General
Silviculture and management
Mensuration, increment, and yield
Forest protection
Logging and engineering
Conversion
Utilization
Economics and statistics
Policy, legislation, and administration
Meetings
Reviews
The items appearing here are condensed selections of news thought to be of interest to readers of UNASYLVA. They are grouped alphabetically by countries under headings currently used by the Division of Forestry and Forest Products for reference purposes. The Editor will be glad to receive direct from readers authenticated items of interest and news value for this part of the review.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
· There are four forest schools of the higher college grade with four years of instruction. The entrance requirements are the same as for any other institution of higher learning, with the addition of at least one year of preliminary practical training in the woods under the supervision of the forest school authorities. There are nine schools of the lower or vocational grade for training forest guards and other forest personnel for the practical work in the forests. The course takes one year and the entrants must be at least 18 years old and have some forestry experience.
GERMANY
· Bavaria has 2.25 million hectares of forest land constituting approximately one third of the total forest area of the country. Standing timber volume is estimated at 180 million cubic meters, of which 82.3 million cubic meters is in State forests, 24.2 million cubic meters on lands owned by communities, 48.5 million cubic meters in privately-owned forests more than 10 hectares in size, and finally 25 million cubic meters in privately-owned forests less than 10 hectares in size. The annual increment is approximately 6 ½ million cubic meters. Fellings amounted to: 8 million cubic meters in 1945; 11.9 million cubic meters in 1946; and 11.2 million cubic meters in 1947. In 1946, timber, excluding fuelwood totaled 5.6 million cubic meters and, in 1947, 5.2 million cubic meters; 93 percent of this timber consisted of softwoods and 7 percent of hardwoods. During the war, due to the lack of proper care, the Bostrychidae invasion assumed catastrophic proportions, making it necessary to fell 2 million cubic meters of spruce. There is a huge demand for wood due to the housing shortage. It is estimated that between 600,000 and 700,000 cubic meters of lumber are required to relieve the shortage. This quantity has been calculated on the basis of families lacking housing facilities.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
· There are at present 12 forest institutes devoted exclusively to the training of specialists in all branches of forest management and forest utilization. In addition, there are 11 universities and agricultural schools which have departments of forestry. Within recent years, much emphasis has been laid on training specialists in forest engineering and for the various branches of the timber industry. Several thousands of such specialists have now been absorbed in the timber industry. In addition to the regular forest schools, there are 15 special forest research institutions and a great number of experiment stations and laboratories in all parts of the country.
AUSTRIA
· Inventories carried out in unexploitable parts of the Hollengebirge forests, 40 kilometers east of Salzburg, give a very accurate picture of the conditions of the forests of the whole region prior to man's interference.
At altitudes varying from 500 to 1,000 meters, beech and silver fir, with some Norway spruce, are the main species. (Elsewhere this tree association has been replaced by pure planted stands of Norway spruce.)
Other species which occur here but have completely disappeared elsewhere are yew, ash, maple, elm, linden, and, up to 800 meters, oak.
The soil of the forests is in excellent physical, chemical, and biological condition; natural regeneration is strong and abundant. Elsewhere the soil has deteriorated and is covered with a layer of acid humus.
To rehabilitate the country's forests, it would be advisable to reintroduce fir, protect whenever possible the scanty beech regeneration and discontinue the planting of Norway spruce. This should not be difficult since many stands of this species, severely damaged by bostrychids and the nun moth, have had to be felled and removed.
FRANCE
· The French Academy of Agriculture recently discussed the results of experiments conducted by a society for the study of the uses of Musanga on the Ivory Coast. Musanga smithii, a species which invades cleared areas in the African rain-forest zone after fellings, is apparently of great value in establishing second-growth stands of rapid growth which can supply good quality pulp. Recent experiments dealt particularly with methods of stimulating germination of the seeds which normally are scattered by animals and do not, as a rule, germinate unless they have passed through their digestive systems. Experiments were conducted in soaking the seeds in solutions of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids of varying concentrations for different periods and with occasional rinsings. Nevertheless, doubts have arisen as to the future of artificially established stands of Musanga. It is possible that this type of forest should only be considered as a transitional one, the permanent culture of which would entail soil degradation. On the other hand, the possibility of utilizing this type of forest to obtain raw material for the manufacture of pulp requires further study before large-scale operations can be envisaged.
