26 Forestry policy, non-timber forest products and rural economy-the case for Sri Lanka - Amara Liyanaarachchi^[39]

ABSTRACT

There are three main objectives in the current Sri Lanka forest policy: conservation of forests for posterity, increasing the tree cover and productivity of the forests, and enhancing the contribution of forests for the welfare of the rural population and to strengthen the national economy. Under the policy the state forests are classified into several categories, one of which, the multiple-use conservation forests, will be primarily managed for the sustainable production of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs have an important role in the rural economy and also provide benefits of considerable importance at the national level. The knowledge, skills, social customs and traditions related to NTFPs have been passed on from one generation to another, and form part of the traditional culture. In this paper, an attempt is made to categorize the various NTFPs available in Sri Lanka and emphasis will be given to non-timber forest goods rather than services. Around 40 percent of the rural population in the dry zone derives some benefits from NTFPs, and the value of NTFPs from the lowland rain forest has been estimated to be US$300 per ha per year. Inadequate implementation of policy guidelines, shrinking resource base and inadequate knowledge on cultivation, management, harvesting, processing and storage are identified as the major issues which hinder the development of the NTFP sector. Proper implementation of policy guidelines, major reforms in legislation and management strategies according to the policy together with a coordinated effort in research on cultivation, utilization and product development, should be undertaken for sustainable development of the NTFP sector in Sri Lanka.

INTRODUCTION

Sri Lanka is a small island nation rich in culture and biodiversity. It lies between 5°55’-9°50’ N and 79°42’-81°55’ E, covers an area of 65 525 km² (including inland water bodies) and is characterized by heterogeneous vegetation types reflecting the topographic variability and other environmental factors. The island is 432 km in length and 225 km at its widest point. The inhabitants of Sri Lanka have utilized and managed the island’s forest resources for at least 2000 years. Sri Lanka is a densely populated country with a population in 2001 of 19.3 million, giving an average population density of 294 persons km^-2. Sri Lanka’s geography comprises a highland massif in the south centre of the island surrounded by an intermediate zone of upper ridges and low valleys and an outer region of low lands extending to coastal areas. Precipitation varies according to locality with the central highlands and the southwestern lowlands receiving up to 5000 mm per year and the eastern and northern parts up to 3 500 mm. Certain pockets in the northwest and southeast receive well below 1500 mm.

The great diversity in climate, topography, soil and geology is reflected in Sri Lanka’s flora, fauna and ecosystems with over half of all south Asian amphibians and reptiles; of the 3000 species of flowering plants in Sri Lanka, 830 are endemic with the vast majority concentrated in the rain forests. Just north of the equator, Sri Lanka is separated from India by the 35 km wide, 10 m deep Palk Straits. The contribution of the forestry sector to the national economy in 2000 was estimated at 1.6 percent of the gross national product and the total manpower employed in the forestry and wood-based industry amounted to about 170 000. In 1992 the annual timber demand of the country was estimated at 1 million m³, with an annual growth of 4 percent.

FOREST COVER

Natural forest cover has been assessed over the last five decades by aerial surveys and more recently satellite remote sensing. As in most developing countries, a reduction in cover has been observed. Assessments in 1951 and 1994 indicated dense natural forest cover at 44 percent and 24 percent respectively. In 1999, the forest cover was estimated to be about 2 000 000 ha, which amounted to 30.8 percent of the total area of Sri Lanka. The forest area consists of 1.46 million ha of dense forests and 0.46 million ha of sparse forests (Table 1). The per capita forest area is around 0.11 ha and the estimated annual rate of deforestation is 0.8 percent. Forest plantations total 93 000 ha, comprising mainly pines, eucalypts, acacias, teak and mahogany, with about 14 500 ha of other species (Table 2).

Table 1. Forested area (1999)

Table 2. Forest plantations by species

Sri Lanka has initiated numerous activities to protect the natural forests for their biodiversity and cultural as well as aesthetic values. Two institutions, namely the Forest Department and the Department of Wildlife Conservation, administer the protected forest areas. The present extent of protected forest areas is estimated to be around 15 percent of the area of Sri Lanka.

THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY

The main document which elaborates the policy of the government in the conservation of natural forests is the forest policy, first published in 1929, and subsequently revised on several occasions. The concern with the depletion of forest resources at global and national levels made the government revise the existing forest policy, and a new policy was approved in March 1995. This new National Forest Policy is related directly to the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme, the World Heritage Convention, forest principles, conservation of biodiversity and convention to combat desertification. Two laws, the National Heritage and Wilderness Area Act and the Forest Ordinance, support the implementation of the National Forest Policy. Currently, the Forest Ordinance is being amended to provide the provisions for implementing the newly formulated national policies and legal provisions required under the convention on biological diversity.

POLICY OBJECTIVES WITH REGARD TO FOREST CONSERVATION

The principle objectives of the new policy include the conservation of forests for posterity, with particular regard to biodiversity, soil, water; and historical, cultural, religious and aesthetic values. It is important to increase the tree cover and productivity of the forests to meet the needs of present and future generations for forest products and services, particularly to enhance the contribution of forestry for the welfare of the rural population and to strengthen the national economy, with special attention being paid to equity in economic development. The traditional rights, cultural values and religious beliefs of people living within or adjacent to forest areas need to be recognized and respected. The natural forest will be firstly allocated for conservation, and secondly for the regulated multiple-use production forestry. For the management of natural forests, estates will form partnerships, where appropriate with local people, rural communities and other stakeholders.

The new forest policy also includes provisions for the production of timber and NTFPs, value addition and marketing. Greater responsibility is given to local people, cooperatives, other organized groups or private bodies in commercial forest production, industrial manufacturing and marketing. In conservation forest areas where limited extraction of forest products is permitted, this activity will be limited to the removal of NTFPs by the local people or community-based organizations.

POLICY ON WOOD AND NTFPS, INDUSTRIES AND MARKETING

1. Greater responsibility will be given to the local people, organized groups, cooperatives, industries and other private bodies in commercial forest production, industrial manufacturing and marketing.

2. Efficient forest products utilization, development of competitive forest industries based on sustainable wood sources, and manufacture of value-added forest products will be promoted.

3. Effective measures to protect the forests and prevent illegal trade in wood, NTFPs and endangered species of flora and fauna will be instituted.

Under the strategies for the National Forest Policy implementation, allocation and zoning of state land for conservation, agroforestry and forest plantation development are among the important strategies to promote sustainable land use for forestry. According to this, state forest land will be allocated for management in the following categories:

Strict conservation forest - These forests should be strictly conserved or preserved to protect biodiversity, soils, water and historical, cultural, religious and aesthetic values. Research in these areas is allowed.

Conservation forest - Non-extractive uses such as scientific research, protection of watersheds and habitats of wildlife, and regulated nature-based tourism as well as controlled collection of NTFPs, and possibly dead fuelwood by the local people living adjacent to the forest should be allowed. All the activities have to be according to the management plans that are to be developed with rural communities.

Multiple-use reserved forest - These forests should be managed primarily for sustainable production of wood for national interest and for sustainable production of timber and NTFPs for the benefit of adjacent communities.

NTFPs

NTFPs refer to all the marketable or subsistence goods (other than timber) and services for human or industrial consumption derived from renewable forest resources and biomass bearing promise for augmenting real rural household incomes and employment. The products include the use of plants for food, beverage, forage, fuel and medicine; animals, birds and fish for food, fur and feather and other products such as honey, lac and silk; and the services of land for conservation and recreation

According to Section 78 of the Forest Ordinance of Sri Lanka 1966, the following materials, when found in or brought from a forest, are declared as NTFPs:

(a) leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, juices, wood oil, natural varnish, barks, lac, gums, resins, caoutchouc, catechu and myrabolans;

(b) plants which are not trees, including grasses, creepers, reed, mosses and all parts or produce of such plants;

(c) tusks, horns, shed horns, edible birds’ nests and honey;

(d) peat, surface soil, rocks and gems, including limestone, coral, laterite, bitumen, asphalt, bituminous shale, mineral oils and all products of mines and quarries.

