YOVAN TUCAKOV, Director of the Institute of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade
The flora of Yugoslavia is not only rich but also very varied. Many wild aromatic and medicinal plants flourish, especially on the uncultivated and forest land along the Adriatic coast and on the immense Danubian plain. From these Yugoslavia produces large quantities of high grade extracts and drugs, both for home consumption and export.
After the second world war, the rapid process of industrialization demanded an ever-increasing quantity of various aromatic and medicinal drugs of plant origin, spices, condiments and essential oils for the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, health products, food canning and other industries. Exports gained considerable commercial importance and reputation. Now the growing and export of medicinal and similar plants has become an important factor in the Yugoslav national economy.
Whereas earlier there had existed no scientific institution to study, improve and standardize them, a start was made in the summer of 1945 to carry out systematic investigations of the shrubs and plants growing wild on the forest pastures, on the mountains or the vast saline-alkaline steppes, the marshy and flooded land along the Danube, Tisza, Sava, Drava and Morava rivers, on the sand dunes, on the denuded karst and on other barren or unproductive lands. Studies were then made, in co-operation with foresters, of the possibilities of the scientific utilization of the shrubs and plants to be found on forest lands, especially where the forests had been cut down or badly burnt over during the war. This joint work gave very good results, and experiments were made a few years later of using such plants for the conservation of soils threatened by erosion and landslides.
Trials were made first with thorny, aromatic and medicinal plants that tolerate long periods of drought, great heat, low temperatures and winter frosts; plants that have deep, strong, ramified roots, and that are not generally browsed by livestock. Rosa canina, various kinds of Crataegus, Prunus spinosa, etc., were planted, Clematis vitalba and other climbers, Hyssopus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Melissa officinalis and certain other aromatic, melliferous plants.
The best results were obtained with Glycyrrhiza glabra and among herbaceous species Cynodon dactylon which has proved the hardiest and most useful in controlling top soil erosion, especially in arid regions.
In arid mountainous areas, livestock are often grazed throughout the year. They trample the soil and tend to destroy all palatable plant cover. To counter erosion started in this way, an experiment was recently begun to encourage the growth of unpalatable plants and, in fact, all the worst kinds of weeds that are avoided by man or beast, such as Atropa belladonna, Veratrum album, V. nicrum, various kinds of Helleborus, Daphne mezereum, various kinds of Verbascum, Euphorbia, Clematis and Aconitum; Urtica divica, Tamus communis, Bryonia dioica, and so on.
Although this may seem rather a strange idea, it must not be forgotten that the usefulness of certain plants is often relative. Atropa belladonna, Aconitum napellus, Datura stramonium, Hyoscyamus, Scopolia and many other toxic or deadly plants, furnish medicaments or the raw material from which the principal medicines used in classical and modern therapy are made. One of the most serious cereal grain parasites, Claviceps purpurea, is now being grown on rye spikes for the production of ergot (Secale cornutum). In bread, ergot is a poison, but yields a very important medicament in gynecology and obstetrics. Why is it cultivated? One kilogram of rye yields from 20 to 30 diners (U.S.$0.05 to $0.08) whereas one kilogram of rye ergot yields from 2,000 to 4,000 diners (U.S.$10).
The Yugoslav Government has promulgated very strict laws against the destruction of forests. Therefore the cultivation of medicinal plants on forest or range land should not lightly be dismissed. It takes up to a century to grow stands of softwoods or hardwoods to commercial size. On the other hand, to grow medicinal plants takes only from 1 to 5 years, and after they have been gathered, the forest remains unscathed. But it needs good organization to test and grow valuable medicinal plants scientifically in forests.
Organization of field work
Since 1945, the Pharmacognosy Institute of the Pharmacy School of Belgrade University has been organizing scientific excursions for students of the third year course, to study medicinal plants growing wild on forest land, methods of gathering, drying, packing, and preserving them as well as methods of propagating them in natural surroundings and protecting them.
