receiving landmass.
• Quality standard of receiving water bodies.

The Ministry of Health has organized a forum of experts on water quality issues. The WHO standards were adopted as a reference. Water quality control measures are implemented case by case, especially for bottled drinking water production. Arsenic detection and other parameters have been tested in collaboration with Water Resources Utilization Department, Department of Development Affairs, and UNICEF.

The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology is also monitoring the water quality of the main rivers yearly.

k. Public awareness of water use efficiency and conservation

Public awareness through community involvement is a key issue on the subject of water use efficiency and conservation. Social development and public education and information programmes lead to an increasingly knowledgeable public that wants to be involved in government decision making.

Training in nurturing forests, producing firewood substitutes and distributing leaflets on reforestation technology are provided to educate the local people in forest conservation practices. The government has designated July as the Month of Planting Trees for communities countrywide. It launched an annual National Sanitation Week annually in 1998 and in 2001 a World Water Day to generate public awareness of water and environmental conservation.

The Central Health Education Bureau and the Environmental Sanitation Division of the Ministry of Health, Information and Public Relations Department, UN agencies such as UNICEF, UNDP, UNCHS, and NGOs such as Save the Children Fund (UK) and Bridge Asia Japan have been conducting several kinds of educational programmes on health, water and sanitation.

Social mobilization for safe water along with sanitation and hygiene, in addition to community-based health promotion on water supply and sanitation, has covered two thirds of the townships countrywide in the past twenty years. Despite such efforts, it is very hard to change deeply rooted behaviours related to water. Water contamination has resulted in several disease outbreaks. The presence of arsenic, fluoride and other chemicals in groundwater reduces the availability of safe water.

l. Institutional arrangements in the water sector

A number of agencies are responsible for implementing water supply and sanitation schemes. Public Works `has its own training school where engineers and other personnel participating in the water supply and sanitation sector are trained. The school undertakes seminars or workshops and refresher and other courses related to the water supply and sanitation sector. Although it has no code of practice of its own, a code of practice for water services and drainage is under review'. However, the establishment of a department with full responsibility for water supply would facilitate the provision of safe drinking water to the whole population. Water supply and sanitation should generally go together. Coordination mechanisms among the various agencies should be strengthened for effective management of the programme.

The various agencies and departments involved in the water use sector are listed in Annex 4.3, along with a list of agencies with water-related activities.

3.5 Emerging and persisting issues and trends in water resources management in the country

Given the steady growth of the population, water resources management will remain critical. From 1988 up to March 2003, 144 dams and sluice gates have been constructed countrywide, servicing some two million acres (0.81 million ha) of farmland. The government has formulated a 30-year plan of promotion of agriculture and irrigation.

The provision of agricultural water is the first priority in water resources management for the country now and in the foreseeable future. Installed hydropower capacity (382 MW over 382 sites) is less than one percent of the estimated potential. Thus, the provision of water for hydropower generation may be the second priority in water resources management.

The provision of water for industrial and domestic uses by comparison is small (three percent and about seven percent, respectively). There is no official water allocation for navigation and other uses at present.

Due to the construction of dams, water-logging problems are encountered in some irrigated areas in both upper and lower Myanmar. There are also some salinization problems in the central dry zone, where water of poor quality is used for domestic or agricultural purposes. An environmental impact assessment is necessary for all water resources development and management works to be sustainable. Health or ecological hazards resulting from water resources development could be avoided by proper planning with vision.

4. NATIONAL WATER VISION

4.1 Factors in the formulation of the national water vision

Currently, Myanmar can be identified as a low water stress country. There are no serious conflicts
related to the allocation of water to different sectors for their respective uses, but in the near future it might be necessary to arbitrate the sharing of water for conservation, domestic use, hydropower, irrigation water and inland water transportation. It might also be necessary to limit the extracting of water from the lower reach of river basins to protect against saltwater intrusion from the sea. Therefore short-term and long-term plans are needed to legislate the sharing of water between users and to introduce modern technology to exploit and manage water resources and their management with the help of international agencies. Information and data sharing among the different sectors is essential if a combined database is to be established.

Community involvement along with the involvement of the Ministry of Health has been part of
Myanmar's national water vision process since its inception.