The forests of Sri Lanka contain a large number of trees, shrubs and herbs which provide various products other than wood. These products are commonly known as minor forest products or NTFPs. A number of such forest products are used locally while a few enter the export market. These products have numerous direct and indirect uses, some have traditional uses and are of immense benefit to the people living around forests and sometimes also to those who live in urban areas. They provide the following benefits to the local as well as the national economy:

• They help in meeting the subsistence needs of people living in rural areas and provide cash income and employment. They play an important role in alleviating rural poverty.

• They provide material for small industries, employment in collection, transport, trade and processing and they earn foreign exchange through the export of unprocessed and processed products.

• The majority of the Sri Lankan people in rural areas use medicinal plants in one form or another.

CLASSIFICATION OF NTFPs

Gums, resins and oleoresins

There are several tree species in Sri Lankan forests from which gums and resins are collected, e.g. dawu (Anogeissus latifolia), and hik (Lannea coromandelica)). The resin obtained from gammalu (Pterocarpus marsupium) is widely used in Sri Lanka to treat diabetes. Gum obtained from kaju (Anacardium occidentale) is used locally as an adhesive. Another gum locally used as an adhesive is from kohomba (Azadirachta indica). Pine (Pinus caribaea), which is an exotic tree species widely planted in forest plantations, is tapped for oleoresin on a commercial scale. Except pine resin, none of the other gums and resins is collected on a large scale. Damar resins are produced by various species of Dipterocarpus. The best-known product, dorana oil, is obtained from the dorana tree (Dipterocarpus glandulosus). This oil, mixed with other organic substances, was used to paint murals in ancient temples in Sri Lanka. Kekuna (Canarium zeylanicum) produces an oleoresin, which is locally collected in small quantities and is used as incense.

Barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds

Barks are used to extract tannin and also for ayurvedic medicinal purposes. The main tannin-producing barks are kadol (Rhizophora spp.), ranawara (Cassia auriculata) and wattle (Acacia decurrens). These species are locally used in limited quantities for leather and fishnet tanning. Hal (Vateria acuminata) bark is used to arrest fermentation in sap obtained from kitul and coconut inflorescences. The barks of some species are widely used in indigenous medicine. Some examples are etdemata (Gmelina arborea), kumbuk (Terminalia arjuna), madan (Syzygium cumini) and ankenda (Acronychia pedunculata). The bark of goda kaduru (Strychnos nuxvomica) is exported on a small scale from Sri Lanka for the extraction of strychnine.

Fruits and seeds

Several varieties of wild fruit are collected by local villagers for food. Some of these fetch attractive prices in the local market. Wood apple (Limonia acidissima), mora (Dimocarpus longan), palu (Manilkara hexandra), wira (Drypetes sepiaria), madan (Syzygium cumini) and katuboda (Cullenia ceylanica) are some of the popular varieties of wild fruit. Dried fruit flesh of goraka (Garcinia quaesita) is used as a spice, collected seasonally (April-May) by villagers for sale and domestic consumption. Beraliya (Shorea megistophylla) and panamora (Shorea disticha) seeds are dried and used as food items. Hal (Vateria copallifera) seeds are large and rich in carbohydrates. Extracted starch from these seeds is used to prepare various food items. Dried seeds of wal enasal (Elettaria cardamomum) are used as a spice. Several varieties of seed are used in ayurvedic medicine. Some of the most popular varieties are ingini (Strychnos potatorum), madan (Syzygium cumini), puswel (Entada pusaetha) and attana (Datura metel).

Flowers and their juices

Many wild flowers are used for the production of medicinal beverages. The more important ones are ranawara (Cassia auriculiformis), beli (Aegle marmelos) and mee (Madhuca longifolia). In addition, inflorescences of kitul (Caryota urens) are tapped to obtain phloem sap, which is used to produce a range of products such as toddy (alcoholic beverage), treacle, jaggery and vinegar.

