Description: The mangroves in Egypt are officially protected and thus cutting of wood is illegal. Therefore, uses such as timber, charcoal, pulp and tannin that are often of high value elsewhere in the World are not appropriate in Egypt. However, dead mangrove branches and leaf litter do occasionally provide a source of fuel for some Bedouin, although none of the Bedouins interviewed as part of this study claimed to use mangroves for fuel. It may be that in some locations to the far south mangroves might be cut for fuel.
Values elsewhere: Khalil (1999) estimated that the daily household use of mangrove wood in Indu Delta, Karachi, Pakistan was 4.5 kg/household/day. At an average price of RS 1.45 per kg, it was estimated that the overall value of mangrove fuelwood in the Indu Delta is RS 22.5 million per year (approximately US$ 385,000/yr).
Valuation techniques: The value of mangroves for fuel can be determined based on the cost of alternative supplies of fuel (i.e. substitute price).
Current values: There is no data available on the volume of mangrove wood and leaf litter collected and used in Egypt. The heating value of Rhizopera apiculata is 5 calories per gram, whilst that of Avicennia officinalis is 4.5 calories per gram (FAO, 1994). In Syria, Bedouin families spend around US$ 17 – 22 per month on energy for cooking and non-cooking purposes (van Campen, 1999). This gives an indication as to the potential value that could be derived by if mangroves were to be used by Bedouins in Egypt as a fuel source. The actual current value is likely to be insignificant.
Potential values: No increase in the future amount of wood and leaf litter collected should be promoted. The wood and leaf litter provides a valuable input into the marine and terrestrial environment.
Socio-economic aspects: The continued use of mangroves for firewood is important to some coastal communities and Bedouin. However, they should be encouraged to use alternative source of energy such as gas, which is readily available and is less damaging to the environment. Planting more mangrove trees would also assist in this respect.
Recommendation:
• The amount of mangrove wood taken by local communities and Bedouin should be monitored and/or surveyed in the south of Egypt. This is a low priority.
Description: Some Avicennia marina, particularly those south of Safaga are used by camels and goats for browsing (Photo 2). This is an important source of food for such animals, particularly in times of drought, when vegetation in the wadis dies off and is overgrazed. Camels are generally allowed to wander freely, browsing whatever they can find. In addition, some people in the south of Egypt are thought to cut significant volumes of mangrove leaves to take to their camels (Hegazy, pers com 2002). There is also a major trade in camels in the south of Egypt, some of which may be occasionally fed mangroves.
Values elsewhere: Mangroves are extensively used as camel fodder throughout northeast Africa, the Middle East and in Pakistan (Wilke, 1995). Wilke also mentions the importance of camels browsing on mangroves in Sudan during the dry season, as well as throughout the year by camels owned by nomads. Faya (1993) revealed that the nutritional value of Avicennia marina for browsing animals is actually low. However, when there is little food alternative, its importance should not be underestimated.
In contrast to Faya, Khalil (1999) suggests that the mangrove leaves (including Avicennia marina) of the Indus, Pakistan are very nutritious, and help support 16,000 camels and 11,000 cattle. Based on data from a household survey it was estimated that the Indus delta yielded 2 million kg of fodder per year worth RS 2.56 million per year, based on a price of RS 1.25 per kg of mangrove fodder.
Valuation techniques: The most suitable valuation technique would be based on the volume of leaves eaten and the market price of providing an equivalent amount of fodder (i.e. substitute product price).
Current values: There appears to be no data available on the numbers of camels and goats that eat mangrove leaves, or of the amount eaten per day or year per animal.
Potential values: In some locations the amount of mangrove eaten is excessive (e.g. at El-Hamirah), whilst at other sites, it is possible that it will be more sustainable. However, as human populations and demands grow, and weather patterns become more extreme, this use should be suitably monitored.
Socio-economic aspects: The use of mangroves as fodder is extremely important to some local communities living near the coast to keep their livestock alive. Much of Bedouin life revolves around camels and goats, for example, for food and marriage gifts.
Recommendations:
• A monitoring study should be undertaken into the locations and intensity of mangroves browsing and associated cutting, and the impact on the growth and vitality of the trees.
• A survey could also usefully be undertaken to obtain more information from local communities as to how much they depend on mangroves as fodder and what the alternatives are.
