Commodity reports - Railway sleepers

Types of sleepers
Sleeper market between the two world wars
International market after World War II
Conclusion

It is estimated that there are at present throughout the world about 1,250,000 kilometers of railway track for which approximately 3,000 million sleepers (crossties) are used, 95 percent of them made of wood. Since sleepers are heavy, bulky, and relatively cheap, they do not ordinarily comprise a large portion of the international trade in wood.

This article deals mainly with the present: situation in Europe and in countries of the Near East. Generally speaking, importing countries in this area procure their sleeper supplies from the European and American markets.

Types of sleepers

The term sleepers refers to the rectangular or approximately rectangular cross section supports laid transversely on the railway roadbed to support the rails.

Sleepers used in Europe are almost exclusively of wood and are manufactured either in sawmills or in the forest. Production at the felling site in the forest is gradually declining in importance as a result of the disappearance of skilled labor. Axe-hewn, squared sleepers, which are frequently used in the Americas and other parts of the world, are not produced in Europe.

Sleepers may be made of hardwoods or softwoods, these being used for different purposes and under different conditions. Hardwood sleepers are made chiefly from oak, beech, and hornbeam; softwood sleepers from Scots pine, maritime pine (Pines pinaster), and larch. In Spain, eucalyptus is also used to make sleepers. Sleepers are usually cut from trees of 80 to 120 centimeters in circumference at a height of 1.30 meters from the ground, or from the tops and branches of large trees found in high forest or coppice with standards.

Standard gauge sleepers (1.46 meters) used in Europe may be classified into three different categories: German sleepers measure 16 cm. x 26 cm. x 2.6 m. or 2.7 m.; French, 14 cm. x 26 cm., and the same length; English, 12.5 cm. x 25 cm. These figures apply to sleepers sawn on all four sides. However, a certain amount of latitude is allowed for wane and curvature, there being three or four specifications. There are also the so-called "Swedish" or "Saxon" sleepers, where the upper and lower surfaces are sawn but the sides follow the natural contour of the rough log.

Switch or crossing ties vary in length from 2.60 m. to 5 m. or more; industrial sleepers are 1.80 m. to 2 m., and crossings generally 1.30 m. to 2 m.

The useful life of a sleeper depends upon its resistance to fungi, insects, and mechanical pressure. Protection against decay is obtained by impregnating with chemicals. The most widely used impregnating material is creosote, but solutions of copper or zinc salts are also used. By impregnation the useful life of a sleeper can be increased from 5-8 years to 25-30 years. Sleepers must have certain required mechanical properties. Damage to sleepers due to mechanical defects has become more frequent because both the weight of the loads carried and the speed of trains have increased. Such mechanical damage consists mainly in crushing, splitting, becoming imbedded, etc.

Since the end of World War II, impregnation plants in Europe have been restored to working order. However, chemical products, particularly creosote and sulphuric acid, have remained in short supply.

Steel sleepers have been used extensively in several countries, particularly in Germany and Switzerland. According to the Transport Committee of the Economic Commission for Europe, the demand for metal sleepers for the next few years will amount to 242,000 tons for Europe, excluding Russia. The manufacture of metal sleepers is simple and inexpensive. Since the total steel needed is not large, there should be no difficulty in supplying the demand. Metal sleepers were developed during a period of over-production of steel, when they were less costly than wooden sleepers. At present in Switzerland, metal sleepers, even when provided with insulation for use on electrified railroads, are still lower in cost than wooden sleepers. Metal sleepers, however, do not have the same elasticity as wood. They are noisy, and in the long run more costly, because the rolling stock has to be repaired more often. Finally, they cannot be used in close proximity to industries which give off vapors or gases which affect metals. In some countries, however, they can play an important role because of their resistance to termites.

Concrete sleepers have been used for a long time; their transportation is difficult, however, as they weigh two or three times as much as wooden sleepers. They are most widely used in Italy. During the last war, the United Kingdom experimented with a new type of reinforced concrete sleeper which seems highly satisfactory. They have been used there for the past five years and show no sign of wear. As a result, the United Kingdom is at present constructing a large factory for the manufacture of this type of sleeper.