NETHERLANDS
· Out of a total area of 3,480,000 hectares, forests cover only 257,675 hectares or 7.4 percent of the total. During the war, in order to meet the need for fuel, 30,000 hectares were felled. However, by the end of 1947 approximately 10,000 hectares had been reforested and trees bordering roadways and avenues had been replanted. Trees planted along the roads cover an area equivalent to 30,000 hectares or approximately 12 percent of the wooded area and supply a considerable portion of the timber requirements of the country.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
· The possibility of harvesting pulpwood down to smaller limits was studied recently in Minnesota. Although tests were made under rather special conditions, in fairly dense stands of black spruce, Picea mariana, the results were encouraging. In cutting down to a diameter of 7.6 cm. (3 in.) instead of 10 cm. (4 in.), a 21 percent increase in yield was obtained, while lowering the limit to. 6.4 cm. (2.5 in.) produced an additional 6 percent. Logging costs were not substantially increased, being $17.04 per 2.8 m³ (100 cu. ft.) for the 6.4 cm. (2.5 in.) limit against $16.77 for a 10 cm. (4 in.) limit. As total expenses were spread over a greater volume of yield, over-all costs per unit of volume were actually reduced. With increased mechanization, logging costs should also be reduced. The results of this study should not be interpreted as justifying the cutting of immature stands. It should, however, encourage better silvicultural practice since, for one thing, the harvesting of material down to 6.4 cm. (2.5 in.) should considerably reduce waste left in the forest
CANADA
· The Dominion Forest Service recently took into use several increment hammers which are designed to replace the conventional increment borer for certain types of work where only the current growth is required. The major advantage of the instrument for such work is the rapidity and ease with which it can be used. Only a few seconds are required to extract a core ½ to ¾ inch in length which will show the current growth. Disadvantages are that the age of trees cannot be determined and also that cores extracted may not be suitable for accurate measurement since considerable skill is required to obtain a core along a true radius of the tree. Used like a hammer, the cutting bit of the instrument is driven into the tree by the impact of the weighted head. The core is extruded through the nose of the bit by pushing on the extractor after the instrument is pulled out of the tree. The hammer may be used on frozen wood and on thick-barked trees; in the latter instance it is desirable to strike the tree in one of the furrows of the bark. The borer, which weighs 13 ounces, is 10 inches long and is obtainable in two models differing only in the form of the handle. The model described, with the handle-grip of wood and steel, is preferred by the Forest Service.
EUROPE
· The spread of bostrychids in Europe since the war has reached serious proportions in some regions. Damage seems to be particularly severe in the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany, where it is estimated to have amounted to 2 million m³ in 1947, as compared with 700,000 m³ in 1946. The forests of Thuringia, the Harz Mountains, and the Erzgebirge have been particularly affected. The Economic Commission of the Russian zone has issued a decree appointing a special authority to coordinate the fight against this pest and providing for the application of extremely strict measures. In order to avoid bottlenecks in the transportation of the felled timber, they are considering shifting sawmills and installing new mills close to affected areas, recruiting the additional manpower necessary by drawing upon less important industries. In France, the invasion, after having ravaged the Vosges, is spreading to the southeastern part of the country, to the Bugey, Savoy, and Dauphiné forests.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
· A new universal tractor has been developed which is especially adapted for hauling purposes. It is very small, mounted on a light frame with two wheels and has a 3 h.p., one-cylinder motor. The operator walks behind the tractor and holds its two handles like a plow. This tractor can be used for agricultural as well as for forestry purposes. It moves at a rate of 2.5 to 4.5 km. per hour. The consumption of gasoline, for a field of one hectare, is about 1.5 liters. This baby tractor can also be used to pull a cart with a load of 500 to 700 kg. With a load of 700 kg., it can attain a speed of 8 to 9 km. per hour.
· In machine sanding, pressure is the chief factor affecting rate of production. In common practice the operator judges the degree of power largely by ear. This practice is not always satisfactory. Experiments conducted with sanding machines indicate that sanding pressure and power consumption are directly proportional; the desired pressure, therefore, can be determined and controlled, by readings from a wattmeter in, the motor circuit. It was further found that the grain of the abrasive and the species of timber, all other conditions being the same, have little effect on power consumption. With drum sanders, width of the articles processed has a significant effect. For a given machine, it is possible to compile a table from which the operator can read the Appropriate power consumption for articles of various widths.
UNITED KINGDOM
· A new improved synthetic board of special value to the building, furniture, and veneering industries is announced by British Plimber Ltd. The company has been marketing Plimberwood during the past two years and well over 5 million sq. ft. of that material have been employed in a wide variety of industries. For some time the firm has been carrying out research into the behavior and production methods of wood-waste boards generally, with a view to marketing a product which would overcome deficiencies common to the majority of wood-waste boards.
The new board, Plimberite, is described as a harder, denser board than Plimberwood. It is not, however, so hard as to be detrimental to cutting tools. It has a smoother face and closer texture and is considerably less absorbent; it is easier and more economical to decorate and can be cut and machined more cleanly. The makers state that Plimberite overcomes unevenness, one of the main disadvantages of Plimberwood, and its accuracy of thickness is claimed to be comparable to high-grade plywood. At present, Plimberite is available only in 1.6 cm. (5/8 in.) thickness, but plans are proceeding for the production of a 1.27 cm. (½ in.) thick board to be followed possibly by other thicknesses.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
· In the opinion of the Technical Director of the Northeastern Wood Utilization Council, a number of commercial processes used in Europe could be translated into economic enterprises in the northeastern United States. Some of these processes are: (1) A process for the simultaneous production of tannin and furfural from oak. Successful plants for these chemicals have been operating for a decade. (2) A simple semichemical pulping process, working on hardwoods and agricultural wastes. Plants making about 30 tons of pulp daily have been operating for 5 years with success. The process consists of mild cooking with sulphuric acid, followed by a simple refining with little power usage. Furfural is obtained as a byproduct to the extent of 4 percent of the dry wood substance cooked and sold to plastics manufacturers. (3) A "dry" wallboard process for which several plants have been installed recently making a commercial product of high quality from sawdust and shavings. (4) A "wet" wallboard process which includes a mild pulping and makes a hardboard of exceptional strength. (5) Plants for the continuous distillation of both softwoods and hardwoods which are flourishing in Europe.