Description: Mangroves provide a potential source of locally used non-wood products such as tannins and medicines. At present, these are not utilized in Egypt, and future use would be difficult due to the legal protection of mangroves.
Values elsewhere: A review of traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves undertaken by Bandaranayke (1998) reveals a diverse range of potential uses of mangrove extracts and chemicals. For example, extracts from Rhizophora and Avicennia spp have been used for making tonics, wines and fruit drinks. The leaves, fruits and seeds of Avicennia marina have been used as vegetables. Extracts from Avicennia marina are believed to be able to cure rheumatism, smallpox and ulcers. Extracts from Rhizophora mucronata are believed to help remedy or cure diarrhoea, elephantiasis, haematoma, hepatitis and ulcers (Bandaranayke, 1998). Rhizophora bark used to be important as a source of tannins, used in leather work and for curing and dyeing of fishing nets made of natural fibre (FAO, 1994). Ruitenbeek (1992) estimates an annual benefit for medicinal plants of US$ 15/ha for mangroves in Indonesia, based on a general estimate of the biodiversity value in forests that can be captured.
Valuation techniques: If the mangroves were used for such things, the value would be based on the market value or price of substitutes (e.g. the cost of medical pills to achieve the same remedy or cure).
Current values: There is no current use or value for these.
Potential values: The current protection regulations of mangroves would in theory prevent any such uses, unless say the harvesting of mangrove fruits and leaves might also be allowed. The demand for any such uses would also need to be assessed
Socio-economic aspects: If any such uses were found to be suitable and in demand, and the products could be harvested legally on a sustainable basis, some socio-economic benefits may accrue to the local communities.
Recommendation:
• The potential uses of and demand for Rhizophora and Avicennia non-wood products should be explored, but only if it would be feasible to harvest them (or parts of them) legally on sustainable basis. Small scale sustainable use of mangroves for such purposes could yield important local socio-economic benefits with little impact on the viability of the mangroves themselves.
Description: Mangroves have the potential for harbouring commercially valuable pharmaceutical and genetic resources. The genetic resources are potentially the most significant because the Egypt’s mangroves are amongst the most northerly mangroves in the World, and are the most northerly mangroves in the Red Sea (i.e. they are genetic outliers at the margin of the natural distribution. Maguire (2000) revealed that Avicennia marina in the Arabian Gulf has a significantly high degree of genetic uniqueness, which is quite likely to be similar for the mangroves in Egypt. Furthermore, the many small patches found in Egypt may be likely to induce greater genetic variability over time.
Values elsewhere: The value of a commercially successful product from mangroves is difficult to determine. Various ballpark estimates exist for pharmaceutical products from a range of habitat types. However, their accuracy is debatable. The value to a nation also very much depends on any contractual agreement with the company that ultimately develops the product. Examples of such values for mangroves include an estimate of US$ 0.1 to US$ 60 per ha for pharmaceutical values taken from other studies (Bann, 1997). However, Aylward (1993) estimated that the commercial value for a successful industrial application of an extract from an organism could be around US$ 24 million. Ruitenbeek & Carter (1999) estimate a value of US$ 530,000/ha from potential pharmaceutical uses of coral reef organisms in Jamaica. With the current interest in genetic modification, potential values could be significantly greater. The International Rice Research Institute is currently exploring the potential of removing a gene from Avicennia to use in rice cultivation to make the rice more salt tolerant (Gitundo, pers com 2002).
Valuation techniques: To determine the potential value of genetic or pharmaceutical products from mangroves the “expected value” approach could be used. This is calculated as the potential earnings (revenues less costs) multiplied by the probability of a successful application. According to Principe (1991), the probability of a given plant species giving rise to a successful drug is estimated at between 1 in 1000 and 1 in 10,000. Moreover, from the initial research to the final result can take up to 10 years. Mendelsohn and Balick (1995) illustrate how complex is this question of using the potential value of undiscovered drugs as a strong argument to conserve tropical forests: (i) experiences with large samples of botanical tests suggest that only between one in 50,000 and one in a million tests result in viable commercial drugs; (ii) the whole process of drug development in the United States from its start up to Federal Drug Administration approval for sale can take from 9 to 12 years; (iii) the average successful drug costs about US$125 million to find and develop.