Leaves

Some leaves are used in cottage industries, e.g. Furcaea foetida. Forest tree leaves are widely used in oriental medical treatments. In addition, a few are used as wrappers and as leafy vegetables. The more important species are beedi (Diospyros melanoxylon), kanda (Macaranga peltata), beru (Agrostistachys hookeri) and bata (Ochlandra stridula). The leaves of blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) are distilled to produce oil which contain cineole. Due to overexploitation without any planned management, many herbal medicines that were once abundant in Sri Lanka are almost extinct and now have to be imported. One example is bin kohomba (Munronia pumila) which was once available in the dry zone and the mid-country and is now almost extinct. Leaves of tree species are used as fodder for cattle, buffaloes and goats.

Grasses, bamboos, canes and creepers

Various sedges available in the forests are used for handicraft industries such as basket making, hat making and mat-making. Bata is used to make kites and religious decorations. The traditional industries of basketware and bamboo flutes are based almost exclusively on a single native species, bata (Ochlandra stridula). Pseudoxytenanthera manadelpha and Davidsea attenuata are two of the local species used to produce crude basketware. Bamboo is extensively used as a substitute for timber in construction, scaffolding, ladders, bridges and fences in Sri Lanka. Four bamboo species, Ochlandra stridula, Davidsea attenuata, Bambusa vulgaris and Dendrocalamus giganteus, are widely used in construction industries. Bamboo is also used to make curios for the tourist industry.

The uses of rattan range from construction material for housing (wattle and daub houses) to raw material for furniture, kitchen utensils and rope. Rattan is one of the most important raw materials for cottage industries. The rattan industry of Sri Lanka depends on 10 native species. Commercially widely used species in Sri Lanka are thambotu wel (Calamus zeylanicus), sudu wewel (Calamus ovoideus), heen wewel (Calamus pseudotenuis), ma wewel (Calamus thwaitesii), kaha wewel (Calamus rivalis), narswel (Calamus delicatulus), wewel (Calamus rotang) and kukuluwel (Calamus pachystemonus).

The stem of the woody climber weniwel (Coscinium fenestratum), which grows in the intermediate and wet zone rain forests, is used as a diuretic and anti-tetanus drug. There is overexploitation of this species and the Forest Department has taken steps to control its collection. A breeding programme is now underway.

PRESENT STATUS OF COLLECTION, UTILIZATION AND CONTRIBUTION TO THE RURAL ECONOMY

The present collection, use and trade in NTFPs have been considered to be insignificant to the national economy. Thus very few reliable data are available on the demand, supply and trade regarding these products. Most of these products are regulated by legislations and permits are issued on an annual or short-term basis for some commodities. It is clear that the significance of NTFPs in the national economy as well as rural economy has been little appreciated. They offer the poor a means to increase both their food production and their income. A study done in Knuckles has shown that NTFPs provide up to about Rs.10 000 in cash per year per family. This amounts to 16.2 percent of their total income (Gunatilake et al. 1993).

According to the survey carried out by Epitawatta (1995) on traditional uses of forests, the income obtained by families who are engaged in the collection and utilization of NTFPs is significant. In lowland rain forests this amounts to around Rs.28 000 per year per family; in tropical montane rain forests Rs.21 000; in savanna land Rs.7500; and in dry zone forests Rs.15 000.

Bamboos

Bamboos continue to hold an important place in the rural economy in Sri Lanka. They are renowned for their usefulness and are called the poor man’s timber. The strength of bamboo, its straightness, lightness, relatively easy propagation and its quick growth make it very suitable for numerous purposes in Sri Lanka such as in the construction of houses, bridges and scaffolding, as substitute for water pipes, for fencing and making implements. Bamboo is also used in the production of furniture and domestic utensils such as baskets and ornamental items. Bamboo is very effective in reducing stream and riverbank erosion, and is commonly planted for this purpose. Table 3 shows the employment and income levels in the bamboo industry from a survey carried out during the formulation of the Master Plan for Handicraft Development (1987).

Table 3. Income and employment in the bamboo industry

Source: De Zoysa and Vivekanandan (1991).