· The search for a way to make sawdust-resin board was begun by the Monsanto Chemical Company in order to find a material for hollow-built kitchen cabinet doors. Unsolved questions as to proper sawdust particle size, moisture content, and type of resin bonding, together with mechanical problems of equipment, heat and pressure cycles, uniform feed and worrisome warping combined to give research men many a nostalgic memory of once-inexhaustible forests and plentiful prewar lumber supplies. More than four hundred test panels were made, dozens of resins tried. Finally the combination-93 percent finely divided wood, Monsanto's Resinox (a phenol formaldehyde plastic) and other ingredients-emerged as the choice.
In production, a sizable portion of this conglomerate waste now is sucked in pipes to the plant where it is ground to still smaller size by the punishing action of a hammer mill. After a thorough mixing with the bonding agent, Resinox, the yellow sawdust mix is next fed by a specially built machine into square trays, four feet on one side. From the feeders, the trays are slipped into a hot press similar to that in common use in plywood making. The mixture is compressed under heat and high pressure to one-quarter inch thickness. The result is Prespine, a panel made almost entirely from sawdust, finely divided wood rejected for its knots or other imperfections; trimmings; all materials which have little other use than firing a mill's boilers.
Before the production phase of the project had been entirely completed, the motive behind the development had altered. Progressively worsening supplies of plywood for panels used in millwork of all kinds had shrunk to alarming levels. For that reason, Prespine was used immediately for panels of doors, garage doors, and parts of kitchen cabinets. When present plans for enlarged production are accomplished, Prespine's employment may cover a still broader field.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
· The increased demand for pulpwood under the present five-year plan makes it expedient to use material from north and northeastern conifers grown on poor soils, including topwood, which before was used only for firewood. Such wood is very fine-grained; there way be 12 to 18 rings to the millimeter in the outermost wood in trees 180 to 220 years old. Parallel sulphate cookings of the narrow-ringed and wide-ringed wood showed no significant differences in cellulose yield per unit weight between the two kinds of wood. They may therefore be cooked together under identical conditions. As a matter of fact, the narrow-ringed wood, because of its higher specific gravity, may produce a higher yield. The presence of twisted fiber and eccentric growth often found in this kind of wood does not prevent its use in manufacturing high-grade pulp. It has a somewhat higher resin content but, at the same time, it contains considerable quantities of humic or lignin-like substances which do not impair pulp quality. Its chief disadvantage is its knottiness. This often limits its use to the sulphate process or to the production of papers of only average quality.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
· More than 60 plants are turning out prefabricated houses today in the Soviet Union. This industry is relatively new but developing rapidly. The pressure for the construction of new dwellings is enormous. About one-third of the dwelling areas of Soviet cities were destroyed during the war. Rapid erection of houses for the people who lost their homes during the war, as well as for the new towns and cities springing up around industrial centers, is an urgent necessity. Prefabricated houses seem to be the answer to the problem. This is especially true for the new mining centers where, as in Donbas, no timber is available nearby.
The Ministry of Building Materials is in general charge of the work. In 1948 almost three times as many prefabricated houses as before the war are said to have been produced. The vast forests of the north provide most of the raw material for building the houses. The plants manufacture all the structural material for the houses, including insulation and facing materials, and some of them produce as many as 7,000 houses a year per plant.
While standardization is essential to mass production of prefabricated houses, variety in the designs is not overlooked. There are more than 100 types of houses to suit various locations. No two plants turn out the same type of house. No plant can begin production of a new type of prefabricated house unless it has been approved first by a Committee on Architecture consisting of members of the Academy of Architecture and other prominent architects. A prefabricated house usually consists of two or three rooms, plus kitchen, bath, closets, and other conveniences.
The local Soviet furnishes the plot and municipal services. State credits are provided to the home builders. Loans are repayable in ten years and the monthly installment is usually no more than the regular rent would be for similar accommodations in an apartment house.
· The Technical Forest Institute of Archangelsk has developed a method of making a new type of charcoal-pitch briquets. This consists of (1) reducing the charcoal (hardwood or coniferous) to particles of 0.1 to 1.0 mm. in size; (2) adding water (4 parts) to dry pitch (6 parts); (3) heating the two to about 50° C.; and (4) mixing first to a uniform emulsion and then with the charcoal (10 parts). The resulting mass is allowed to stand for 48 hours, pressed to the desired shape, and baked in closed retorts for about 12 hours and to a final temperature of 400° to 500° C. to remove water and volatile constituents. Under-baked briquets will smoke; the over-baked are smokeless but hard to ignite. The yield of briquets is 40 percent to 55 percent of the wet mixture. Their average calorific value is said to be 7.130 to 7.284 calories per kg.