Current values: The current economic value is zero because no such products are in use.
Potential values: The potential value could possibly be in the order of millions of dollars assuming that a successful application was made. However, considerable research would be required to explore the opportunities and develop a commercially viable product that could be patented. It should also be noted that in many cases the majority of value created from such finds accrues to the companies that develop the products (often foreign), unless appropriate revenue sharing schemes are initiated with the host country. Hence, significant costs could be incurred with little reward.
Socio-economic aspects: There could be a high value associated with a commercially successful find. Local communities could assist in mangrove cultivation schemes.
Recommendations:
• The potential use of Egypt’s mangroves for genetic and pharmaceutical purposes should be further explored.
• Low cost approaches (e.g. through University research) to assess the potential should be encouraged, with an assessment of potential costs and benefits.
Description: There seems to be some scope for introducing bees to mangrove areas for making honey. This is an important form of alternative livelihood in many countries. For example, Apis mellifera is common throughout Africa and the Middle East (FAO, 1994). However, Article (2) of Law No 102 of 1983 for Nature Protection bans the introduction of foreign (non-indigenous) species into protected areas. In addition, there may be significant impacts on tourists in some areas and impacts on other indigenous species in terms of competition for feeding.
Values elsewhere: There are few figures available, but according to Tri et al (1998) around 0.2 kg/ha/yr of honey can be collected from mangroves in Vietnam.
Valuation techniques: The value can be based on potential volumes of honey produced and the market price of honey. Costs incurred in production and selling of the honey should be deducted.
Current values: There is no current production of honey associated with mangroves.
Potential values: Assuming a market price of say US$ 4 to 5 per kg (based on the price of honey in a Cairo supermarket) and 0.2 kg/ha/yr, the value is around US$ 0.8 to 1/ha/year. This could be worth undertaking in the larger mangrove stands in the south of Egypt, however, the financial viability may be questionable bearing in mind potential transport costs to commercial centres. Selling the honey to nearby hotels and tourists would need to be considered.
Socio-economic aspects: Apiculture could possibly become a potential form of alternative livelihood in areas where there are larger mangrove stands.
Recommendations:
• The possibility of introducing apiculture should be further considered, but the economic viability and all potential impacts must be thoroughly assessed. Use of existing and native bee species should of course be considered in the first instance.
Description: Fouda et al (in press) identified 80 crustacean species, including 43 species of brachyuran crab at 14 mangrove sites along Red Sea coast. Small scale collection of fish and shellfish goes on directly in and around some mangroves, some of which is undertaken by Bedouin communities.
Values elsewhere: There is little data available regarding values of fish and shellfish caught in and around mangroves. Most of the literature concentrates on the value of wider biological support of commercial and subsistence fisheries outside the mangrove area proper. However, Kapestky (1985) estimated that the average yield of fish and shellfish in mangrove areas is about 90 kg/ha/yr, with the maximum at about 225 kg/ha/yr.
Valuation techniques: The value should be based on market prices less cost of production. The latter are likely to be extremely low, because equipment is cheap and there are few alternative employment opportunities for fishermen.
Current values: As part of the study, a Bedouin community chief was interviewed who claimed that his people only catch a few small fish directly in and around the mangroves. Assuming a market value of US$ 3/kg and say 10 – 50 kg/ha/yr, this gives a value of US$ 30 – 150/ha/yr. It should be noted that severe over fishing of the reef flats adjacent to the mangrove sites has been recorded (Saenger, 2002).
Potential values: It seems that the potential value is constrained by the fact that over fishing of reef flats already occurs. Furthermore, fishermen prefer to go out to the reefs to catch their fish. However, more fish could perhaps be caught in some locations amongst the mangroves at high tides.
Socio-economic aspects: Catching fish and shellfish along the reef flats adjacent to mangroves is an important part of the local Bedouin life, usually undertaken by the women. Catching fish in the mangroves may provide an important source of fresh fish when it is too rough to go out to sea to fish.
Recommendations:
• More data and monitoring of fish catches in and around mangroves may be useful, but of low priority.
• If other mangrove sites are to become part of a National Park or Managed Reserve, it will be important to have more detailed information about current fishing levels in and around the mangroves and reef flats.