4.2 Vision for poverty reduction

a. National policy on poverty eradication

Myanmar is gradually shifting from subsistence farming to a more diversified economy. However, poverty is still widespread. More than 65 percent of the population lives in rural areas, forming large agricultural communities. Poverty eradication is the first priority of the economic policy agenda and it will be speeded up by broad-based socio-economic progress.

b. Vision for poverty reduction

There is growing agreement worldwide that water and water services are essential because they touch on almost all millennium development goals. Investment in water infrastructure to protect against droughts and floods, produce renewable energy and provide water supply to cities and rural areas, and water to grow food is basic for economic growth and poverty reduction in Myanmar. The following are the vision components for poverty reduction:

1. Enhancing the endowment of productive assets for local communities;
2. ensuring clear benefits for local communities from infrastructure development schemes; and
3. creating income-generating opportunities for local communities.

c. Roles of water resources management and poverty reduction

In Myanmar, the forest cover has been steadily declining during the past thirty years of economic growth. The rivers are still there, but first or second order streams are harnessed with irrigation facilities such as dams, which are taxed by the demand for irrigation and hydropower production. Water resources management seeks to maintain clean water, healthy soils, stable climate, timber, fish and other natural products, and recreation. Most of the watershed areas are protected, such as reserved forests, national park or wild life sanctuaries, although in many cases funds and staff are not readily available to ensure management in support of the stated goals.

Water resources management and development is central to responsible growth and poverty reduction and is, therefore, of central importance to the local community.

d. Vision on water resources management for poverty reduction

A series of national protected areas and compatible use areas could be developed to ensure a steady supply of income through tourism, sustainable resource extraction, and well functioning development projects for local communities. The water resources projects are clearly necessary for the development of the national economy and the communities. In the case of major water resources projects, impact should be assessed for the entire ecosystem being affected to ensure that essential ecological processes are not lost. Guidance on the management of increased opportunities for resource extraction should also be provided. Impact should be comprehensively assessed during the planning and design process. Problems can be avoided in the future if assessments are carried out comprehensively rather than at
a narrow project level.

There are several areas where forests, rivers and wetlands are still virtually pristine. However, many or most of these areas are in the path of proposed water resources projects. The nation should take
a proactive approach to maintain these valuable areas by identifying biodiversity hotspots and instituting appropriate resource management measures together with development decision-making.

The vast forests and rivers of the country have provided a home to people for millennia and these people have carried out burning and grazing in these forests to create the ecosystems we see today. Now, as populations are expanding and technological opportunities are more widespread, new ways for local inhabitants to benefit from their resources need to be found. This is especially the case in protected areas where these benefits need to come from rule-based, non-destructive and sustainable extractive methods such as ecotourism, sustainable forestry and bio-prospecting that are appropriate to the site. For this to happen, the nation will need to design programmes in such a way as to ensure that benefits accrue to communities in the vicinity of protected areas.

The vision on water resources management for poverty reduction includes the following:

1. Expanding the identification of biodiversity hotspots and preparing protection strategies for them;
2. practising water resources management in such a way as to ensure that benefits accrue to communities in the vicinity of protected areas;
3. providing the basis for overall regional development and associated economic opportunities for the poor; and
4. providing targeted benefits to the poor who are resettled or otherwise affected by the project or who live in the vicinity of the project, and generate revenues that are shared in a way that directly benefits poor people.

4.3 Vision for economic development

The sustainability of fresh water resources is a vital requirement for human survival and essential for the development of agriculture, industry and other economic activities. With an increasing population and
a growing need for water for economic activities, there is increasing pressure on water resources from various quarters. Programmes need to be set up to maintain existing water sources and promote the activities of management and coordination.

As the agricultural sector contributes the major portion of the country's GDP, water resources management is vital for the development of the national economy.

In the agricultural sector, the government has endeavoured to replace conventional methods with modern agricultural methods. As cultivation changes from single to multiple cropping patterns, the role of irrigation becomes vital not only for supplying sufficient water for cultivation, but also for extending farmlands and boosting crop yields.

Table 4.17 shows the increase in irrigated area in Myanmar from 1980/81 to 2000/01.

Since Myanmar is rich in water resources and given the present rate of water utilization, the country could share its water resources by selling power and distributing drinking water if there is a consensus for establishing a global or regional water partnership.