Sleeper market between the two world wars

Data on international trade in sleepers between World Wars I and II can be found in the yearbooks of the Comité International du Bois, published first at Vienna and later at Brussels; in the publications of the International Institute of Agriculture, and in Silvae Orbis, referred to in Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 1. - IMPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS

Country	1926-28 Average	1931-33 Average	1936-38 Average
	1000 m³ (s)
Belgium-Luxembourg	67	38	84
Czechoslovakia	35	1	12
Denmark	24	15	6
France	16	76	8
Germany	411	17	69
Greece	5	7	6
Hungary	57	7	34
Netherlands	72	77	76
Spain	160	30	...
Switzerland	7	2	1
United Kingdom	346	337	540
China	41	135	105
Canada	51	24	20
United States	94	37	32
TOTAL	1,386	803	993

SOURCE: Walter Grottian, "Die Umsatzmengen im Weltholzhandel 1925-1938" Silvae Orbit, Berlin: C.I.S., 1942, pp. 140-141. Computed from yearly figures.

TABLE 2. - EXPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS

Country	1926-28 Average	1931-33 Average	1936-38 Average
	1000 m³ (s)
Austria	87	3	13
Czechoslovakia	30	...	2
Finland	16	1	7
France	119	28	93
Germany	49	34	3
Poland	364	157	255
Rumania	3	2	27
Sweden	47	19	11
Yugoslavia	281	80	90
Baltic States1	15	47	144
U.S.S.R.	96	282	186
Canada	115	67	92
United States	336	153	173
Turkey	9	1	...
TOTAL	1,567	874	1,096

SOURCE: Walter Grottian, "Die Umsatzmengen im Weltholzhandel 1925-1938," Silvae Orbis, Berlin: C.I.S. 1942, pp. 140-141. Computed from yearly figures.
¹ Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.

During the period from 1926 to 1938 the United Kingdom was one of the major importers, importing 755,000 m³ (s) in 1930. Germany also appears to have been mainly an importing country. Its imports decreased considerably from 1931 to 1935, but rose again just before the war.

The principal exporting countries were Poland, Yugoslavia, the Baltic countries, Rumania, and Soviet Russia. The U.S.S.R. exported as much as 579,000 m³ (s) in 1930. The United States of America exported large quantities to the European market. France had some exports but was a net importing country. Its exports of hardwood sleepers went mainly to Belgium, with lesser quantities to the Netherlands and the French colonies; softwood sleepers were shipped principally to the United Kingdom and in small quantities to Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

European imports attained a maximum figure of 1,653,000 m³ (s) in 1930 and decreased thereafter. This drop in trade corresponds to a general worldwide trend. Sleepers constituted 2.5 percent of all timber exports in 1929 but only 1.9 percent in 1937.

International market after world war II

During the war most European countries were unable to carry out much track maintenance or lay new railways. Consequently the sleeper market was quiet and countries attempted to supply their own needs from domestic production. Owing to shortages of chemical products, few impregnated sleepers were used.

Since the end of the war, there has been a great demand for sleepers, due not only to deferred maintenance requirements and the need for replacement of non-treated sleepers which have deteriorated rapidly, but also to the vast amount of destruction caused in the last year of the war by military action. Such destruction particularly affected France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and Soviet Russia, but there was also a considerable amount of damage in Africa, from Morocco to Egypt.

Requirements

Various international bodies which have dealt with timber requirements, particularly the Timber Committee of the Economic Commission for Europe, have recognized that the enormous potential demand for wood is limited by reduced production. Until recently, the supply of sleepers has not actually been short in relation to demand because countries have given priority to the purchase of other commodities. Once essential repair and reconstruction work have been completed, other rehabilitation of railway networks can be delayed. The useful life of sleepers can be extended by reducing the speed of trains and by other safety measures.

In July 1947, member countries participating in the Organization for European Economic Cooperation studied their sleeper requirements for the years 1948 to 1951. Participating ECE countries show a deficit in softwood sleepers throughout the entire period. The deficit in hardwood sleepers, however, will decrease from 651,000 m³ (s) in 1948 to 172,000 m³ (s) in 1950 and will disappear in 1951.