Mangroves provide an important habitat, shelter, feeding area and nursery for many other wildlife species. However, no species (other than some fish and possibly some shellfish) are harvested in Egypt’s mangroves (see Section 5.6). The biological support function that mangroves play (e.g. nursery areas for fish and shellfish, and supporting other species such as birds and insects – see Photo 4 and Photo 7) is discussed under indirect use values (see Section 6.1 and 6.2). Other aspects of wildlife benefit, in terms of human appreciation for the organisms living there, can be valued as part of recreational (Section 5.9) and non-use (Section 7.1) values using appropriate questionnaire survey approaches.
There are currently no forms of aquaculture or fish farming occurring in or around the mangroves. This activity could possibly be developed if carefully managed without damaging the mangroves. The potential for this type of activity, its legal acceptability and the possible economic values would need to be explored in a separate study.
Recommendation:
• Explore the opportunity to develop small scale aquaculture practices within or near mangrove areas.
Description: At sites where mangroves are visited by local visitors and tourists, such as Ras Mohammed National Park (Photo 1) and Nabq Managed Resource Protected Area (Photo 2), the mangroves are one of a number of attractions at the site. Part of the overall economic value of the site can in theory be apportioned to the mangroves. The remainder of the value incorporates the diverse mangrove wildlife (e.g. birds and crabs) and other adjacent ecosystems integrated with the mangroves (e.g. salt marsh, sabkahs, corals and sea grasses), as well as other aspects of enjoyment derived from the day trip (e.g. landscape, seeing Bedouin, and the pure thrill of a days driving safari etc)
In other mangrove locations in Egypt, for example along the Red Sea Protectorate coastline and islands, there is potential for carefully controlled tourist utilization in the future.
Values elsewhere: Although the mangrove valuation literature occasionally mentions the potential value of mangroves for recreation and tourism (particularly ecotourism) (Bann, 1997), few recreation values have been calculated for mangroves. Bennet and Reynolds (1993) estimated a tourism value of US$ 424 per ha for mangroves in a mangrove forest reserve in Sarawak based on the assumption that all tourism revenues would disappear if the mangroves were not there. Recreation values for a tropical rainforest reserve in Costa Rica were estimated to be US$ 35 per visitor based on the travel cost approach (Tobias and Mendelsohn, 1991). The recreation value of coastal wetlands in the USA were valued at US$ 71 per visitor using the travel cost approach and US$ 47 per visitor using contingent valuation (Costanza et al, 1989).
Visitor surveys (i.e. contingent valuation) relating to protection of corals in the Red Sea (Hegazy, 2002) demonstrate the concept of recreational consumer surplus and the fact that visitors are willing to pay higher entrance fees and product prices if the quality of service is improved and the money goes back to conservation.
Valuation techniques: There are several means of calculating the recreation value of habitats, most commonly using either the travel cost or contingent valuation methods. Given the constraints of this study, the most appropriate means of estimating the recreational value is based on the following formula, using actual data where available and ballpark estimates where no information is available:
Mangrove recreation value = (producer surplus + consumer surplus) x proportion of enjoyment of the visit
attributable to the mangroves
This valuation method is based on an “average value” approach. The alternative of using a “marginal value” approach (whereby the “with” and “without” situation is assessed) tends to give unreasonably small values to environmental resources when only part of the overall resource is damaged (Spurgeon, 1999).
Current Values: Based on the above, and data collected from the South Sinai Parks (year 2001), together with discussions with Park staff and people in the tourist industry (see Table 6 and Table 7 below), the combined recreation value of land and sea based trips for the mangroves at Ras Mohammed could be in the order of US$ 18,000/ha/yr to US$ 750,000/ha/year, with a best estimate of around US$ 130,000/ha/year. A number of the land based tourist trips going to Ras Mohammed heavily promote a visit to the mangrove channel as part of the trip. There is no overlap between the land and sea visits.
It must be noted that much of the data denoted by * in the calculations are approximations only, hence the range of high and low estimates. If the values are to be used for any serious purpose, they should be validated through suitably designed and robust questionnaire surveys. In addition, there will be a degree of additional indirect visitor expenditure (e.g. hotel, food, drinks and flights, etc.) that could be attributed to the mangroves, albeit a very small percentage.
