Based on the results of the rapid assessment and validation for appropriate and potential income-generating activities for the Bedouins, including the results of consultations with stakeholders such as the Bedouin key leaders, the program manager of the Gulf of Aqaba Protectorate Development Programme, the technical staff of the Bedouin Support Program and the manager and senior technical staff of the Nabq Multiple Managed Protected Area, the selected potential community-based income generating projects and activities for the Bedouin in Nabq are as follows.
Potential sites suitable for CBMRM were assessed by stakeholders using a Matrix of Selection Criteria and Ranking, using the following criteria/indicators:
• extent
• accessibility
• availability of Bedouins dwelling near the mangrove area
• suitability of the specific area for rehabilitation
This resulted in recommendations that the following sites could be developed further:
1. Nabq Multiple-use Managed Protected Area
• Al Garghana
• Marsa Abo Zabad
• Shora Al Rowaisseya
• Shora Al Marqautta
2. Elba Protectorate
• Adal Deep
• El-Hamirah
3. Red Sea Marine Parks
• Sharm El-Qebly
• Hamata’s mangrove cluster/group
• Wadi Lahmi
The areas initially selected for pilot-scale CBMRM are the following:
• Al Garghana area including the mud flats with eroded shoreline and access tract
• El-Hamirah
• Sharm El Qebly
Galal (1995) estimated that mangrove areas in Nabq that were identified to have potential for rehabilitation and for ecotourism was 53 hectares. The different schemes for afforestation that may be suitable are: 15 hectares for Assisted Natural Regeneration; 15 hectares for Reforestation and 23 hectares for Mangrove Stand Improvement.
The mangrove area selected based on biophysical aspect will also be subjected to further selection and ranking using socioeconomic suitability parameters and political-institutional indicators such as:
• social acceptance and support of local people (Bedouin)
• no legal and policy restriction
• no conflict of land use
• favourable support of hotel and resort operators nearby and adjacent to the area for access or availability of sewage provide treated sewage and desalinated water to be used for irrigation of the nursery
• available technical support by the MALR
• Endorsement and concurrence of the governorate or local government unit (LGU)
• Prospect of the area for financial support
• Priority of the area for future development and consideration of the MALR and EEAA for future regular activities, etc.
Although afforestation in Egypt is directly implemented by the MALR, there are community initiatives of tree planting along the roadside and riverbanks, which are an integral part of the projects funded by UNDP, HANDS and EU. In Sinai, the Protectorate of EEAA provided the seeds and rationing water for nursery and the Bedouins extended labour as counterpart to produce planting materials of Acacia and indigenous species. Once the seedlings have reached a plantable size, the project pays the Bedouins. The Bedouins also provided labour for planting and maintenance. The initiative of Sinai Protectorate in involving the active participation of Bedouins in managing ecotourism, which includes seedling production and planting, may serve as a springboard to implement the community based mangrove rehabilitation in Nabq mangrove areas, which is part also of the jurisdiction of Sinai Protectorate.
In 1996, ecotourism has become the primary goal of the Sinai Protectorate of the EEAA in its aim to conserve the natural environment of the Sinai region and sustain the well-being of local people. The project aims at developing ecotourism according to the Bedouin management system. Ecotourism provide economic opportunity to the local community/Bedouin appropriate to their cultural environment in order to limit the impact of tourism on Bedouin lifestyle. Since 1996, the St. Katherine Protectorate's main concern has not only been tourism. It has successfully worked on other programs to study and support health care, specifically the growth of Bedouin children. It also has conducted extensive botanical, veterinarian, zoological and geological research aimed at conserving the natural environment of the area.
One specific project name Fansina embodied the spirit of St. Katherine's Bedouin managed ecotourism, which was run predominantly by Bedouin women. The women produce handicrafts of Bedouin style, which help the local community preserve their traditional skills and, at the same time, generate income to sustain the local economy.
Trekking the historical and religious sites in Sinai and backcountry hiking are the preferred outdoor activities of the visitors or tourists. Another tourist attraction is the Wadi I'tlah and Wadi Tala'. In the wadis, one can listen to the sound of splashing and spluttering water springs. The St Katherine Protectorate also offers a unique Bedouin mediated experience. These areas within the St. Katherine Protectorate and surrounding interior desert of South Sinai have been recognized by the international market as an area viable for "adventure tourism".