At present, less than ten percent of total water resources are being utilized and about 20 percent of the total cultivated land is now provided with irrigation facilities; 80 percent of the cultivated area is still subject to unreliable and insufficient rainfall. Even though the country is naturally endowed with abundant water resources, there is an urgent need to establish water conservation with appropriate management and planning practices given the rapid socio-economic development of the country. Annual surface and ground water potentials are shown in Table 4.18.

Table 4.17    Increase in irrigated area

Source: Settlement and Land Records Department.

Table 4.18    Annual surface and groundwater potential in Myanmar

4.4 Statement of the national water vision

Water is a fundamental natural resource and there has been growing recognition that its use and management must be improved if a water crisis is to be avoided. The role of water in contributing to alleviating poverty, securing livelihoods, strengthening the economy and sustaining environmental and ecological systems is central to all development goals.

Based on the vision for Southeast Asia prepared under the guidance of the World Commission for Water in the 21^st century and an initiative of the World Water Council, the National Water Vision has been formulated as follows:

`By the year 2030, the country will have attained sustainability of water resources to ensure sufficient water quantity of acceptable quality to meet the needs of the people of the country in terms of health, food security, economy and the environment.'

5. FRAMEWORK OF NATIONAL WATER VISION TO ACTION

The national water vision starts with the concept of the integrated and sustainable use of water
resources (of both surface and ground origins) being protected by precautionary measures from unexpected harms and disturbances generated by water.

Soon after the proposed National Water Vision of Myanmar is approved and accepted, it is of prime importance to proceed by officially establishing the national water commission that can function as the summit organization, responsible for the overall management of water resources in Myanmar.

5.1 Targets in economic development

At the moment, about 2.0 million ha of land is irrigated, or 20 percent of the cultivated area. The target is to extend the irrigated area by 1.3 million ha by 2005. For non consumptive use and for hydropower generation, it is planned to develop 1 863.2 MW by 2005 by implementing 12 projects (Table 4.19).

Table 4.19    List of hydropower and thermal power projects of the first five-year plan

Several departments and agencies are involved in water management. Coordination and collaboration among them is essential for policymaking, planning, amendment of existing laws and regulations and for issuing new laws relevant to water resources. Hence, a high-level body such as a national water commission should be established as soon as possible.

5.2 Key objectives and targets of the vision

The key objectives of the vision are as follows:

1. To ensure access to water for the people of Myanmar: All have access to safe, adequate and affordable water supply, hygiene and sanitation.
2. To provide water for food and rural development: Provision of sufficient water that will ensure national food security and promote rural development.
3. To provide water for economic development: Provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain economic growth within the context of a knowledge-based economy.
4. To protect water for the environment: Protection of the water environment to preserve water resources (both surface and groundwater) and natural flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural heritage, and mitigation of water-related hazards.

Other objectives are:

• To promote community participation and to extend the formation of water user associations. To educate water users for effective use of water resources.
• To develop capacity building for the efficient use of water and the sustainability of water resources.

The target for 2030 is for the government and the private sector to increase the irrigated area by
3.7 million ha. Total consumption of water by 2030 should be 74.18 million m³ , including industrial
use and domestic use for urban and rural areas. The target for hydropower generation is 22 896 MW by 2030.

Pump irrigation projects in the thirty-year master plan for promoting the irrigation water supply sector are shown in Table 4.20.

All villages will have access to safe and sufficient potable water in 2009/10.

Table 4.20    River water pumping irrigation projects in thirty-year master plan

5.3 Key components of the vision

The key components of the vision are as follows:

1. Water for the people of Myanmar: All have access to safe, adequate and affordable water.
2. Water for food and rural development: Provision of sufficient water that will ensure national food security and promote rural development.
3. Water for economic development: Provision of sufficient water to spur and sustain economic growth within the context of a knowledge-based economy.
4. Water for the environment: protection of the water environment to preserve water resources (both surface and ground water) and natural flow regime, biodiversity and cultural heritage, and mitigation of water hazards.
5. Detailed survey of resources and demand, formulation of long-term plan and implementation, identifying needs in terms of method and technology.

5.4 Vision for basin management

As several agencies are involved in water resources management, the sector suffers from jurisdictional conflicts and coordination problems. An integrated planning and management system is required to effectively manage the water resources.