Table 6 Ras Mohammed land recreation value of mangroves
Parameter |
Low |
Best |
High |
Number land visitors (2000-2001) (A) |
- |
160,000 |
- |
*% Enjoyment from mangroves (B) |
10% |
20% |
40% |
Annual land park fees US$ (C) |
- |
95,000 |
- |
*Average visitor cost/trip US$ (D) |
7.5 |
15 |
20 |
*Producer profit (%) (E) |
15% |
30% |
60% |
*Consumer surplus/trip (US$) (F) |
0.5 |
2 |
5 |
Area of mangrove (ha) (G) |
- |
2 |
- |
Value of mangroves (US$/ha/yr) (H) |
13,713 |
106,850 |
555,400 |
* = estimate only – not based on fact Note: H = (((C x E) + (A x D x E) + (A x F)) x B)/G.
Table 7 Ras Mohammed sea recreation value of mangroves
Parameter |
Low |
Best |
High |
Number sea visitors (2000-2001) |
- |
101,000 |
- |
*% Enjoyment from mangroves |
2.5% |
5% |
15% |
Annual sea park fees US$ |
- |
158,000 |
- |
*Average visitor cost/trip US$ |
20 |
25 |
35 |
*Producer profit (%) |
15% |
30% |
60% |
*Consumer surplus/trip (US$) |
0.5 |
2 |
5 |
Area of mangrove (ha) |
- |
2 |
- |
Value of mangroves (US$/ha/yr) |
4,715 |
24,700 |
201,225 |
* = estimate only – not based on fact. Same formula used as above.
Similar calculations for the mangroves at Nabq, based on data in Table 8, reveal possible values for the mangroves of between US$ 180/ha/yr to US$ 4,800/ha/yr, with a best estimate of around US$ 1,100/ha/yr. The overall value of the site would be US$ 60,000 for the 52.5 ha of mangroves. It is worth noting that the tourist safari trips visiting Nabq mostly advertise the trip as a “visit to the mangrove forests”. However, there are many other features at Nabq that are of interest, including the Bedouin village, shipwreck, visitor centre, swimming, snorkelling and general outstanding beauty of a combination of attractive ecosystems etc. Again, the data needs validating and there is additional indirect tourist expenditure that could also be attributed to the mangroves.
Table 8 Nabq recreation value of mangroves
Parameter |
Low |
Best |
High |
Number visitors (average over 1998-2001) |
- |
24,500 |
- |
*% Enjoyment from mangroves |
15% |
35% |
70% |
Average park fees (over 3 years) US$ |
- |
28,704 |
- |
*Visitor cost/trip US$ |
7.5 |
15 |
20 |
*Producer profit (%) |
30% |
50% |
70% |
*Consumer surplus/trip (US$) |
2.5 |
5 |
10 |
Area of mangrove (ha) |
- |
52.5 |
- |
Value of mangroves (US$/ha/yr) |
182 |
1,132 |
4,841 |
* = estimate only – not based on fact. Note: same formula used as above
No other mangrove sites in Egypt are currently directly used for tourism, except for those located adjacent to hotels (e.g. at Sharm El-Bahri and Marsa Shakraa). The high values outlined above are therefore not appropriate for other Egyptian mangroves, the vast majority of which no current recreational value. The reason the values are so high at Ras Mohammed and Nabq is due to the significant number of visitors to the area, the relatively few natural land features and the relatively small extent of the mangroves. Such values are unlikely to be expected anywhere else in the World.
Potential values: There is considerable potential for recreational use at a few other mangrove sites in Egypt. In particular, the mangroves at Abu Monkar Island are within easy reach of thousands of tourists and could be used if visitors were carefully controlled and appropriate facilities were provided. At south Safaga the mangroves are mixed with the impressive remains of fossilized corals (Photo 3), and are the home to ospreys, as are other mangrove sites (e.g. Photo 4). This would make an interesting half hour visitor site for tourists if they were given appropriate guidance about the mangroves.
However, there is a danger of damaging mangroves and disturbing mangrove related wildlife through excessive and uncontrolled tourism.
To maximise the recreation benefit and values, the following are recommended:
• Provide walkways and cordoned off areas to protect the mangroves and their respiratory roots (pneumatophores) that stick up out of the ground.