Five species of bamboo are commonly used in Sri Lanka. Three are native and two are introduced species. Traditional production of basketware, bamboo flutes, ornamental items, etc. is based on native species while the two introduced large-diameter species are used primarily as wood substitute in the construction industry. The three native species (bata species) grow primarily in natural forests and their distribution is shown in Table 4. The two introduced bamboo species, common bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) and giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus), are mainly found in non-forest areas such as home gardens, roadsides and riverbanks. Unlike rattan, the bamboo industry does not totally depend on natural sources.

Table 4. Native bamboo species and their distribution

Source: De Zoysa and Vivekanandan (1991).

The study indicated that of the people who are involved in the bamboo industry, 77 percent are engaged in collecting bamboo from state forests and the rest from private lands (see Table 5). The production of Bambusa vulgaris is about 50 culms per clump and the annual production is around 270 000 culms (Swarnamali and Vivekanandan 1991). In fact a great number of bamboo culms are cut and used locally and estimates for this are not available. The actual figures of production may be around twice of the recorded amount. The cultivators have estimated that their net income is around Rs.750 per clump. However, cultivators can meet only 45 percent of the demand.

Table 5. Percentage of people involved in the bamboo industry

Most people who are involved in the processing of bata use it in the production of goods such as bata flowerpots, cooking utensils and handicrafts. The producers obtain a net income of approximately Rs.10 000 per year. The main species used is Ochlandra stridula (Swarnamali and Vivekanandan 1991).

Rattan

The uses of rattan range from construction material for housing (wattle and daub houses) to raw material for furniture, kitchen utensils and rope. Rattan is one of the most important NTFPs for cottage industries. At present the rattan industry operates on a commercial basis in 13 out of 25 administrative districts in Sri Lanka, but production has declined recently due to shortages of raw material. According to the Master Plan for Handicraft Development in Sri Lanka (1987), about 2100-2200 persons are directly engaged in the rattan craft industry as a main source of family income. The main factor which determines the location of the industries is the natural distribution of the raw material.

Almost in every village in the vicinity of forests in the wet zone, 20-60 percent of villagers collect rattan, either for commercial purposes, or for their own subsistence consumption, and in some dry zone areas, more than half of all villagers earn substantial income from rattan collection and cottage industry production (Epitawatta 1995). Rattan craft industries are more widespread than those of bamboo. The percentages of people involved in different aspects in the rattan industry are given in the Table 6 (De Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1991).

Table 6. Percentage of people involved in the rattan industry

Table 7. Native rattan species and their distribution

The main sources of rattan are natural forests in various parts of the country. There are ten native rattan species which are widely used in the rattan industry. Table 7 lists these different species, along with their distribution in the country. The main marketing channels for rattan products are handicraft and furniture shops in major cities in the country. Due to their small-scale production, craft workers lack capital and very often depend on middlemen for marketing. Sri Lanka earns foreign exchange from exporting rattan products to six or seven countries. In 1986, Sri Lanka earned US$50 000 from both bamboo and rattan products. However, at present export of bamboo and rattan products is negligible because quality has declined.

Kitul (Caryota urens) products

Kitul (Cryota urens) is a multipurpose tree species found in natural forests and home gardens in the wet and intermediate zones. It provides a variety of popular products, of which the sap is the most important. Kitul sap is the base for a widely popular local beer (toddy), treacle and jaggery. Kitul sap is obtained by tapping the inflorescence, and the sap is then heated to produce treacle and jaggery. In producing toddy, the sap is fermented with natural yeast. Other non-timber kitul products include the sago-like pith, which forms a valuable food, and kitul fibre which is obtained from the leaves. Kitul tapping has a long history in Sri Lanka and is noted to have been one of the important traditional trades in the past.

The kitul palm reaches maturity and bears flowers after five or six years. Tapping is seasonal-the sap is produced mainly in the rainy season. The peak production time is from August to March. The income generated by villagers from this activity is sufficient for their normal livelihood. According to the recent survey done in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, around 70 percent of the total income from NTFPs comes from kitul products. The average value of kitul products from lowland rain forests is around US$200 per ha per year. Kitul products are not exported at present.