The programme areas for basin management should reflect the concepts mentioned in Myanmar
Agenda 21, which would encourage sustainable development. They are:

1. Strengthening integrated water resources policy, planning and management systems;
2. improving water supply and environmental sanitation; and
3. improving management of the aquatic ecosystem including wetlands.

a. Changes in basin management practices

Water resources facilities countrywide are developed in accordance with the systematic work programmes included in the master plan. All water resources development projects in Myanmar are carried out with sustainable ways and means and any side effect or lateral impact to the environment is ignored.

Moreover, most water-impounding facilities are sited on tributaries and streamlets of main river systems and are no hindrance to the main river flow. Thus, the impact of dams on the environment is negligible. To ensure the sustainability of the country's water resources, forests and other vegetal covers should be conserved and safeguarded against any harm.

Shifting cultivation and slash-and-burn practices often result in forest loss and may cause soil erosion and degradation, deforestation and rapid siltation of reservoirs, etc. The Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is currently introducing effective hillside farming techniques such as contour planting and sloping agriculture practices. Furthermore, in collaboration with the Forest Department, the Irrigation Department is participating in the conservation of forests, the prevention of deforestation and the creation of forest plantations in the watersheds of important reservoirs throughout the country. Proper emphasis should be placed on watershed management activities to enhance soil and water conservation.

b. Selection of a pilot basin for integrated water resources management

Out of the eight main river basins, the Sittoung River basin should be selected as pilot river basin, based on the following criteria and prevailing conditions:

1. Accessibility of the area — good transport and telecommunication links from important towns, especially the capital;
2. the availability of raw or processed climatic and hydrological data at several locations within the river basin — data should cover a sufficient period and be of reliable quality;
3. the presence of completed and ongoing multipurpose water resources projects within the river basin — important stations such as RS and GIS should be installed at these locations so that reliable data can be obtained;
4. the presence of reserved forests, a sanctuary, wetland and parks within the river basin; and
5. the whole river basin is situated within the country.

c. Role of water resources management in basin management

Many weirs and dams have been built throughout the country. Some of the dams provide
hydroelectricity to the nation. To maintain the design lifespan of these dams, prudent and intensive management of the water resources is required. Sustainable development of agriculture and sustainable forest management depend on the country's environmental and ecological stability, which is influenced by how well water resources are managed. With the aim of ensuring sustainability of water resources of the country, forests are well conserved and safeguarded. They cover 50 percent of the territory and will continue to fulfil human needs.

The dry zone in central Myanmar is the most critical region in terms of degradation of water and land resources, because of continued deforestation compounded by severe climatic conditions. In recent years a special programme has been launched by the Dry Zone Greening Department for greening
13 districts in the central dry zone affecting 12 percent of the dry area and 20 percent of the population.

d. Vision on water resources management for basin management

It is obvious that there exists a strong correlation between water resources management and basin management. For water resources management, the development of a system and framework for environment impact assessment is a vital and necessary tool for integrating the environment and development. Such an assessment should be carried out not only for projects funded by international institutions, but also for local multipurpose projects.

6. FORMULATION OF WATER VISION TO ACTION

On the basis of the experiences related to the establishment of the framework for action in association
with the Southeast Asia Technical Advisory Committee of the Global Water Partnership as well as the detailed preparation of the working group established under the leadership of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, four themes were adopted for detailed study of priority elements and activities required for the realization of the Myanmar National Water Vision:

• Water for people: Poverty reduction and rural development.
• Water for economic development and nature conservation.
• Pilot river basin management.
• Establishment of a framework to turn the national water vision into reality.

These themes were adopted for detailed discussion by four working groups of the round-table workshop on the formulation of the national water vision to action, jointly organized by the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with UNESCAP and FAO in Yangon on 25-26 June 2003. The workshop was attended by 33 senior officials, and the results of the discussions are summarized below.

6.1 Water for the people: poverty reduction and rural development

6.1.1 Priority objectives, issues, actors and strategic approaches

Agriculture, including livestock, fishery and forestry, is the most important sector of the national economy. Agriculture and rural poverty are closely linked. Development of the agriculture sector is the key factor in poverty reduction, and water is the most fundamental requirement for agricultural development.