At the end of each school year, an advanced training course is organized for selected students by the Institute for Research on Medicinal Plants, which has laboratories, gardens for cultivating plants and herbs, and many field experiment stations. Divided into teams, the students are given highly scientific studies and complex duties to carry out in various parts of the country.
They gather information on dangerous, irritant, toxic and other plants, as well as on the local people's pharmacy, medicine and veterinary medicine (plant " ethnomedicine ") the medicaments used and medicine practiced by primitive people remote from towns and civilization. They arrange for the collection of plants by local villagers, usually of the unskilled laborer class. It has to be remembered that there are many toxic and dangerous medicinal plants, especially those that contain alkaloids, heterosides (glucosides) saponins, toxalbumins, etc. There are also some that cause allergies. In general, children, pregnant women and sick persons should be forbidden to work with dangerous plants.
Based on the work in the field, the Institute for the Protection of Nature is given information for drawing up plans for the complete or partial local protection of the plants that are of the greatest importance for medicine, the pharmaceutical industry, exportation, phytosociology, and plants that have become rare in some regions owing to uncontrolled gathering, such as Gentiana lutea, Erythraea centaurium, Drosera rotundifolia, Adonis vernalis, Arnica montana, Paeonia tenuifolia, Primula veris, Arctostaphylos uva ursi, Althaea officinalis, Valeriana officinalis and others.
In the course of ten years' field work of this nature, linking theoretical and practical knowledge, the production and quality of Yugoslav drugs have perceptibly improved. Almost all the forest lands of eastern Yugoslavia have been studied, and a new applied science has been created of great importance from the health, social and economic standpoints.
PLANTS GROWN AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS
Althaea officinalis
Brassica nigra
Carum carvi
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
Coriandrum sativum
Digitalis purpurea
Digitalis lanata
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Foeniculum vulgare
Foeniculum dulce
Hyssopus officinalis
Mentha piperita " Mitcham "
Origanum majorana
Salvia officinalis
Salvia sclarea
Sinapis alba
Thymus vulgaris
Valeriana officinalis
Lavandula vera
PLANTS GROWN ON SAND DUNES
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium
Calamintha officinalis
Mentha piperita
Hyssopus officinalis
Origanum majorana
Melissa officinalis
Althaea officinalis
Foeniculum vulgare
Coriandrum sativum
Digitalis purpurea
Thymus vulgaris
Rheum palmatum
Atropa belladonna
Salvia officinalis
Salvia sclarea
Habitats
The habitats of the medicinal plants and of the drugs derived therefrom have been mapped out according to the climate, altitude and soil, and are as follows:
Adriatic region
Mediterranean climate. Karstic soil (CaCO3), denuded. The most important aromatic and medicinal plants from the economic standpoint are:
1. Salvia officinalis - Folium et herba Salviae (approximately 1 million kilograms per year), aetheroleum (etherial oil) (10,000 - 30,000 kilograms).2. Rosmarinus officinalis - Rosmarini folium et aetheroleum (6,000 - 9,000 kilograms of essence).
3. Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium - Pyrethri flos.
4. Punica granatum - Granati cortex, fructus, pericarpium, succus.
5. Artemisia absinthium - Absinthti herba, folium, aetheroleum.
6. Ceratonia siliqua - Ceratoniea fructus.
7. Helichrysum angustifolium - Helichrysi aetheroleum.
8. Urginea scilla - Scillae bulbus.
9. Olea europaea - Olivae fructus, oleum.
10. Lavandula vera, L. spica - Lavandulae flos, herba, aetheroleum.
11. Amygdalus communis - Amygdali semen, oleum.
12. Citrus limonum - Limoni fructus, folium pericarpium, aetheroleum.
13. Citrus aurantium, var. amara - Aurantii amari fructus, pericarpium, aetheroleum, flos et folium.
14. Laurus nobilis - Lauri folium, fructus, oleum.
15. Juniperus sabina - Sabinae herba.
16. Juniperus oxycedrus - Juniperi oxycedris fructus, lignum, aetheroleum.
17. Juniperus macrocarpa - Juniperi macrocarpae fructus, lignum, aetheroleum.
18. Juniperus communis - Juniperus fructus, lignum, pix, aetheroleum.
19. Ficus carica - Caricae fructus.
Salvia officinalis is the most important for exportation. It is also a good fixer in the karst.