The United States Department of Commerce in the July 1948 issue of Foreign Commerce Weekly commented that, on the basis of 10 crossties per cubic meter, the requirements of participating countries from 1948 to 1951 amounted to 123 million crossties. Over the same period estimated production of the countries will approximate 72 million ties. Import requirements are therefore about 51 million sleepers. It then stated that it seems possible that the United States will be in a position to deliver from 8 to 10 million crossties during these four years.

The participating countries then must arrange to obtain the balance of their requirements of about 40 million sleepers from other sources.

The requirements of all European countries, except Spain and Portugal, have also been studied by the Transport Committee of the Economic Commission for Europe. For 1948 and subsequent years, sleeper requirements were estimated at approximately 3.8 million cubic meters. This figure is derived from Table 5, after some adjustments made by the Secretariat.

With respect to Spain, a published report by the U.S. Department of Commerce says that Spain's state railways annually require approximately 2.2 million sleepers and private railway lines require approximately 600,000 sleepers. To this figure must be added about 3 million additional sleepers needed annually to repair the ravages of the war years 1936 to 1940. Since domestic production amounts to only 2 million sleepers per year, imports will be necessary. Up to the present time, small quantities were procured from Portugal, but recent restrictions upon export licenses may limit such supplies.

TABLE 3. - HARDWOOD RAILWAY SLEEPERS - Requirements and supplies of ECE participating countries and western Germany

Item	1934-38	1948	1949	1950	1951
	1000 m³ (s)
Consumption requirements	1,117	1,911	1,529	1,365	1,181
Anticipated production and imports from overseas territories	986	880	644	643	644
Imports required from nonparticipating ECE countries	131	1,031	885	722	537
Estimated imports	131	380	450	550	537
Deficit	...	651	435	172	...

SOURCE: Committee of European Economic Co-operation, Technical Reports, Vol. II (July-September 1947).

TABLE 4. - SOFTWOOD RAILWAY SLEEPERS - Requirements and supplies of ECE participating countries and western Germany

Item	1934-38	1948	1949	1950	1951
	1000 m³ (s)
Consumption requirements	1,415	1,661	1,557	1,552	1,552
Production	940	1,130	1,079	1,079	1,079
Imports required from nonparticipating ECE countries	475	531	478	473	473

SOURCE: Committee of European Economic Co-operation, Technical Reports, Vol. II (July-September 1947).

TABLE 5. - REQUIREMENTS OF WOOD SLEEPERS

Country			Requirements
			Length of railway lines	Railway sleepers	Roundwood
Requirements known			km.	thousands	1000 m³
	Germany: French zone		7,200	200	28
	Austria		7,500	1,100	150
	Belgium		8,000	1,500	1 215
	Denmark		3,000	455	1 65
	France		62,000	7,700	1,100
	Italy		20,500	² 3,500	500
	Luxembourg		500	41	6
	Norway		5,000	450	1 65
	Netherlands		5,000	³ 1,000	1 143
	Poland		35,000	3,000	1 430
	Czechoslovakia		14,900	1,700	240
	Subtotal		168,600	20,646	2,942
	Average per km.			122,5	16,3
Requirements unknown
	Germany:
		Bizone	36,000
		Soviet zone	15,700
	Bulgaria		3,400
	Greece		1,500
	Hungary		8,500
	Rumania		10,500
	Sweden		8,400
	Switzerland		4,300
	Yugoslavia		10,100
	Subtotal		98,400		4 1,600
	Total		267,000		4,542
	United Kingdom		59,100	5 4,000	570
GRAND TOTAL			326,100		5,112

SOURCE: Economic Commission for Europe (Transportation Committee).
¹ Average of cubic measurements changed by Secretariat.
² Reported figure of 6,800,000 sleepers reduced by Secretariat to figure shown.
³ Reported figure of 1,583,000 sleepers reduced by Secretariat to figure shown.
⁴ Estimated on basis of 16.3 m³ per km. of railways.
⁵ Estimated using the factor of 7 sleepers per m³, the factor used by the Statistical Office.

In view of this enormous demand, what are the available timber resources in Europe?

At its first meeting, FAO's European Commission on Forestry and Forest Products made a broad review of standing timber resources and potential supplies. It noted that the hardwood sleeper requirements could possibly be supplied, but that Europe, excluding the U.S.S.R., must continue to face a deficit in softwood sleepers. Fulfillment of the import requirements of the major consumer countries will depend upon the production and domestic requirements of the producing countries of eastern Europe.