In partnership with local people, the staff of EEAA turned the abandoned traditional houses and gardens in Wadi Gerba into a Bedouin eco-lodge. The eco-lodge is managed directly by the Bedouins. In fact, the final goals of the project was to develop the South Sinai area by making its inhabitants responsible for their own land and eventually appoint a management team entirely composed by locals.
Conservation would become an attractive option to rural people by linking sustainable tourism with local community development. In pursuit of these goals, the management unit of the St. Katherine Protectorate actively promotes environmental and cultural tourism in these areas (/http://www.trvel watch.com/articles.htm).
The mangrove areas preliminary selected for community based ecotourism development and management are the following:
1. Nabq Multiple-Use Management Protected Area
• Al Garghana
• Marsa Abo Zabad
• Shora Al Rowaisseya
2. Red Sea Marine Park Area
• Sharm El-Quebly
• Hamata cluster/group of mangrove such as:
⇒ Wadi Masturah
⇒ Wadi Al-Qu’lan delta
⇒ Ubdi Rawad El Adaiah
⇒ Wadi Harbiyyah
These areas were selected for their accessibility, existing available facilities (hotel, resort, diving centre, etc.) nearby/adjacent to the area, uniqueness of the biophysical scenery of the area, availability/existence of local people/Bedouins, willingness of the hotel/resort operators to adapt the area as part of ecological tourist destination and the absence of legal/policy restrictions as well as the prospects of the area for future development.
The community-based approach of mangrove rehabilitation and ecotourism development and management will include the following components:
1. Mobilization of the support of the local communities through a sustained social marketing strategy;
2. Strengthening the capability of the local people as partners in mangrove development and management;
3. Partnership with private organizations (such as hotel and resort operators for promotion and logistic assistance), other government agencies such as the Ministry of Public Works (MPW) for water allocation; Ministry of Tourism (MOT) for promoting mangrove for ecotourism; and the Ministry of Rural Development (MRD) and the governorate for provision of basic facilities and needs and for the development of the Bedouin community; and
4. Capability building of the technical staff involved in the promotion and development of ecotourism and rehabilitation.
An ecotourism site can be ideally managed through a community-based approach in which any capable member of most households in the locality can participate. The local community can organize a cooperative to undertake the task of managing the site.
Among other things, the activities involved are the following:
• assessing the potential of a particular resource for ecotourism;
• identifying achievable compatible objectives for the development of the area;
• coordinating with different stakeholders to develop strategies and policies related to the implementation of an ecotourism project;
• preparing sound conservation and protection programs;
• developing environmentally sound structures and facilities inside the area;
• training personnel on resource-use management, conservation and protection; and
• promoting ecotourism through an effective marketing strategy.
Species for urban planting are selected according to the location and type of project to be implemented (i.e. for major thoroughfares, because of the emission of oxides, pollution-resistant species are required).
Urban greening and landscaping involve planting of trees and other plants in parks, thoroughfares and islands, boulevards and other areas in the urban and peri-urban areas. Primarily, these plants are planted to enhance the beauty and create unique settings. Narrow dense belts of trees are effective barriers to noise. Research reveals that where houses are and where there are windbreak plantings, energy requirement for cooling is significantly reduced by over 50 percent.
In Sharm El Sheik, the city council has embarked on a project geared towards urban greening and landscaping. But the city council found difficulty in raising or buying good-quality seedlings necessary for planting. Thus, this livelihood option was offered for backyards or big-scale seedling production.
Generally, trees for urban greening and landscaping are propagated from seeds.
For ornamental plants, they are propagated through cuttings and sprouts. Other species are raised through seeds. Potted seedlings or cuttings are properly maintained and hardened before planting-out. It may also be possible to raise Acacia and other species for landscape and urban greening.