1. Priority objectives

Members of the working group discussed many topics and basic concepts reflecting the importance of water resources management for poverty reduction. After discussion and identification, the following priority objectives for water resources management for poverty reduction were selected for further discussion:

1. To improve the quality of life of the people by developing and using the productive resources and social investment.
2. To provide water resources for the rural population ensuring an adequate quantity and appropriate quality for sustainable development.
3. To protect the water environment so as to preserve water resources (surface and groundwater) and natural flow regimes, biodiversity and cultural heritage, and to mitigate water related hazards.

2. Priority issues

With respect to the first objective, the following issues were identified as priority issues requiring special attention: Inadequate investment, inadequate technical know-how and inadequate infrastructure.

Regarding the provision of an adequate amount of safe water, the priority issues include: Inadequate water supply infrastructure, lack of public awareness, and lack of water quality surveillance and monitoring system.

Concerning the protection of water resources, the working group proposed the following priority issues: Lack of public awareness, improper water resources management and lack of effective participation of stakeholders.

3. Principal actors

The principal actors responsible for each of the above-mentioned issues would include:

1. Department of Agriculture Planning, Irrigation Department, Myanmar Agriculture Services.
2. Department of Health, Ministry of Industry, General Administration Department.
3. Irrigation Department, Department for Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs.
4. Irrigation Department, Water Resources Utilization Department, General Administration Department.
5. Department of Health, Department of Health Planning, Department of Development Affairs; General Administration Department, Ministry of Industry.
6. Irrigation Department, Water Resources Utilization Department, General Administration Department, Ministry for the Progress of Border Areas and National Races, and Development Affairs.
7. Irrigation Department, Water Resources Utilization Department.
8. Ministry of Industry, General Administration Department, Yangon City Development Committee, Mandalay City Development Committee, Department of Development Affairs.
9. Irrigation Department, Water Resources Utilization Department, Department of the Progress of Border Areas and National Races, Department of Development Affairs.

From the nine principal actors mentioned above, the working group identified the Irrigation Department, the Water Resources Utilization Department and the Department of Development Affairs as the three key agencies in the achievement of the objectives identified earlier.

4. Possible strategic approaches

Possible strategic approaches recommended under water resources management for poverty reduction would include the following:

1. Extension of irrigated land;
2. proper operation and maintenance of existing irrigation facilities;
3. improvement of technology (tillage, seeds, mechanization etc.);
4. improvement of the economies of rural areas;
5. facilitation and formulation of related laws and regulations;
6. community participation and involvement; and
7. using an integrated approach.

6.1.2 Framework of a strategic plan

The working group identified the three top indicators as income generation, water consumption, and water conservation through water quality.

Regarding income generation, it was proposed that attempts be made to reach 1 million Kyat per household by 2005 through various economic measures, including an increase of irrigated area from
2 million ha in 2000 to 2.45 million ha in 2005 and an increase in yield from 66 baskets/acre to
100 baskets/acre in 2005. Implementation agencies: Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Industry.

In addition, promotion of model villages with safe and adequate water supply will be carried out in order to reach 65 000 villages by 2030. Water quality monitoring and surveillance systems will be established to cover all townships from the current level of 200 townships. Responsible agencies: Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Home Affairs.

Concerning water conservation, the working group proposed the establishment of a national water commission by 2005 to unify all laws and regulations related to water resources utilization and protection and to improve law enforcement. Responsible agencies: Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Home Affairs, Department of Development Affairs, Ministry of Industry.

6.1.3 Priority action programme

1. Establish model villages;
2. increase yield and quality; and
3. establish a water quality monitoring and surveillance programme.

6.1.4 Expected role of the national water commission

1. Coordination of water-related departments and agencies;
2. mobilization of funds for water resource development programmes;
3. development and enforcement of water and wastewater standards;
4. training programmes for efficient and effective water use to generate income — initiation of regulations and rules for user pay programmes; and
5. initiation of workshops related to water users at village level.

6.2 Water for nature and economic development

6.2.1 Priority objectives, issues and strategic approaches

The working group included representatives from the following national agencies: Department of Fisheries, Department of Planning, Department of Population, National Commission for Environmental Affairs of Myanmar, Central Statistical Organization, Foreign Economic Relationship Department, Directorate of Hotel and Tourism, Office of the Attorney, Department of Agricultural Planning.

1. Priority objectives

The working group considered different opportunities, the rich resources and strategic geographical location of the country and recommended the following priority objectives for economic development and nature conservation:

1. To increase per capita incomes and link nature conservation with potential economic activities such as ecotourism, hydropower and fisheries.
2. To strengthen private and public participation in economic development activities.