Requirements of non-European countries which purchase on the European market. The Near East countries, except Turkey, are either actual or potential importers of sleepers.

Egypt. In Egypt, there is still a large deficit in supplies of sleepers for railway lines. There have been practically no replacements during the past seven years. The immediate demand is estimated at approximately 3 to 4 million ties for maintenance and expansion of railway lines. The Egyptian Government is considering the possibility of procuring supplies in Europe, probably in Yugoslavia, as exchange difficulties are reducing purchases from North America.

Iraq. In Iraq, hardwood non-treated sleepers are used exclusively, and the Australian "jarrah" has been used to a certain extent. Up to the present, the principal supplying countries have been Turkey and Iran.

Saudi Arabia. For a long time, the demand for sleepers in this country was negligible. However, the construction of new railway lines, particularly along the edge of the Persian Gulf and in the Hejaz, has changed this situation. Saudi Arabia moved into fifth place among the customers of the United States in 1947 when it imported approximately 300,000 sleepers.

Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. It seems probable that these three countries will not be making any purchases on the market in the near future.

Supplies

In Poland, considerable efforts have been made to expand forest production. However, domestic sleeper requirements are large, amounting to 600,000 m³ (s) annually, the sleepers having an estimated useful life of ten years. Under these circumstances, Poland will apparently not be able to export to the general European market within the near future.

In Czechoslovakia, provision was made in the Two-Year Plan for the production of 169,000 m³ (s) of sleepers in 1947. Production realized for that year amounted to 138 percent of the goal set by the plan, i.e., 233,500 m³ (s) of sleepers. Exports were resumed during 1947 and amounted to 27,000 m³ (s).

In Yugoslavia, the Five-Year Plan provides for a 16 percent reduction in felling for 1951 compared with 1939. Obviously, this will result in a reduction in the over-all quantities of wood available for export purposes. However, measures have been taken to increase industrial production. The production of impregnated sleepers is to be expanded 500 percent in 1951 according to the plan. Considerable quantities may thus be available for export purposes. Moreover, this country is planning to use reinforced concrete for sleepers for its railways to a large extent. The plan also envisages the construction of 2,000 kilometers of railway lines, and this may considerably influence the export of sleepers, which has been resumed since the end of the war.

Austria has not resumed exports. This country's exports were, however, very small before the war.

Sweden is considering a reduction in felling programs this may affect the available supplies of all products placed on the export market. However, there is no reason to predict an appreciable decrease in exports of sleepers. Swedish exports amounted to 41,000 m³ (s) in 1947 in comparison with an average export figure of 12,000 m³ (s) for the years 1934 to 1939. Swedish exports are directed primarily to Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, and Norway.

Germany, definitely an importing country with respect to sleepers before the war, temporarily became an exporter from 1946 to 1948, and its shipments, principally of softwood sleepers, were made to the western European countries.

The United States, despite enormous domestic requirements, exports both hardwood and softwood sleepers. In 1947 it exported approximately 6 million pieces, a great increase over shipments of preceding years, which amounted to hardly one million sleepers. The figure also exceeds the maximum exports of 1929, which amounted to approximately 5.4 million sleepers. In 1947, sleepers from the United States were shipped to 27 countries, of which 15 received large quantities. The principal countries of destination were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium, which received 65 percent of the total quantity. In the past, these three countries constituted only minor markets for sleepers produced in the United States.

TABLE 6. - EXPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS

Exporting country		1946	1947	Jan.-June 1948
		1000 m³ (s)
Austria		-	-	-
Czechoslovakia		-	27	4,9
Finland		2	13	1,0
France		9	19	15,1
Germany:
	British zone	-	-	-
	French zone	...	...	...
	American zone	...	...	...
	Russian zone	...	...	...
Norway		*	*	-
Poland		-	-	1-
Portugal		...	...	-
Sweden		52	²36	12,7
Switzerland		*	...	...
Yugoslavia		...	...	...
Other European countries		+10	...	...
U.S.S.R.		...	...	...
Canada		113	222	188,5
U.S.A.		+63	³410	124,7
TOTAL		249	...	...

