2.1. Biotechnology, Bioethics and Biosafety
2.2. Developments and Prospects in Genetics
2.3. The Overriding Need for a Balanced Approach
2.4. Relevant Applications of Biotechnology
2.5. The Application of Molecular Genetics to Crop Improvement
The term "biotechnology" is frequently used in a very broad and general way to mean the application of biological discoveries to the development of new products. The Panel considers it essential that assessments are made, and strategies defined, in relation to individual areas of biotechnology and that the CGIAR promotes and defends its position on the basis of specific scientific applications, not in terms of "biotechnology'" in its generic sense.
This distinction is particularly important because some areas of biotechnology are controversial, such as the release of transgenic organisms, whereas others are not, such as the use of molecular techniques for the assessment of germplasm in the laboratory. Hence, the use of only the generic term by the CGIAR in debates, public awareness programmes and discussions with stakeholders is likely to be unhelpful, can be confusing and should be avoided.
The Panel has not discussed in detail those aspects of biotechnology that relate to bioethics, biosafety, or gene deployment, but recognizes that the CGIAR needs to develop and observe a code of conduct for the application of biotechnology that is explicit, transparent and widely publicized. The Panel notes that the CGIAR is giving attention to bioethics through a committee established for that purpose. The Panel considers that the CGIAR and the Centres should develop formal procedures for deriving regionally and locally acceptable biosafety and gene deployment protocols, in consultation with the countries concerned (see also Section 3.2.4).
Germplasm analysis and improvement, as well as the development of many diagnostic techniques and vaccines, are based upon genetic variation, inheritance patterns and the association of desired characteristics with genetic determinants. The convergence and massive scale-up of the strategies and techniques of molecular biology and genetics are underpinning unparalleled increases in precision and efficiency in this work. Two principal subfields are discernible: (a) the characterization of gene and genome structure by DNA sequencing and associated activities, such as the development of molecular markers for every chromosomal region and, (b) the characterization of gene function, gene regulation and the control of complex traits, through the use of novel approaches.
All phases of genome research today are critically dependent upon, and interconnected by, sophisticated bioinformatics and database capabilities. As a result of these developments, the pace of gene discovery, characterization and manipulation has been vastly accelerated. Current estimates indicate that the entire Arabidopsis genome will be sequenced by the year
2000. Moreover, because of the commonality of the genetic code and conservation or convergence of structures to perform similar tasks across all biological kingdoms, the pool of interpretable genomic information is expanding at an exponential rate, as the complete genomes of many organisms are being sequenced, analyzed and deposited in databases.
These molecular genetic analyses are being carried out in many public sector laboratories around the world, in large multinational corporations and also in small specialist companies which do contract research for other organizations. As the scale of these operations increases so the cost of the information decreases. It is therefore projected that the molecular genetic analysis of any genome will become a routine, highly automated procedure within the next two decades.
Translating this genomic knowledge into improved germplasm requires the creation of new gene combinations, whether achieved through classical plant breeding or by introduction of genes in the laboratory. Improvements in this transformation technology are also being developed at a rapid rate and for many crops including cereals, such as rice, wheat and maize. Transformation technology is already being widely used for the introduction of single-genes to enhance, for example, disease-resistance.
Thus, the future holds the promise of combining information on hundreds of thousands of variant genes from many species with a generic, broadly-applicable transformation strategy. As a consequence, it is reasonable to infer that any organization committed to germplasm conservation, analysis and improvement must gain and exploit these innovations to be efficient, competitive and viable in the future. It is this vision that the Panel wishes to commend to the CGIAR.
The development and dissemination of the improved technology through which the CGIAR seeks to further its mission is undertaken in a holistic context that encompasses all the relevant natural and social sciences. Any expansion of molecular genetic approaches within the CGIAR must constantly be viewed in this context and the Panel re-emphasizes the view, frequently expressed by others, that retaining a balanced approach within the total CGIAR research portfolio will be an essential pre-requisite for further progress. The Panel also concurs with the view, expressed in the report to the World Bank of the Panel on Transgenic Crops, that any increased investment in new agricultural technology must be accompanied by significant investment in ecological and sociological research to ensure support for safe and sustainable food production.