As practiced in Mt. Sinai Protectorate, partnership between the Bedouin and the Ras Mohammad National Park management evolved through their joint effort to raise planting stocks for establishment of seed orchard and plantation. The protectorate provided water and seeds while the Bedouins provided labour. The protectorate bought the seedlings raised by the Bedouins at three Egyptian pounds per seedling.
In Sharm El Sheik, hotel and resort operators and contractors are engaged in urban greening and landscaping. However, contracting private groups such as local people association and individual firm is preferable. Demand is high at the onset of the rainy season.
Production of quality seedlings of required species will greatly ensure saleability. Rare species, when properly propagated, demand higher price. However, it is useful to secure the market before production of seedlings.
Raising and displaying the planting stock along major thoroughfares and commercial counters are good venues for advertising products. Personal inquiries regarding demand or requirements of buyers could also help. Brochures with colourful illustrations on how to grow and maintain seedlings will be of great help in promoting the planting of materials. It is also a good practice to attend seminars and workshops on how to grow plants properly and effectively. Topics may include tree surgery, plant propagation and the like.
In terms of ecological and social considerations, production of good- quality seedlings will greatly enhance the physical appearance of a place, increase its floral biodiversity and eventually invite animals, birds, insects and other useful organisms. Providing enough seedlings to plant is a big contribution to Sharm El Sheik. These plants offer social, recreational, economic and environmental benefits.
In terms of waste generation, tree planting does not generate waste. All cuttings can be propagated again. Unused leaves and branches can be used as mulch or can be composted for use as organic fertilizer. This livelihood encourages recycling of plant parts for productive uses. Plastic pots can also be re-used.
This livelihood is labour intensive. It provides employment and income to most since all members of the family can participate from potting to protection and maintenance of seedlings.
Somebody’s trash can be another’s treasure. This is the principle behind in putting up a centre for recyclable wastes. The centre will provide sustained livelihood opportunities not only for the enterprising urbanites but for rural folks as well. At the same time, it can also offer an alternative income source for the out-of-school youths, who can be tapped as area coordinators while villages or cooperatives can be the operators.
This potential activity of the Bedouins shall involve the organization of groups that will be tapped as area coordinators. The key leaders of the local people can also serve as coordinators if the area is to be run by the community. Seed money may be provided for every group.
To operationalise this activity, area coordinators can then be assigned in each of the ten selected areas to buy recyclables from the hotel and resort establishments. With a given seed money, the coordinator buys recyclables such as assorted plastics, bottles, aluminium and other metals, paper and even plastic wrappers. The coordinators are given the freedom to device their own strategy such as house-to-house calls and/or put up signs in the neighbourhood or working area. The coordinators shall deliver the sorted recyclables to the centre regularly (once a week) to repack and sell or market the non-biodegradable waste product to the recycling plant in Cairo and compost the biodegradable waste product in Bedouin village as source of organic fertilizer which can be used in seedling production.
Recyclables are accumulated and stored properly. To facilitate smooth operation of activities, previously contacted bulk buyers are informed for the pick-up and sale of recyclables after accumulating agreed-upon volume.
In terms of marketing considerations, there are many recycling and manufacturing firms located in Cairo. These firms usually purchase recyclables in bulk, at times in quantities with a minimum weight of a ton. Purchase prices would vary for each recyclable.
Many Bedouins already realize the significant positive impact of properly managing recyclables in the homes, resorts and hotel establishments on the environment and the citizenry. Putting up a properly managed recyclable centre strengthens further the people’s commitment to help the government solve the problem on solid wastes, of which 60 percent are considered recyclables. Recycling will lessen the volume of wastes being dumped, and will eventually minimize the occurrence of pests, diseases and illnesses.
The Arabic countries, particularly the plains, valleys and mountains are rich in agricultural resources, blossoms and plants that produce different kinds of honey. Egypt alone has two million (2,000,000) colonies of bees, presenting 48% of the total number of colonies in the Arab countries (http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/arab_countries.htm).