New Methods
CANADA
· A newly-formed company hopes to manufacture cigarette paper from pulp of fruit tree trimmings in a proposed 10-ton-a-day Ontario pulp plant. Investigations into the possibility of making pulp from fruit tree trimmings began in Toronto in 1936. Two years later the Pulp and Paper Research Laboratory in Montreal investigated the possibilities and manufactured about 640 kg. (1,400 lbs.) of pulp. The process is stated to have been patented in several countries by the Pangara Holding Corporation. Shaw-Manson Ltd. will operate under an exclusive license from this corporation for Canada, United States, Great Britain, and France. Pulp from fruit tree trimming is said to be possible at a cost of $220 a short ton f.o.b. mill, including allowances for royalty, wages and all materials, but not allowing for taxes or depreciation.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
· In July 1948, at New Haven, the Northeastern Wood Utilization Council brought together representatives of New England Agriculture Experiment Stations for a discussion of chipped wood as a method of adding organic matter for the improvement of soil structure. Definite tests are planned by the stations in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. It was decided that the use of wood chips at the rate of 56 metric tons per hectare (25 short tons per acre) would make this method roughly equivalent in organic matter to the standard 45 metric tons of manure per hectare (20 short tons per acre) allowing for the difference in moisture content and assuming that disintegration of the wood material would be spread over three years. In southern New England, because of the scarcity of cattle bedding, wood chips may possibly be largely diverted to that use and reach the soil as part of the application of farm manure. It is important, however, to learn what wood chips as such would do to the soil.
ALGERIA
· In 1948, Algerian forests supplied 220,000 metric tons of fuelwood, 400,000 quintals of charcoal, and 1,50,000 m³ of timber against only 90,000 in 1938. Lumber imports rose to 165,000 m³. The cork yield amounted to 333,000 quintals. The Forest Service has started a series of experimental areas where suitable conditions can be created for securing natural regeneration and at the same time satisfy grazing requirements. The Service is also concentrating attention on soil conservation and improvement. Through the use of new equipment and methods, orchards can now safely be formed on hill slopes.
CANADA
· Plans for a new pulp and paper mill to be built at Lepreau, New Brunswick, Canada, are nearing completion. The proposed mill will have an estimated daily capacity of 500 tons of kraft pulp and 500 tons of newsprint. Consumption of pulpwood will amount to 1 million m³ ® (400,000 cords) a year. It is reported that actual construction is planned for November, 1948. The mill is to be completed and in production early in 1950.
CHINA
· The Taiwan Pulp and Paper Corporation, controlled by the National Resources Commission of China, has two plants designed to make pulp from bagasse or bamboo. The larger, located near Lotung, and three miles from large sugar installations, has a daily production capacity of 100 tons but at present is producing only 15 tons. No paper is produced and the pulp, for the most part, is shipped to the mainland and used in production of Chinese paper. The smaller plant, near Taiwan, varies only in size and is designed to produce 50 tons per day. It is using bamboo as raw material for pulp production.
IRAN
· The foundation stone of the first paper mill to be built in Iran was ceremoniously laid at Veramine, a town near Teheran chosen as a key center for industrial development. The Iranian Paper Mill Co. Ltd. is planning the new factory to produce 4,000 to 4,500 tons of writings and wrappings yearly. This represents the total amount of these two classes of paper which the country is at present importing. Samples of raw materials and the water to be used have been submitted to experts in Europe for analysis and are said to be highly satisfactory. The new factory is being built of steel and reinforced concrete and will cover an area of 8,000 m². The principal raw materials to be used will be straw, cotton waste, and other waste products which are in abundant supply. A chemical plant for the production of the necessary chemicals is to be included in the new buildings.
KOREA
· The largest and only modern paper mill in South Korea was shut down during June 1948 for the second consecutive month because of lack of pulp. Production continued, however, in 14 other mills. Although total production in June was the second lowest in any month during the first half of 1948 and 28.6 percent below the monthly average for 1947, it was about 12 percent higher than in May 1948. Monthly average production, in metric tons, was 324 in 1946, 266 in 1947, and 162 during the first half of 1948.
NORWAY
· According to the Director of the Norwegian Cellulose Association, production of the Norwegian pulp industry in 1948 was about 60 percent of capacity. The reason for the low level of production was the shortage of raw materials. Total failings were almost equal to the cut before the war but a considerably larger proportion than previously was destined for the sawmill industry for building reconstruction. The distribution of roundwood continued to be controlled by Governmental authorities. Production of cellulose during 1948 was about 380,000 tons. About 60 percent of the production was manufactured in Norway into paper, pasteboard, cartons, rayon and cellulose wadding, etc., and only 40 percent exported. The deliveries of inexpensive types of cellulose to the domestic paper industry at prices fixed by the Price Commission considerably below export prices, as well as below production costs, caused extensive loss to the cellulose industry. The export prices for cellulose during 1948 were satisfactory; but the top prices previously quoted on certain markets were unattainable, and even the prices on the main markets decreased.