• Provide guided tours and information boards.
• In sensitive areas, Park Rangers could accompany and inform the visitors (who could pay for the service)
• Provide simple leaflets for tour guides and visitors explaining the value, features and sensitivities of mangroves.
• Promote the importance and uniqueness of the mangroves – particularly the ability of trees to grow in the sea in such an arid environment.
• Consider providing canoes and underwater viewing facilities (e.g. plastic bucket or containers with glass bottoms) for hire.
• Most visitors will only want to spend about half an hour visiting mangroves. They should be advertised as one of many features to see on a half-day or full day safari.
Socio-economic aspects: Recreation can help generate wider socio-economic benefits through increasing visitor spend in local and national economies, through direct, indirect and induced expenditures. Tourism and its considerable associated spend is also an important means of employment for local people, including Bedouin. Nabq Managed Resource Protected Area and Ras Mohammed National Park employ six Bedouin, earning around US$ 120 per month. There are also opportunities to train local Bedouin to act as guides in some mangrove locations.
Recommendations:
The following studies and actions could usefully be carried out:
• Visitor attitude and willingness to pay valuation surveys at Ras Mohammed and Nabq to determine the full value of the site and assess how the components of value are made up.
• Undertake potential demand studies for mangrove tourism at other sites. These must be designed by experts to ensure that the right information is provided to visitors in the questionnaire.
• Consider what types of facilities are required to enhance the value and protect mangroves from recreational problems.
• Provide a simple leaflet on mangroves for tour guides and visitors.
• Consider increased park fees if more of the money could be put back into management of the site. This would of course require careful consultation and implementation.
Description: The mangroves of Egypt provide an important green landscape feature amongst a coastline dominated by sand, rugged mountains and a blue-green seascape. The relative importance of green vegetation can be appreciated when the nature and costs of hotel developments are considered. Hotels along the coastline create beautiful green landscapes as part of their design, using exotic green plants and shrubs and vast quantities of fresh water (Photo 5). Mangroves provide a similar landscape resource (Photo 6).
Values elsewhere: There do not appear to be other studies that consider landscape values of mangroves.
Valuation techniques: It is important not to double-count benefits. As such, the landscape benefit afforded by mangroves to tourists in National Parks and Reserves would best be captured through a recreational willingness to pay (contingent valuation) questionnaire survey. This value may already be accounted for in the estimate of recreation value for Ras Mohammed and Nabq. Similarly, landscape values could also be captured in the non-use value (including option value) contingent valuation surveys.
Other means of determining landscape value include hedonic pricing. There is no doubt that in a free market, the value of land and hotels near attractive beaches and views would have a high premium. The effect that being close to a mangrove site had on land prices or property (hotel) prices could therefore be assessed using regression analysis if sufficient data existed. However, this approach is not possible in Egypt because the cost of coastal land is artificially set at US$ 1/m2 (Hany El-Hakim, Ministry of Tourism, pers com 2002). In addition, there is insufficient trade in hotels near mangroves to determine a relationship between mangroves and prices. Any such data would be extremely difficult to obtain.
An alternative valuation approach is one based on the cost of providing an equivalent amount of green vegetation (i.e. substitute or replacement cost).
Current values: Discussions with an Egyptian landscape architect reveal that the annual cost of keeping green bushes along the coastline varies considerably depending on the cost of water provision. An average may be around US$ 15/m2/year (Mr Mohammad Refaat, pers com, 2002), equivalent to US$ 150,000/ha. There may be some instances where the natural landscape value of mangroves is extremely high, e.g. where it affords hotels excellent landscape views. This would be the case at Sharm El –Bahari (where Mangrove Bay Resort is located), at Wadi Abu Hamrah, where there is a proposed hotel development, and at Hamata should a hotel ever be developed there (see Photo 6). Under such circumstances one could perhaps argue for mangrove landscape values approaching US$ 100,000 to 150,000 per ha. However, mangroves are generally unlikely to be as attractive and conveniently located as purposely-landscaped vegetation. In addition, it may only be that relatively small areas of greenery are seen as providing benefits, thus perhaps US$ 10 per ha per year could be seen as a maximum value, with marginal benefits only accruing for several tens of m2.