SOURCE: FAO/ECE, Timber Statistics for the Years 1946-1947, Geneva, March 1948, and Timber Statistics, Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 2, Geneva, October 1948.

⁺ Figures submitted to FAO by the governments.
* Figures too small to appear in the statistical tables.
- No exports or imports.
... Figures not available.
¹ January-March.
² For the first eleven months of 1947.
³ Preliminary figures obtained from FAO estimates.

TABLE 7. - IMPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS

Importing country	1946	1947	Jan.-June 1948
	1000 m³ (s)
Belgium	36	35	1,5
Denmark	12	9	7,0
France	21	82	22,3
Greece	*	1	0,7
Hungary	2	6	23,0
Italy	-	-	28,9
Netherlands	48	80	120,9
Poland	-	1	...
Switzerland	*	1	7,7
United Kingdom	84	297	120,1
Other European countries	3	14	16,0
Egypt	+14	...	13,0
Other Middle East countries	*	...	*
French North Africa	+6	...	...
TOTAL	226	-	...

SOURCE: FAO/ECE, Timber Statistics for the Years 1946-1947, Geneva, March 1948, and Timber Statistics, Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 2, Geneva, October 1948.
⁺ Figures submitted to FAO by the governments.
* Figures too small to appear in the statistical tables.
- No exports or imports.
... Figures not available.
¹ January-March.

United States exports started expanding in April 1947, particularly when non-treated sleepers were eliminated from the list of controlled export commodities and were placed on the list of commodities requiring only a license. Treated sleepers remained on the controlled list, and in 1947 only one million treated sleepers were exported.

In the first quarter of 1948, United States exports of treated and non-treated sleepers amounted to 23.6 million board feet - a monthly average of approximately half of that for the year 1947 (See Table 10). A considerable reduction in exports occurred in trade with the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, probably because of the shortage of exchange. Therefore, 1948 exports will probably prove to be far below the record figure for 1947.

TABLE 8. - UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS - ANNUAL AVERAGE 1935-1939

Country of destination	Quantity			Value
	Treated sleepers	Non-treated sleepers	Total	Treated sleepers	Non-treated sleepers	Total
	1000 board feet			dollars
China	*	36,459	36,459	*	480,090	480,090
Canada	5,581	1,573	7,151	225,370	41,006	266,376
Guatemala	5,155	*	5,155	159,092	*	159,092
Costa Rica	3,767	2	3,769	129,223	39	129,268
Peru	107	3,535	3,642	1,942	104,146	106,088
Honduras	3,515	5	3,520	105,404	107	105,511
Cuba	2,216	15	2,231	83,377	374	83,761
Mexico	973	1,181	2,154	40,270	30,589	70,859
Panama	1,964	1	1,965	74,704	56	74,760
Venezuela	214	37	251	6,754	776	7,529
Netherlands	*	184	184	*	2,060	2,060
United Kingdom	99	37	136	1,487	552	2,039
Others	319	239	553	11,386	4,731	16,117
TOTAL	23,910	43,268	67,178	839,015	664,525	1,503,540

SOURCE: U. S. Department of Commerce, World Trade in Commodities, Vol. VI, Part 9, No. 4; Washington, March 1948.
* Small quantity or none.

TABLE 9. - UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS IN 1947

Country of destination	Quantity			Value
	Treated sleepers	Non-treated sleepers	Total	Treated sleepers	Non-treated sleepers	Total
	1000 board feet			dollars
United Kingdom	8,387	83,294	91,681	582,716	5,773,130	6,355,846
China	7,461	24,237	31,748	644,937	1,237,950	1,882,887
Netherlands	919	20,815	21,734	91,054	1,586,386	1,677,440
Belgium	382	14,829	15,211	31,191	1,111,875	1,143,066
Saudi Arabia	466	10,057	10,521	28,914	571,312	600,226
Canada	6,339	2,870	9,209	322,832	122,922	445,751
Guatemala	3,788	7	3,795	311,292	887	312,179
Union of South Africa	1,635	120	1,756	150,204	12,042	162,246
Mexico	1,237	427	1,664	59,074	22,360	81,434
Venezuela	1, 660	*	1,660	158,955	*	158,955
Cuba	1,535	*	1,535	131,465	*	131,465
Peru.	*	1,371	1,371	*	113,836	113,836
Greece	823	350	1,173	41,313	32,500	73,843
Philippine Republic	1,023	*	1,023	91,599	*	91,599
Panama Canal Zone	888	*	888	67,873	*	67,873
Korea	*	725	725	*	30,500	30,500
French Morocco	384	36	420	17,410	4,410	21,820
Egypt.	*	312	312	*	15,042	15,042
El Salvador	271	*	271	24,390	*	24,390
Eire	*	165	165	*	7,838	7,833
Dominican Republic	141	*	141	17,763	*	17,763
Others	280	103	383	15,972	5,500	21,472
TOTAL	37,619	159,768	197,387	12,788,984	110,648,490	113,437,474