SWEDEN
· Certain regulations governing the paper trade since April 1947 were abolished in January 1949. Thus, rationing and similar restrictions of deliveries of paper and paperboard on the interior market are cancelled but, on the other hand, the price stop will still be in force. For newsprint, however, special agreements have been made between the Fuel Commission, the publishers and the newsprint mills to reserve similar quantities of paper for the Swedish newspapers in 1949. In view of the changed situation on the export market, the pulp industry has declined to renew the agreement ill respect of deliveries of pulp to the paper industry at reduced prices as the export sales do not reasonably compensate for the losses on the home market. In 1948 these deliveries were to comprise 90,000 tons of chemical pulp and 14,500 tons of mechanical pulp, dry weight. It seems likely that increased sales of pulp and paper will be directed towards exports and that the shipments to the home market will be cut down.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
· Latest statistics reveal that the amount of paper consumed in one year by the average American is about 154 kg. (340 lbs.), an increase of 130 kg. (286 lbs.) per person during the past 50 years. About 30 kg. (66 lbs.) of this total represents newspapers; 70 kg. (156 lbs.) are used in paperboard containers, boxes, wrapping paper, and paper bags; while books, letter paper, railroad tickets, milk and food containers, telephone directories, catalogues, tissues, paper rugs and curtains, and automobile upholstery covers make up the balance.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
· The Angara-Lena region of Eastern Siberia may become in the near future an important center for forest industries. It has been recently estimated that within this region there is a forest area of almost 6 million hectares, with a stand of 31 million m³ ® of merchantable timber. This would permit an annual cut of from 400,000 to 425,000 m³ ®. More than half of the timber is mature or overmature. The species, in order of their abundance, are Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris; the several kinds of larch, spruce, birch, aspen, and Siberian pine, Pinus cembra. Further and more exact aerial and ground surveys are needed, as well as more detailed planning as to the most suitable location of the industries with reference to transportation and communication.
· According to the postwar five-year plan, the lumber industry in 1950 is to produce 39 million m³ of sawn lumber, furnish the railroads with 185 million ties, and increase the production of veneer and other lumber products. Since the new sawmills to be erected during the five years of the plan will be capable of producing 6 million m³ of sawn lumber, the increase in production must be absorbed by the already existing sawmills even though the present productivity of the sawmills for the country as a whole is said to be below the prewar level.
ITALY
· As a step towards the "customs union" between Italy and France, a commercial agreement became effective on 1 April 1948. This agreement provides among other things for the export to France of poplar cuttings, tree seeds, tanning extract, special paper, and minor forest products. Exchange of forest products between the two countries is expected to increase considerably. Italy could export fine paper, cellulose, tanning extract, and manufactured articles in walnut, oak, and cherry. France could export okoumé from Africa, softwoods, hardwoods, and walnut and oak veneers. The export of surplus tanning extract from Italy is important since France still depends on quebracho from Argentina.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
· Surveys of the timber resources on 25 million ha. (63 million acres) of forest land in 12 states and the re-inventory of an additional 19 million ha. (48 million acres) in eight other states have been completed within the past two years. This brings to 148 million ha. (365 million acres) the total so inventoried since the project to survey the United States timber resources was begun in 1930, while 105 million ha. (259 million acres) are still to be covered. Provision for periodic re-inventory of the timber resource on land already surveyed was made by Congress in 1944 in order to keep the reports up to date. Up to now 19 million ha. (48 million acres) have been gone over for the second time. Cutting operations, forest fires, attacks of insects and disease, and changes due to growth are principal factors in making it necessary to recheck these areas if the survey figures are to be kept up to date. The surveys were made for areas where reliable information as to forest areas, timber volumes rates of growth and depletion, ownership, and demand for forest products are vitally needed as a guide to sound programs for industrial development, taxation, fire prevention, and land management.
FIRST MEETING OF THE SUBCOMMISSION ON MEDITERRANEAN PROBLEMS
A subsidiary body of the European Forestry and Forest Products Commission, the Subcommission on Mediterranean Problems, held its first meeting in Rome from 13 to 17 December 1948 in the Villa Borghese, the temporary headquarters of the FAO European office.
Greece, Italy, France, and the United Kingdom sent delegations. Yugoslavia and the State of Israel were represented by observers. The meeting was organized by the Italian National FAO Committee, and His Excellency Antonio Segni, Italian Ministry of Agriculture, opened the session. Professor Aldo Pavari, of the University of Florence, was elected Chairman and Mr. Challot, Conservator of Forests and Waters in French Morocco, was elected Vice-Chairman. Professor Guinier, Chairman of the Academy of Agriculture of France, one of the leading organizers of the prewar "Silva Mediterranea," was elected Honorary President.