It is important to note that significant landscape values are likely to be only appropriate for relatively small areas of mangroves (i.e. in the order of a few hectares) and only where high value hotels are located nearby. For example, the 168 ha of mangroves south of Halaib where there is little prospect of tourism would not have such a value. However, it is likely that some degree of landscape value will accrue from most mangroves, although as mentioned earlier this is likely to be picked up as part of recreation and non-use values. Local populations living near mangrove areas and people travelling along the coast (tourists and locals) will derive some landscape value. Some parts of the coastline where there are mangroves are spectacular.
Potential values: Significant landscape values associated with mangroves only exist where green vegetation enhances the landscape near certain receptors. Potential values could be increased through creation or restoration of mangroves in locations where the view and could be enhanced by additional green vegetation. Potential landscape values will also increase as hotels and tourist activities gain in presence along the south Red Sea Protectorate coast.
Socio-economic aspects: The landscape value for Bedouin communities living adjacent to mangroves and other Egyptians is an important part of their enjoyment of life.
Recommendations:
• Valuation studies should be undertaken for recreation and non-use values, with the landscape aspect included as a component of what people are valuing. Fully assessing the value in this way would provide the most appropriate measure of value.
• Planting and restoration of mangroves could be considered in locations where conditions are appropriate, and where addition green vegetation will provide an enhanced landscape.
Description: The mangroves of Egypt provide a valuable asset for both education of students and the public, and academic and commercial research. The benefits derived relate to expenditures within the local and national economy (i.e. economic impact) and from the additional knowledge and enjoyment gained. The importance of the mangroves for education is enhanced by the fact that:
• There are few other natural forests in Egypt.
• They are ideal for teaching ecology, in particular food webs and links between ecosystems.
Values elsewhere: Few references mention or address the education and research value of mangroves. Indeed, few studies address in any detail the education and research value of any habitat.
Valuation techniques: The economic impact can be determined by the amount of expenditure within the local economy because of educational trips and research studies. The wider benefits accruing from the enhanced education and research knowledge are far more difficult to estimate.
Current values: An example of the economic impact of education is the fact that around 12,000 students each year visit Ras Mohammed National park on educational school visits. Part of this value and their expenditure can be attributed to the mangroves. Assuming direct expenditure and costs of US$ 15 per student per visit, and 20% of the visit attributable to mangroves results in US$ 36,000 per year for 2 hectares. However, this value is also accounted for by the recreation valuation estimate.
In Hurghada, based on discussions and data provided by the Park Manager (Afifi, pers com, 2002) there may be expenditure of around US$ 550 per year on accommodation and food from an average of one PhD student and 2-3 student researchers focussing on mangrove research whilst visiting the Red Sea National Park. Likewise, in South Sinai, discussions and data provided by the Park Programme Manager (de Grissac, pers com, 2002) reveal potential expenditure of around US$ 950 per year on accommodation and food from an average of 1/2 PhD student and 2 research volunteers per year focusing on mangrove research.
In addition, in Egypt there have been around 15 – 20 PhD and MSc students (Galal, pers comm. 2002) focusing on mangrove research, each costing around US$ 22,200 (Hegazy, pers comm. 2002). This has resulted in expenditure of around US$ 400,000 specifically relating to mangroves.
Potential values: Although there is some expenditure associated with education activities and research, this is currently limited. There is scope for much more such expenditure in the future. Overseas students and academics could be encouraged to utilize the mangrove resources. In addition, there is potentially considerable value to be gained through the research and education process. This is highly complex to value.
Socio-economic aspects: The mangroves can play an important socio-economic role in both formal and informal education of Egyptians and visitors.
Recommendation:
• The potential role that mangroves can play in both formal and informal education should be further explored and enhanced.
Mangroves are one of many important habitats that have attracted European Union funding of US$ 10 million for conservation of natural resources in the Sinai Peninsula over the past 5 years (de Grissac, pers com, 2002). When allocated between the different habitats and conservation programmes that have been undertaken within the Sinai Peninsula, the mangroves may account for perhaps 0.1 - 2% of this expenditure. That is a total direct economic impact of US$ 10,000 to US$ 200,000. There will be indirect and induced expenditure effects in addition to this. These conservation funds are not welfare benefits, but rather a “transfer payment” acting as a positive economic impact to the regional economy. Such funds also support local jobs.