Edible plants

Until the early years of this century, rural communities in Sri Lanka relied heavily on the forests to meet their requirements for food. Since then, this reliance has declined due to a variety of reasons, including the introduction of commercial crops, depletion of the forest cover and the influence of modernization. Today, the role of edible plants may not be very important at the national level, but quite a large number of people who live in the vicinity of forest areas still depend on the forests for some of their food needs. According to a recent survey, a clear link between major vegetation types (forest types) and food collection habits has been identified. High collection rates have been recorded in the intermediate and dry zone forests and involved about 65 to 75 percent of the households, whereas the relationship is low in the montane zone where the figure is only about 20 percent of the households. Distance from the forest is also a significant factor in the collection of edible plants. There are two major groups of edible plants, edible higher plants and mushrooms. Mushroom collection is a countrywide activity and it is recorded in every forest type. Generally, mushrooms are collected by villagers for domestic consumption only. Collection for sale is very rare.

Most parts of edible higher plants such as roots, tubers, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds can be used as food. The major yams are Dioscorias species, commonly named as kodol, jamburala, katuala and hiritala. Harvesting yams from forests for domestic consumption is an islandwide activity. Some of the more common edible plants are listed in Table 8. Most foods are used for household consumption, although a limited number of items, in limited quantities, are sold in markets.

Medicinal plants

In Sri Lanka the use of medicinal plants obtained from the forest dates back many centuries. Even today, medicinal plants play an important role in the indigenous medical system. It is estimated that about 30 to 35 percent of the people use ayurvedic and traditional systems of health care. Medicinal plants have been used to treat or cure over 300 ailments in Sri Lanka. It is also recorded that well over 600 plant species are used in traditional medicine.

The collection of medicinal herbs can be considered a significant income generating activity. The highest family income from the collection of medicinal plants has been recorded from the savanna forests. In this area, the average family income from the collection of medicinal plants represents around 70 percent of the total income derived from the collection of NTFPs, and over 60 percent of the villagers are involved in this activity. However, in most other areas of the country, involvement ranges from 20 to 55 percent. After collection, the plant parts are chopped or sliced and dried in sunlight, put into bags and sold to traders, wholesalers, manufacturers and processors. However, the employment potential of these activities has not yet been estimated. Shops selling indigenous medicines and herbal preparations are common in both rural and urban areas.

Medicinal plants from Sri Lanka are being exported to a large number of countries and the value of these exports in 1993 amounted to US$2 million. A list of some of the important medicinal plants which are obtained from the forests is given in Table 9.

Table 8. Common edible plants gathered from Sri Lankan forests

Table 9. Medicinal plants obtained from the forest of Sri Lanka

Wildlife meat

According to the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, hunting of any animal in wildlife reserves and of protected animals in other forests is prohibited. Despite these legal restrictions, recent studies show that villagers in peripheral areas still use wildlife meat to supplement their diet. Thus wildlife meat is an important source of protein in the diet of the poor people in rural areas. The percentage of villagers engaged in hunting is greater in the dry zone (about 50-60 percent) than in the wet zone (about 6-10 percent). More than 80 percent of the villagers are engaged in hunting, either for family consumption or for sale. Others hunt to protect their crops from wild animals. Some common species hunted in Sri Lanka are listed in Table 10.

Table 10. Some common wildlife species hunted in Sri Lanka

MAJOR FACTORS IMPEDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF NTFPs

Lack of policy on NTFPs

Clear policy objectives are not included in the National Forest Policy for the development and utilization of NTFPs in Sri Lanka. To some extent, this has been rectified by the forest policy formulated in 1995. In addition, restrictive forestry legislation has also contributed to the non-development of this sector. The economic importance of this sector to the rural economy has been ignored in the National Forest Policy. Thus the actual benefits of forests are undervalued and resources are misallocated in the forestry sector without giving adequate consideration to numerous plant and animal species which provide goods and services for the well-being of millions of people, especially the rural poor in Sri Lanka.

Shrinking resource base

The natural forest cover (closed canopy) in the country has been reduced from 44 percent in 1956 to around 22.4 percent at present. The direct result of this is the shrinking of the NTFPs resource base. At the same time the population growth and various other socio-economic factors such as poverty and unemployment have resulted in increasing pressure on this NTFPS resource base.