According to the statistics of the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), as cited in http://www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/arab_countries.htm, there are 406,170 beekeepers in the whole of the Arab countries, with Egypt alone having half of this number (200,000). Meanwhile, it was reported that Egypt comes first in producing honey of about 16000 tons of honey yearly (equivalent to 57% of the total production in the Arab countries). It was also cited that the average annual consumption of honey that is available in the Arabian country for an individual is 116 grams. However, others believed that this is not really the actual average of consumption per individual because the actual consumption really depends on the accessible quantities of honey, either produced or exported. The medical importance of honey (i.e. jelly, pollen, prosopolis) has been gaining recognition in the Arabian countries but most often still dependent on other countries’ supply.
Beekeeping fits in well as part of integrated rural development programmes, and the best projects are those that promote sustainable beekeeping on a long-term basis that makes use of indigenous expertise, knowledge and materials. Imported equipment should be avoided as supply may be unpredictable, or may later on be obsolete because of lack of spare parts or suitably trained maintenance technicians. Some beekeeping management objectives are given below (Ntenga and Mugongo 1991):
1. To alleviate rural poverty by creating in situ income-generating activities through beekeeping;
2. To improve the potential for beekeeping by planting melliferous mangrove species towards the landward fringe;
3. To improve the quantity and quality of beekeeping products through sound management;
4. To assist in the making of beekeeping products;
5. To overcome specific problems such as disease or pesticide misuse;
6. To transform destructive honey hunting from wild nests to sustainable methods.
In the Sunderbans mangroves, large amount of beeswax and honey are produced by wild bee swarms that build hives on branches, in tree holes, and crevices are collected (232,640 kg of honey). The hives and trees are often destroyed during collection (Christensen and Snedaker, 1984, as cited by Ntenga and Mugongo, 1991).
In the Philippines, beekeeping is an enterprise with social, economic and ecological benefits that only requires minimal time, labour and resources. It provides additional income to farmers through honey production and other bee by-products like pollen, wax, prosopolis, royal jelly and bee venom. At present, the supply of honey and other bee-based products is far below the demand. Beekeepers could only provide 25 percent (30 tons) of the 120-ton demand for bee products per year (Tamayo, Personal Communication 1997 as cited in Sustainable livelihood options for the Philippines: an information kit 1997).
The honey can be sold in groceries, supermarkets, trade centres, malls, cooperatives, bakeries, food processors, confectioners and pharmaceutical companies. Beekeeping also helps improve the ecological balance by promoting plant regeneration and species diversity through pollination.
Honey production depends on the type of bees, the availability of pollen and nectar, prevailing wind, temperature salinity, contaminants, availability of freshwater and other factors. Aerial spraying of pesticides can affect beekeeping. Seasonal burning of the inter-terrestrial zone and the mangrove landward fringe will also destroy a number or melliferous plants.
Apiculture is likewise an important activity in the Asia Pacific and Oceania, Australia, Burma, Bangladesh and India (1984 loc. cit.). At least three honeybees are native to Asia and all are exploited by man. Two of these, the little honeybee (Apis florea), and the giant honeybee (Apis dorsata), cannot be kept in hives as they nest in the open air, on a single comb. The former builds its small comb (about 25 cm in diameter) hanging from branches within bushes, while the latter suspends its much larger combs (around 1 m in diameter) from tree branches, rocky ledges and buildings. The giant honeybee's nest may well contain 50 kg of honey. The third species, Apis cerana, is known as the Asian hive bee and can be kept in a hive.
Beekeeping in Nabq may not be possible during dry season because of the rain coming only three to four times per year during winter and the area is too dry for the Avicennia marina to bear flowers abundantly. During the conduct of the field visit, it was observed that there were not enough insects, especially bees, in the mangrove stand. This observation was confirmed by the Bedouin village leaders, technical staff of the Nabq Multiple-use Management Protected Area. The Program Manager of the Gulf of Aqaba Protectorate Development Program doubted the viability of apiculture in a single species of A. marina in mangrove areas. The viability of apiculture had been proven only along the Nile River and other places where there are sufficient rainwater annually.
In order to promote apiculture in the Arabian countries, the following recommendations are hereby proposed (www.beekeeping.com/articles/us/arab-countries):
1) construct stations for producing the improved queens either in isolated areas or by using instrument insemination to devise races that are suitable for the Arabian weather; and
2) diversifying bee products in the Arabic countries.