High mountain regions
Altitude 1,500 - 2,700 meters. Forests of Fagus, Pinus, Abies, Picea, Juniperus pastures. Humid climate.
1. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi - Uvae ursi folium.
2. Vaccinium myrtillus - Myrtilli fructus, folium.
3. Cetraria islandica - Lichen islandicus.
4. Colchicum autumnale - Colchici semen, tuber.
5. Orchis, Ophrys, Gymnadenia - Salep tuber.
6. Veratrum album, V. nigrum - Veratri rhizoma et radix.
7. Polygonum bistorta - Bistrotae rhizoma.
8. Potentilla tormentilla - Tormentillae rhizoma.
9. Primula veris, P. elatior - Primulae rhizoma. radix, flos et folium.
10. Rhamnus fallax - Fallacis cortex.
11. Helleborus odorus, H. multifidus - Hellebori nigri rhizoma.
12. Aspidium filix mas - Filicis maris rhizoma.
13. Atropa belladonna - Belladonnae radix et folium.
14. Aconitum variegatum - Aconiti tuber et folium.
15. Teucrium montanum - Teucrii montani herba.
16. Teucrium chamaedrys - Teucrii herba.
17. Satureia montana - Satureae montanae herba.
18. Thymus serpyllum - Serpylli herba et aetheroleum.
19. Gentiana lutea - Gentianae radix
20. Daphne mezereum - Mezerei cortex.
Mountainous and hilly regions
Altitude, 500 - 1,500 meters. Forests consist mainly of Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Fraxinus, etc. More or less dry climate.
1. Digitalis lenata - Digitalis lenatae folium et semen.
2. Scopolia carniolica - Scopoliae radix et folium.
3. Tilia cordata - Tiliae flos.
4. Erythraea centaurium - Centaurii herba.
5. Tussilago farfara - Farfarae folium et flos.
6. Sambucus nigra - Sambuci flos.
7. Rhamnus frangula - Frangulae cortex.
8. Rhamnus cathartica - Rhamni catharticae fructus.
9. Valeriana officinalis - Valerianae rhizoma. cum radicibus.
10. Juniperus communis - Juniperi fructus, lignum, pix et aetheroleum.
11. Rosa canina - Cynosbati fructus.
12. Prunus spinosa - Pruni spinosae fructus et flos.
13. Crataegus oxyacantha - Crataegi flos, fructus et folium.
14. Fraxinus excelsior - Fraxini folium.
15. Betula alba - Betulae folium, gemmae et cortex.
Then the plants previously mentioned with reference to high mountain regions under numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18 and 20.
Regions subject to flooding
Lowlands, willow forests, continental climate.
1. Althaea officinalis - Althaeae radix, flos et folium.
2. Valeriana officinalis - Valerianae rhizoma cum radicibus, aetheroleum.
3. Rhamnus frangula - Frangulae cortex.
4. Symphytum officinale - Symphyti radix.
5. Taraxacum officinale - Taraxaci radix, folium et herba.
6. Acorus calamus - Calami rhizoma et aetheroleum.
7. Equisetum arvense - Equiseti herba.
8. Mentha aquatica et altera - Menthae vulgaris folium herba, aetheroleum.
9. Mentha pulegium - Pulegii herba, folium et aetheroleum.
10. Inula helenium - Inulae radix.
11. Orchis palustris - Salep tuber.
12. Rubus caesius - Rubi folium.
13. Quercus robur - Quercus cortex.
14. Plantago major, P. lanceolata - Pantaginis folium.