2. Priority issues

The main obstacles to increasing per capita income include: Insufficient capital investment and advanced technical know-how and lack of access to the international market.

The key issues to link nature conservation with potential economic activities would include: Lack of public awareness, insufficient financial resources, and weakness of conservation activities.

The priority issues that need to be tackled in order to strengthen private and public participation in economic development activities would include: Lack of public-sector participation, weakness in information and education programmes, and low incentives for private-sector participation.

3. Possible strategic approaches

1. Identify and formulate feasible projects and negotiate with financial institutions for loans and grants;
2. create a conducive investment environment to attract foreign direct earnings;
3. identify potential ecotourism sites and coordinate integration of activities;
4. foster public awareness and set up an educational programme for nature conservation; and
5. develop a market information system and reinforce existing trade laws and regulations.

6.2.2 Framework of a strategic plan

1. a. Water-related indicators and targets

• National GDP and growth rate;
• income from tourism;
• multipurpose dam projects; and
• ratio of water-related sector to GDP.

2. Monitoring Mechanisms

Monitoring mechanisms should cover the following:

• Environmental conservation;
• effectiveness and efficiency of activities; and
• education, communication and information.

3. Target and time frame

Projects and implementation programmes have been set up in line with national planning.

• To extend irrigated area by 3.7 million ha by 2030.
• To construct up to 191 irrigation projects by 2025 and 275 by 2030.
• To develop up to 1 863 MW of hydropower generation by 2005 and 23 000 MW by 2030.
• To increase fishery products by up to 1.6 million metric tonnes.

4. Priority activities

• Extension of irrigated land;
• technological upgrade;
• timely implementation of target projects;
• adequate funding;
• coordination and collaboration among related agencies; and
• extension of trading.

6.2.3 Role of the national water commission

The working group proposed to establish the national water commission with the following roles:

1. Formulation of policy on water resources management;
2. formulation and implementation of the master plan for the water vision;
3. provision of guidelines on pollution control and conservation; and
4. fundraising.

The proposed coordination organization would undertake the key coordinating functions in water resources management, including distribution of works among agencies, and environmental conservation. The principal activities would include the following:

1. Approval for implementing water-related projects;
2. decision making for sharing of water;
3. issuance and amendment of laws and regulations for river systems;
4. issuance and amendment of laws for water pollution control;
5. solving problems of water sharing in border rivers;
6. international communication; and
7. water taxation.

6.3 Pilot river basin management

6.3.1 Priority objectives, issues and strategic approaches

1. Priority objectives

The working group identified 13 objectives and after thorough discussion recommended the following priority objectives for Strategic Planning and Management exercises:

1. Mitigate floods for better socio-economic conditions in the basin;
2. enhance economic development through increased irrigated area;
3. promote industrial development; and
4. develop the management of the Sittoung River basin as a river basin management model for Myanmar.

2. Priority issues

The priority needs for flood mitigation were discussed and the following issues were recommended for urgent consideration:

1. Basin management authority;
2. construction of training works, including flood storage in the Sittoung river basin;
3. collection and dissemination of information; and
4. early flood warning system.

To increase the irrigated area, the working group proposed to focus on the following priority issues:

1. The mobilization of technical and financial support;
2. the supply of inputs to farmers; and
3. the mobilization of stakeholders.

For economic development, the following issues were identified as priorities:

1. The need to improve energy availability;
2. the need to enhance investments; and
3. the promotion of suitable types of industries.

3. Strategic approaches

In order to achieve the above mentioned priority objectives, the working group identified six strategic components to be included in the strategic plan of the pilot river basin:

1. Data collection/dissemination and river basin training activities: To issue forecasts and warnings, and to upgrade information and media dissemination for decision making using information and communication technology, including remote sensing and geographical information systems.
2. Establishment of the river basin management committee: To coordinate activities and promote cooperation among all related agencies and local authorities.
3. Improvement of flood plain management: To promote systematic infrastructure development within the basin and promote the use of remote sensing techniques.
4. Extension programme: To build up the institutional capacity of key stakeholders and to undertake a systematic human resources development programme.
5. Promotion of energy management: To initiate a programme on demand management of electricity, develop an energy regulation programme and exploit the hydropower potential of the basin, including promotion of localized power generation facilities.
6. Promotion of industrial development: To explore financial mobilization, promote investment opportunities and enhance transparency of associated returns.