Source; U. S. Department of Commerce, World Trade in Commodities, Vol. VI, Part 9, No. 4, Washington, March 1948.
*Small quantity or none.

The volume of treated sleepers which could be exported from the United States during the second quarter of 1948 was increased from 12 million board feet to 20 million board feet. Non-treated sleepers were again placed on the list of controlled exports on 23 June 1948, because of domestic demand.

Before the war, Canada was both an importer and exporter of sleepers. After the war, it exported large quantities of sleepers to the United Kingdom and the United States. In 1947, of 2,216,000 sleepers exported, 975,000 were sent to the United Kingdom, 808,000 to China, 139,000 to Ceylon, and 127,000 to the Union of South Africa.

Before the var. Chile exported large quantities of sleepers to other South American countries, and also exported to Germany. It may again offer supplies for Europe. The main species found in that country is the "roble" (Nothofagus obliqua).

Brazil, which has immense forest resources and which has trade relations with the European continent, is a possible source of future supplies. Central American countries, particularly Costa Rica and Nicaragua, have export supplies available.

Conclusion

The European market for sleepers has been comparatively quiet since the end of the war because of the shortage of exchange currencies and because of deferred demand.

TABLE 10. - UNITED STATES EXPORTS OF RAILWAY SLEEPERS JANUARY - MARCH 1948

Country of destination	Total	Non-treated sleepers	Treated sleepers
	1000 board feet
Belgium	5,947	6,947	*
Egypt	4,338	1,238	3,100
United Kingdom	3,463	3,463	*
Netherlands	3,430	3,430	*
Union of South	1, 568	*	1,568
Venezuela	1, 288	*	1,288
Canada	877	203	674
China	841	841	*
Mexico	387	181	206
Honduras	383	*	383
Guatemala	321	*	321
Others	788	342	446
TOTAL	23,631	15,645	7,986
Monthly average, 1947 (12 months)	16,449	13,314	3,135
Monthly average, 1948 (3 months)	7,877	5,215	2,662

SOURCE: U. S. Department of Commerce, World Trade in Commodities, Vol. VI, Part 9. No. 9, Washington, June 1948.

*Small quantity or none.

In most countries, railways have been nationalized or placed under State control. There is therefore a monopoly in the purchase of sleepers. Where the railways still remain in private hands, consumption of sleepers is controlled by a system of issuing import licenses. On the international market, purchases of sleepers therefore depend on priorities granted in each country. Up to the present, despite the large demand for sleepers, other products have been given higher priority, and their purchase has been facilitated by the allocation of exchange currency.

Generally speaking, western European countries, and principally the United Kingdom, still have to import sleepers. Their normal market is the European market. Purchases have been resumed in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, but are far from reaching the prewar volume. Yugoslavia may find it possible to increase the production of sleepers, and its exports will go principally to France. Most European countries will be obliged to purchase larger quantities on the Swedish and Finnish markets, which have increased their exports since 1946.

The quantities of sleepers available for export from European countries are smaller than in the prewar period as a result of the increase in domestic requirements of the eastern countries. Europe will therefore be obliged to look to the United States and Canada for a large part of its supplies, but purchases in these countries will be restricted by the lack of dollars and will depend to a great extent on Marshall aid. Supplies available in the United States for export purposes will be limited by domestic requirements.

Other European sources of supply are lacking as the Soviet Union is not in the export market. Therefore European countries with dependent African territories may look to them for supplies, and new sources of supply will be sought in Central and South America where there are still vast unexploited resources.