The Panel recognizes that any expansion of molecular genetics and transgenics by the CGIAR will be an evolutionary process that will proceed at different rates, depending on the organism, the nature of the problem and the available infrastructure. In some instances there will be a shortage of trained personnel or inadequate infrastructure in terms of the supply, on a regular and reliable basis, of the necessary materials and reagents to meet laboratory requirements. Equally, in some countries, there may not be adequate facilities for servicing and repairing complex equipment. In the Panel's view, these considerations should not deter the CGIAR from putting in place the suggested internal and external structures. It would then be possible to expand the selected biotechnological approaches as and when it becomes feasible to do so, recognizing that the appropriate balance will vary with each set of circumstances.
Those who responded to the Panel's survey described many applications of biotechnology that would accelerate progress in CGIAR projects. These responses are summarized in Annex II (questions 1 and 2). They cover applications related to the productivity of crops, livestock and aquatic organisms as well as to problems related to ecology, environmental conservation and germplasm banks. Some of these applications and the transgenic crops currently adopted into agriculture are elaborated in Annex III and Annex IV for the reader who has no specialist knowledge of biotechnology.
The CGIAR currently allocates more than 20% of its resources to germplasm improvement and conservation, and has agreed that this proportion will be somewhat increased in future. The links between germplasm improvement and the broader CGIAR mission have already been firmly established and summarized in various documents produced by TAC. Consequently, the Panel has seen its primary role as assessing the current and future application of molecular genetics to those aspects of CGIAR work that relate to germplasm improvement. In doing so, the Panel does not in any way discount the value of biotechnology to other areas of research that are also relevant to the CGIAR mission.
Many biological techniques, such as those associated with tissue culture, have been widely used for many years. The Panel has not regarded such applications as part of its study, but has concentrated on molecular and biochemical aspects. Within these applications, the Panel has given greatest attention to the application of molecular genetics to crop improvement, recognizing that many of the topics discussed are also relevant to trees, livestock and fish
The Panel concludes that there are widespread opportunities for assisting developing countries through the application of molecular genetics to crop improvement. The Panel is aware, however, of the concerns that are commonly expressed about some of these applications, whether soundly based or not. For example, there is strong opposition from those who see biotechnology as a vehicle for acquiring unjustified proprietary rights, while practicing plant breeders have been critical of the cost-effectiveness of some of the techniques on offer. In addition, criticisms have arisen because of unwarranted and unfulfilled claims of what is achievable through biotechnology within a given time frame.
Although the Panel recognizes such concerns, it notes that there will be many opportunities to take advantage of those aspects of biotechnology for which the benefits greatly outweigh the risks. There will also be applications to which the concerns do not apply, such as marker assisted selection. Such techniques, used for screening breeders' material, have no adverse environmental implications and plant breeders' criticisms are increasingly being met by the dramatic reductions in cost and the increased scale on which they can be applied. Moreover, any proprietary rights attached to the techniques do not necessarily threaten the release, as public goods, of the improved germplasm derived from them.
The development of these techniques is dependent on genome mapping. The Panel is concerned that investment in genomics by the CGIAR is very small compared with similar investment by the private sector. Although the private sector is motivated partly by the rush to acquire proprietary rights, the Panel considers that the CGIAR is already being left behind in this work, as related to future requirements for the improvement of its mandated crops, as well as for the maintenance and use of its germplasm banks (see Annex III).
Many of the concerns surrounding biotechnology are more specifically related to genetic engineering and the release of transgenic organisms than to other applications. The Panel recognizes the need both for more research aimed at assessing the benefits and risks of such releases and for adequate precautions to overcome any risks identified. Nevertheless, the potential benefits to be derived from transgenic plants, especially to resource-poor farmers, cannot be ignored.
In routine plant breeding aimed at the needs of the small farmer, the transfer of desirable genes from gene-bank accessions to important cultivars within the same species can be accelerated by marker assisted selection and genetic engineering. Similarly, through transformation, desirable traits that cannot be found within the same species can be transferred from sources outside it. Such traits include complex characters under polygenic control, such as the components of yield.
The Panel discusses the implications of these and similar developments in later sections of this report, insofar as they relate to the need for a revised CGIAR strategy.