4. Priority action programmes

The action programme for flood mitigation would include establishment of the basin management committee, formulation of a master plan for basin management and promotion of integrated watershed management activities.

The programme to increase irrigated land would include flood plain management activities, such as flood protection structures, introduction of multiple-cropping patterns and construction of pump irrigation, and extension activities, such as diversified crops and model farming.

The programme on economic development would include electricity demand and supply management, including types and sources of energy and expansion of transmission system, and development of hydropower potential.

6.3.2 Framework for a strategic plan

1. Indicators for pilot basin management

The working group identified several indicators and agreed on the following priority indicators to measure the success of the pilot basin management:

1. Reduction in annual flood damage;
2. improvement of living conditions;
3. increased investment; and
4. participation of people in basin management.

2. Top priority activities

1. Establishment of a basin management committee; and
2. formulation of a master plan.

6.3.3 Roles of the national water commission

The working group recommended the following roles for the national water commission in relation to the pilot basin management:

1. To establish policies on sharing water resources with other river basins.
2. To explore external financial assistance.
3. To seek technical know-how.
4. To assign duties and functions among water-related agencies.
5. To act as the national coordinator on international rivers.

In this connection, it was expected that the national water commission would carry out the following activities:

1. Undertake regular coordination and organize cooperation meetings;
2. establish e-government activities; and
3. promote exchange of know-how and experience.

6.4 Framework to turn the national water vision into reality

6.4.1 Priority objectives, issues and strategic approaches

1. Priority objectives

In recognizing the importance of acceptance of the national water vision by all key stakeholders and the creation of an effective mechanism to promote, implement and monitor priority activities to turn the national water vision into reality, the working group recommended the following priority objectives:

1. To establish a national water commission.
2. To provide safe and adequate water to the public as the foundation for water resources management.
3. To ensure adequate availability of water for development.

2. Key conditions

1. Key conditions in the establishment of an effective national water commission would include the commitment of the government and acceptance by the agencies concerned.
2. Key conditions to the provision of safe and adequate water to the public would include reliable accessibility and convenience for the communities, and effective water quality control.
3. Important factors to ensure adequate availability of water for development would include clear action programmes of concerned agencies, and promotion and enforcement of water policies and action programmes for sustainable development.

3. Priority issues

1. National Water Policy;
2. initiative of the government;
3. coordination of agencies concerned;
4. water quality control;
5. public participation;
6. financial support;
7. economic development;
8. integrated activities among the agencies; and
9. water policy and action programmes for sustainability.

4. Possible courses of action

1. By Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and Ministry of Electric Power

1. Provision of a framework for a national water commission; and
2. establishment of a national agency for water resources management.

2. By Ministry of Finance and Revenue

1. Support for water resources projects; and
2. support for operation and maintenance.

3. By Ministry of Planning and Economic Development

1. Long-term planning for economic development; and
2. development of natural resources.

5. Possible strategic approaches

1. Promotion of the national water vision; and
2. establishment of a national water commission.

6.4.2 Framework for a strategic plan

1. Indicators

• Adoption of the national water vision by the government;
• establishment of a national water commission;
• promotion of water resources investment; and
• improvement of community living standards.

2. Mechanisms

• DAP, MOAI: To coordinate the adoption of a national water vision.
• MOAI: To formulate a plan for the establishment of a national water commission and coordinate its activities.
• All the water-related departments and agencies need to carry out planning, prioritization and implementation of water resources projects.
• Information, education and communication through capacity building in cooperation with relevant institutions.

3. Time frame

• For Target 1: The national water vision should be adopted within one year.
• For Target 2: The national water commission should be established soon after adoption of the national water vision.
• For Target 3: Water resources investment projects should be planned with a short term of
  5 years and a long term of 10 years.
• For Target 4: The rural poverty line will be improved in parallel with the implementation of short- and long-term plans.

4. Possible courses of action

         1^st objective

• Coordination of concerned agencies;
• submission of the proposed national water vision to the competent authority; and
• collection of data and information on resources.

         2^nd objective

• Effective utilization of safe water;
• public awareness on education of water related diseases; and
• exploitation of new water resources.