The Subcommission decided on the countries to be included in its studies and approved a report containing a number of recommendations covering its future activities. Special attention was paid to problems of soil utilization and conservation, control of grazing, and reforestation. This report will appear in the next issue of Unasylva.
CONGRESS OF THE NORWEGIAN UNION OF FORESTRY AND LANDWORKERS
Two hundred delegates attended a Congress held by the Norwegian Union of Forest and Land Workers 3-7 October 1948. The Chairman of the Union called attention to the progress made in the establishment of a 48-hour week for forest and land workers. The following item were discussed by the delegates: Organization of training for forest workers, housing conditions in the forest, eventual expropriation of poorly managed forests, trade problems, and the economic situation in Norway.
Erosion, Cancer del Suelo. Victor Bianchi Gundian. Imprinta Universitaria, Santiago, Chile.
This pamphlet published by the Forestry Department of the Ministry of Lands and Colonization of Chile is intended for mass distribution and presents in a striking manner a series of carefully checked data and conclusions arrived at from studies of the damage caused by erosion in Chile, Switzerland, Sweden, Canada, Mexico, the United States, and Peru.
The importance of this question for Chile can be realized from the fact that out of 19 million hectares of land under cultivation, at least 4 million have already suffered more or less seriously from the effects of erosion. The production capacity of the province of Malleco, the granary of Chile, was reduced in 30 years by 32 percent, through the loss in fertility of the topsoil.
The booklet contains a number of graphs designed to attract attention and arouse interest; it concludes with 12 recommendations which could well be called the Twelve Commandments of soil conservation. The first of these declares that land with a slope of more than 18 degrees must in all cases remain under forest.
The Redwood Forest Handbook. Jack Reveal and Arnold Wallen. Division of Forestry, California Department of Natural Resources.
This compactly written pocket-sized handbook should be of great value to foresters, woodsworkers, operators, and timberland owners of the redwood region. It is a compilation from many sources of information needed in the redwood region.
After a brief description of the trees and the forest, it covers methods and results of partial cutting in both old and young growth forests, and discusses the forest protection problems of the region, especially the problem of disposal methods for the enormous quantities of slash left by logging.
A useful section on cruising timber gives field methods for sampling, intensity of sampling for different standards of accuracy, volume tables, and allowance for defect. The information on log scaling includes method and equipment, the log ruler, and deductions for defect.
An appendix gives a glossary of lumber terms and information on tractor production and cost estimation.
Cours élémentaire de sylviculture (Elementary Course in Silviculture). Bradfer and Turlot. Pp. 428, no price given. Ad. Wesmael-Charlier (S.A.), Namur, Belgium.
This book was first published in 1932 and has now been brought up to date in a second edition. It is intended primarily for the training of Belgian forest rangers and presents the subject matter in the form of a series of questions and answers.
Economie forestière (The Forest Economy). F. Frankhauser. Pp. 388, 11 Swiss francs. La Librairie Payot, Lausanne, Switzerland.
This is a fourth French edition of the book based on the 7th German edition. It is a practical guide written in simple language without unduly heavy scientific language, and is intended primarily for use by forest owners. It emphasizes wise principles of management, the practice of which has succeeded in making Swiss forests among the richest and most productive of Europe. The author points out the importance of preserving indigenous acclimatized strains and the advantages of the natural regrowth of forest stands with the natural mixed forest as a goal.
The Anthracite Forest Region, a Problem Area. Frank A. Ineson and Miles J. Ferree. Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Miscellaneous Publication No. 648.
This study is of particular interest because it explores the reciprocal relations between forests and coal mining, and examines the possibilities for improving forests and thereby making them provide greater employment and greater industrial output. The anthracite forest region of northeastern Pennsylvania is a problem area. During the 1930's unemployment in this region was especially severe. In 1938, when the relief load was at its peak, 364,000 persons - nearly a quarter of the total population - were dependent on public-works programs and direct relief. In that same year the figure for the rest of Pennsylvania was 16 percent.
This situation, though aggravated by the general depression, was due largely to specific local conditions. During the preceding twenty years the production of anthracite coal-the most important source of employment in the region-had fallen off 50 million tons, or 50 percent. Furthermore, a reduction in markets and in the amount of recoverable coal make any considerable increase in production improbable. During the war, unemployment in the region temporarily disappeared. But the basic situation still exists, and only a major readjustment of the region's economy can prevent serious unemployment in the future.
Next to coal, the most important natural resource is the forest. Of the 5.2.5 million acres that comprise the region 3.25 million are forested. Though in poor condition now, these forests were once among the finest in the United States and their potentialities are still great By energetic forestry programs, saw timber growth could be increased at leas twelve times, and employment and industrial output be increased more than fourfold.
A successful program would extend public ownership, set minimum standard for private management, and expand co operative work in various directions. Here is a case where an extended forestry program can measurably solve the problem of a region where economy is declining as a nonrenewable resource decreases.
Insect Borers of Newly Felled Timber and Their Control. Indian Forest Bulletin No. 136. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India.