Inadequate knowledge

Because little attention was paid to NTFPs in the past, the state of knowledge on this subject is quite inadequate. Detailed basic information on resource availability, yield, quality, and methodologies and technologies on extraction, processing and utilization is not available. The relevance of NTFPs to the rural economy is not well understood. This information is essential in developing strategies for the managing, processing and marketing of NTFPs.

Seasonal variations in supply

Compared with wood products, the inability to secure a steady supply of NTFPs due to seasonal variations and other factors is a major constraint in developing markets for NTFPs or their related products.

Multiple-use management of forests

Existing forest management plans do not give adequate emphasis to multiple-use management, which should provide for the management of NTFP resources. This is particularly important in protected areas (about 40 percent of the natural forest cover) where the forest resources utilization has been restricted.

Traditional nature of utilization of NTFPs

Extraction, processing, production and marketing of NTFPs are carried out in traditional ways using traditional equipment and methods. Further, the suppressive caste system is also associated with the utilization of some NTFPs, for example the jaggery trade.

Lack of coordination among various organizations

The development of this sector involves various activities such as collection, processing and utilization of some of the products. Therefore it is essential that a formal mechanism for the coordination of the various organizations involved should be established. However, at present, due to the non-existence of such mechanism, the development of the NTFP sector has suffered.

Lack of supporting services

Compared with traditional forestry, agriculture and industry, the NTFP sector has hardly any supporting services. These services are needed if the sector is to achieve its full potential.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NTFP SECTOR

Emphasis on multiple-use management

There is an urgent need to realize the full potential of forestry to meet the immediate and future needs of a growing population without causing damage to the natural resource base. The multiple use of forest resources, which includes the sustainable development of NTFPs, will lead to greater prospects, especially for rural communities.

Recognition of the importance of NTFPs in the forest policy

The forest policy should recognize the importance of NTFPs in the forestry sector. Legislation and forest management plan should be formulated accordingly, with adequate resources provided for the development of this sector, including research, education and extension.

Revision of existing legislation

The existing legislation governing forest resource utilization should be revised, especially laws related to protected areas, in order to permit multiple-use management in such areas. These provisions should also be included in the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance and the National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act.

Establishment of a database

Since the existing knowledge on NTFPs is inadequate, it is necessary to establish a database on silvicultural and agronomic information, employment, income generation, market information and socio-economic aspects of NTFPs. It is recommended that all the NTFPs be identified together with their traditional uses.

Conservation of resource base

Conservation of existing species of NTFPs and their habitats and ecosystems is necessary to maintain the resource base for present and future uses. It is recommended that, in the establishment of a protected area network, full attention is paid to NTFPs especially to those that are on the verge of extinction or which may become endangered due to overexploitation.

Research and development

As already indicated, information on silvicultural and agronomic aspects, processing, and the utilization of most of the NTFPs is not adequately known. It is therefore recommended that the following research be undertaken:

- resource inventories, preferably integrated forest inventories;

- ethno-botanic studies to improve knowledge on the utilization of NTFPs and to enhance understanding of their role in socio-economic aspects of the rural poor;

- growth and yield studies and studies on natural regeneration under various management and extraction practices;

- studies on propagation techniques and genetic improvement of source plants to enhance successful establishment and to increase productivity.

Improved technologies of utilization

Improved processing, transport and storage techniques should be developed to generate added value, make better use of scarce resources and to improve quality and reduce costs.

Domestication and cultivation

It is necessary to select important source plants for domestication and propagation studies, to establish on-farm trials and to promote cultivation both in the forest and home gardens. These plants can be easily incorporated in home gardens (e.g. under the participatory forestry project) and all other agroforestry systems.

Marketing and processing

It is essential that market feasibility studies be undertaken. The development of databases and markets, dissemination of market information and promotion of small-scale industries are also essential for the development of this sector.

Extension and other support services

Technical assistance, training and access to credit facilities need to be provided in order to promote cultivation and sustainable extraction and processing of NTFPs.

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