         3^rd objective

• Short-term and long-term master plan(s);
• clear action programmes of concerned agencies; and
• sustainable financial support.

5. Recommended immediate action

• Interim authority should be held by MOAI.
• Interim authority should proceed to promote adoption of the national water vision.
• Interim authority to assign functions and duties to various departments and agencies.

6.4.3 Possible mechanism of the coordination body and priority functions

The working group also reviewed the functions of key agencies, to be coordinated by the proposed national water commission. The key agencies were identified as the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (Department of Agricultural Planning and departments and agencies concerned with water resources), Ministry of Electric Power, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Livestock, Breeding and Fisheries, Ministry of Forestry, Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs, Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Health, private sector and city development committees (Yangon and Mandalay). It was envisaged that they would perform the following functions: formulation of a plan for a national water commission including formulation of proper water policies, authorization of water resources development activities, identification of focal agencies, long-term supply and demand planning and management of effective use of water resources (irrigation, industrial, domestic); formation of integrated water user groups at various levels; establishment of capacity building for human resources in cooperation with international organizations; development of a national water quality standard; water quality surveillance and control; information exchange, education and communication to raise awareness and develop skills related to the national water vision, and water and sanitation for health; and promotion of a national sanitation standard.

All of the above functions should be undertaken by the relevant agencies under the guidance of the proposed national water commission with the following priority activities:

1. Establishment of a national-level commission for water resources management to develop national policies, master plans, legal and market instruments and guidelines;
2. ensure long-term supply and demand planning and effective use of water resources including groundwater resources in a complementary manner and with water quality control; and
3. promote better coordination among water users and the agencies dealing with water resources development, sustainable water supply, capacity building for human resources and environment impact assessment.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS

Working-group members recommended the following actions to indicate a commitment to achieving
the priority objectives of the national water vision.

1. A national-level water authority should be instituted to adopt the policies regarding the control, conservation, development, use and protection of water resources of the country.
2. All existing laws, rules and regulations should be reviewed with a view to enacting a unified water resources law so as to promote a more effective legal framework for coordination and management of water resources.
3. Resources for the development and management of water resources for socio-economic development of the country should be mobilized.
4. An integrated water resources management plan should be formulated to guide and coordinate development activities.
5. Effective measures should be taken on the basis of community participation through educational programmes and support programmes to meet the basic needs of the communities.
6. Specific responsibilities of the focal agencies, especially in developing national water quality standards and control should be clearly identified.

Annex 4.1

Water Laws in Myanmar

(a) For urban water utilization

The Rangoon Water Works Act (1885)

The Burma Municipal Act (1898)

The Burma Canal Act, 1905, as amended by the Burma Act of 1914, 1924, 1928 and 1934

The Burma Embankment Act, 1909, as amended by the Burma Act of 1923 and 1931

The City of Rangoon Municipal Act (1922)

The Underground Water Act (1930), (Burma Act IV 1930) 21 June 1930

The Burma Water Power Rules (1932)

The Rangoon Municipal Act (1941)

Section 114: Water supply

Section 115: General powers for supplying the city with water

Section 116: Power of access to municipal waterworks

Section 117: Prohibition of erection of any building which damages sources of water supply

Section 118: Prohibition of bathing in or polluting water

Section 119: Occupiers of premises to be primarily liable for certain offences against the Act

The City of Yangon Development Law, 14 May 1990 (Law No. 11/90)

(10) The City of Yangon Development Law, 17 December 1999 (Law No. 6/99)

Most of the above laws are related to urban water supply. For groundwater use, the laws are still being processed, and some may introduce new concepts.

(b) For water supply for irrigation

Canal Act, 1905 (Amendment Canal Act in 1998)

Myanmar Embankment Act, 1909 (Amendment Embankment Act in 1998)

Myanmar Irrigation Manual, 1945 (Revised: Edit)

Annex 4.2 

Water pricing in Myanmar

(a) Domestic water supply

Urban water supply: Yangon CDC's current domestic water tariff structure

Rural water supply

(b) Water supply for irrigation

Water Resources Utilization Department's water tariff (per acre)

Irrigation Department's water tariff:
Ks. 10/acre for irrigation and Ks. 5/acre for flood protection

Annex 4.3

Various agencies and departments engaged in water use sector