An account is given of an investigation into the prevention of insect damage to the newly felled timber of Vateria indica, Dipterocarpus indicus, Terminalia belerica and coffeoides. The experiments were designed to explore the possibilities of preventing damage by relatively simple adjustments of management rather than by use of chemical repellents. The insects found attacking the timber were chiefly of the Cerambycidae, Buprestidae, Platypodidae, Scolytidae and Bostrychidae families. Their seasonal incidence, conditions of attack, extent of damage, and the methods indicated for their control are discussed for each species of timber. The technique employed in the experiments is described.
Fontes Historiae Botanicae Rossicae. Vladimir C. Asmous, B.A. Chronica Botanica, Volume II, number 2. The Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
In this study an endeavor has been made to enumerate all publications which deal with the history of botany in Russia. The list includes technical and historical publications and such biographical and bibliographical works as seem likely to be useful to the student of the subject.
This article should prove a valuable guide to all botanists interested in the development of botany in eastern Europe and northern Asia.
The German Forest Resources Survey. Special Report of the Military Governor. No. 40. Pp. 48. Office of Military Government for Germany (U. S.), 1 October 1948.
This Report on the German Forest Re sources Survey, issued by the Office of Military Government for Germany (U. S.) in October 1948, is based on a survey of the forests of postwar Germany con ducted in 1946 by German foresters under the general direction of forestry officials of the four occupying powers.
The statistics were collected in German units of measurement, volumes being re corded in festmeters. The festmeter is defined as a cubic meter of tree trunk material, but in forest management three different kinds of festmeters are recognized:
(1) The volume festmeter with bark gives the volume of the entire stem of the tree, from the ground to the top, including the bark.(2) The harvest festmeter with bark gives the volume with bark from the stump to the point at which the diameter of the tree is 7 cm. This measurement is 10 percent less than the volume festmeter, because of logging loss.
(3) The harvest festmeter without bark is the same as (2) except for the bark. Roughly 10 percent of the volume is lost with the bark, although the percentage varies between 9 and 13 depending on the species of timber.
For small material which is cut into short lengths and stacked the Germans use the raummeter, which is one cubic meter of piled wood. Because of air spaces between the pieces, a raummeter corresponds to 0.7 festmeter. For lumber and other sawn material the cubic meter is the standard of measurement.
The survey covered all forests except those which are less than 10 hectares in area. Most of these small forests are attached to farms, and average volume per hectare and annual growth are much less than in the larger forests. It is estimated that the rate of growth on farm forests is not more than one-third of the average for larger forests. Al though these forests were not included in the survey proper, the German for esters did make rough estimates of their extent in each zone. Thus it was possible to make a comparison between the total forest area of Germany in 1946 and pre war estimates for 1937.
As a result of territorial losses since the end of the war the area of Germany's forests has been reduced by nearly 25 percent. Table 1 shows the reductions which have taken place, by kinds of ownership.1
1 The table numbers here have no relation to table numbers in the original report.
TABLE 1.- COMPARISON OF GERMAN FOREST AREAS 1937 AND 1946
|
Forest ownership |
1937 area |
1946 area |
Reduction |
||
|
1000 ha. |
1000 ha. |
1000 ha. |
percent |
||
|
State |
4,253 |
3,656 |
597 |
14.0 |
|
|
Community |
2,614 |
2,070 |
544 |
20.8 |
|
|
Private: |
|||||
|
|
Over 10 ha. |
4,119 |
2,181 |
1,938 |
47.0 |
|
|
Under 10 ha. |
1,689 |
1.678 |
11 |
0.6 |
|
TOTALS |
12,675 |
9.585 |
3,090 |
24.4 |
|
The total area covered by the 1946 survey, excluding forests under 10 hectares, was 7,907,100 hectares, including nonforested areas such as roads, glades, etc., which lie within forest boundaries. The net forested area was 7,547,600 hectares.
The distribution by types is as follows:
|
|
1000 ha. |
percent |
|
Conifers |
4,865 |
64 |
|
Broadleaved species |
2,217 |
30 |
|
Clear-cut areas |
465 |
6 |
Before the war it was considered normal that 1 percent of the total forest area should be in a clear-cut condition at any given time. The substantial increase in this percentage in 1946 reflects excessively heavy fellings during and following the war.
Volumes of standing timber were grouped in four tree-diameter classes, as shown in Table 2.
Average volume per hectare for all coniferous forests is 128 festmeters and the average in broadleaved forests is 129 festmeters. Average volumes on those areas of forest which bear timber 25 cm. or more in diameter at breast height are 272 festmeters of conifers and 240 festmeters of broadleaved species.
It is noteworthy that 40 percent of the total volume is contained in trees of 25 cm. diameter or more, that is to say, in trees large enough to produce saw timber, but only 9 percent of the volume is in trees larger than 3.5 cm. in diameter.
Sixty percent of the total volume of conifers is spruce and fir, and 40 percent is classified as pine and larch, although there are very small areas of other species in the latter group. Of the broadleaved species, beech accounts for 73 percent, oak 22 percent, and all others 5 percent. The tabulation of growth rates in Table 3 brings out the interesting point that average annual growth in coniferous forests belonging to communities is somewhat higher than that in state forests.
Estimates of growth in private forests under 10 hectares, in the U. S. Zone of Occupation only, show 1.5 festmeters per hectare for conifers, 1.1 for broadleaved species and an average of 1.4 for all species. Total annual growth for all zones is estimated to be nearly 30 million volume festmeters, but annual fellings in the postwar years have exceeded 200 percent of that amount.
The synoptic tables shown here present combined figures for the four Zones of Occupation, but the Report also contains many detailed tables relating to the U. S. Zone.
The Report gives the impression that in 1946 the forests of Germany were in good condition even though fellings had been at the rate of 150 percent of annual growth, or even higher, during the preceding 10 years. Average volumes of timber per hectare and growth rates per hectare are still relatively high. On the other band, reforestation and thinning programs have fallen behind and a great deal of work must be done to bring the forests back to their prewar state.
TABLE 2-VOLUME or STANDING TIMBER - Millions of volume festmeters with bark
|
Tree-diameter group |
Conifers |
Broadleaved species |
All species |
|||
|
Volume |
Percent |
Volume |
Percent |
Volume |
Percent |
|
|
0-15 cm. |
161 |
26 |
44 |
15 |
205 |
23 |
|
16-25 cm. |
245 |
39 |
87 |
31 |
332 |
37 |
|
26-35 cm. |
174 |
28 |
112 |
40 |
286 |
31 |
|
Over 35 cm. |
45 |
7 |
42 |
14 |
87 |
9 |
|
TOTALS |
625 |
100 |
285 |
100 |
910 |
100 |
TABLE 3. - AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATES IN FORESTS OVER 10 HECTARES - Volume festmeters per hectare
|
Forest |
Conifers |
Broadleaved |
All species |
|
State forests |
4.6 |
3.6 |
4.3 |
|
Community forests |
5.3 |
3.6 |
4.6 |
|
Private forests (over 10 ha.) |
4.1 |
2.9 |
3.8 |
|
ALL FORESTS |
4.6 |
3.4 |
4.2 |
Logging. Nelson C. Brown. Pp. xix + 418, 179 illustrations, $5.00. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1949.
This book, written for the student and possibly the operator, is a revision of two earlier books on principles and methods of logging in the United States and Canada. It deals with the general problem of suiting logging methods to local conditions of topography, climate, density of timber, volume and size of individual trees. It also points out that the selection and application of logging methods have been affected by changes in selective logging; in efficiency, wages, and availability of labor; in improved mechanical devices, especially tractors, power-driven saws, motor trucks, and the small sawmill; and in improved utilization of both logs and species.
It is organized in 6 parts and 24 chapters. Part I, General Introduction, contains chapters on Forest Utilization - General Considerations, Forest Resources and Stumpage Valuation, Forest Labor and Housing, and Partial Cutting (Selective Logging); Part II, Preparation of Logs for Transport - Felling and Bucking; Part III, Minor Log Transportation - Log Transportation, Animal Skidding, Tractor Logging, Power Logging - Cable - Hauling Systems, Combined Minor and Major Transportation; Part 117, Loading for Transport - Landings, Loading. Part V. - Major Land Transportation - Chutes, Wheeled Vehicles - Animal and Tractor Draft, Sleds, Motor Trucks, Forest Railroads. Part VI. - Major Water Transportation - General Considerations, Floating and Driving, River and Lake Rafts and Booms, Ocean Rafts, Flumes, Barges and Steamers, and Summary of Regional Logging Methods.
In most cases a description of the method is given, often with illustrations, the advantages and disadvantages are listed, characters of construction and operation are described, and conditions to which it is adapted are set forth. The book ends with a summary of regional logging methods.
Perhaps no single book of this size can give all the detail that a student of each particular method might wish. Significant omissions and some errors may be found by experts, despite the obvious care with which the book was prepared. But the book affords a basis for comparing adaptability of methods to different sets of conditions.
Bryant's Logging, last revised in 1923, is no longer fully up-to-date and no plan for further revision has been announced since the author's death. Thus the present volume stands alone in providing a reasonably comprehensive analytical up-to-date compilation on North American logging. It may prove of value as well in analyzing logging problems in unexploited forests, where modification of traditional hand-labor methods is under consideration. To the student it will be a valuable reference work.
The Nations accepting this Constitution, being determined to promote the common welfare by furthering separate and collective action on their part for the purposes of
raising levels of nutrition and standards of living of the peoples under their respective jurisdictions,securing improvements in the efficiency of the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products,
bettering the condition of rural populations,
and thus contributing toward an expanding world economy, hereby establish the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations... through which the Members will report to one another on the measures taken and the progress achieved in, the fields of action set forth above.
Preamble to the Constitution of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAO Member Nations
AUSTRALIA
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BRAZIL
BURMA
CANADA
CEYLON
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UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
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