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Annex 1: coordinates of the bibliographic entries
Annex 2: Bibliographic entries for the most important documents (entries 1 to 60)
Annex 3: Bibliographic entries for other documents (61 to 147)
Annex 4: List of consultants 5
Annex 5: Explanation of Russian terms used in this report
Annex 6: Transliteration from the Russian alphabet
Annex 1: coordinates of the bibliographic entries
A. Classification
0. Natural environment of arid and semi-arid zones in the CIS (monographs)
1. Definitions, theories, hypotheses and methodologies
A. Definitions
B. Theories and hypotheses
C. Methodologies for studying the phenomena1. remote sensing
2. archaeology
3. paleogeography
4. others
D. Scientific cooperation, conferences, etc.
2. Desertification phenomena in the world
A. Principal elements of desertification
1. deflation
2. salinization
3. decrease in the vegetation cover
4. water scarcity
5. others
B. Geographical distribution
1. outside the ex-Soviet Union
2. within the ex-Soviet Union
a. Central Asia and Kazakhstan
b. Kazakhstan
c. Turkmenistan
d. Tajikistan
e. Uzbekistan
f. Aral Sea
g. southern Siberia
h. European Russia
i. the Ukraine
j. the Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan)
C. Evolution at the geological scale
D. Evolution at the historical scale
3. Causes of desertification
A. Climate trends at the geological scale
B. Periodic climatic variations
C. Biological causes (including human and animal activities)
1. population pressure
2. exploitation of wood resources (fuelwood and the wood industry)
3. irrigation, overuse of water
4. overgrazing
5. land reclamation, road networks, railways
6. other biological factors
D. Others
4. Impact of desertification and of drylands development on the natural environment and on socio-economic conditions
A. Degradation of resources
1. degradation of agricultural resources
2. degradation of animal husbandry resources
3. degradation of resources for other human activities
4. "desertization"
B. Losses (financial and socio-economic)
C. Degradation of the quality of life
D. Socio-economic instability, population migration
5. Drylands development and combating desertification
A. Socio-economic aspects of combating desertification
1. awareness of the phenomena, policies and strategies
2. national/regional planning
3. adaptability, acceptability of technologies
4. successes and constraints of implementation
B. Economic aspects of combating desertification
1. costs
2. profitability (financial, economic)
C. Techniques and technologies of drylands development and combating desertification
1. irrigation
2. sand dune fixation, combating sand encroachment
3. soil desalinization
4. revegetalization
5. others
D. Drylands management
1. works completed
a. irrigation
b. sand dune fixation, combating sand encroachment
c. soil desalinization
d. revegetalization in drylands
e. others
2. large-scale projects
a. diversion of Siberian rivers
b. others
Annex 2: Bibliographic entries for the most important documents (entries 1 to 60)
Bibliographic entry 1
Bibliographic entry 2
Bibliographic entry 3
Bibliographic entry 4
Bibliographic entry 5
Bibliographic entry 6
Bibliographic entry 7
Bibliographic entry 8
Bibliographic entry 9
Bibliographic entry 10
Bibliographic entry 11
Bibliographic entry 12
Bibliographic entry 13
Bibliographic entry 14
Bibliographic entry 15
Bibliographic entry 16
Bibliographic entry 17
Bibliographic entry 18
Bibliographic entry 19
Bibliographic entry 20
Bibliographic entry 21
Bibliographic entry 22
Bibliographic entry 23
Bibliographic entry 24
Bibliographic entry 25
Bibliographic entry 26
Bibliographic entry 27
Bibliographic entry 28
Bibliographic entry 29
Bibliographic entry 30
Bibliographic entry 31
Bibliographic entry 32
Bibliographic entry 33
Bibliographic entry 34
Bibliographic entry 35
Bibliographic entry 36
Bibliographic entry 37
Bibliographic entry 38
Bibliographic entry 39
Bibliographic entry 40
Bibliographic entry 41
Bibliographic entry 42
Bibliographic entry 43
Bibliographic entry 44
Bibliographic entry 45
Bibliographic entry 46
Bibliographic entry 47
Bibliographic entry 48
Bibliographic entry 49
Bibliographic entry 50
Bibliographic entry 51
Bibliographic entry 52
Bibliographic entry 53
Bibliographic entry 54
Bibliographic entry 55
Bibliographic entry 56
Bibliographic entry 57
Bibliographic entry 58
Bibliographic entry 59
Bibliographic entry 60
Author: Abdullaiïev S.A.
Title: Razvitiïe vïetrovoï erozii (dïeflatsii) v iugo-vostochnom Kobystaniïe i mïeropriïatiïa po ïego osvoïeniiou (The development of wind erosion [deflation] southeast of Kobystan and measures of controlling it)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Azïerbaïjanskoï SSR. Institut Gïeografii (Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, Geographical Institute), Baku, 22 pp.
| Date: 1982 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, Thesis available at Baku |
| Classification: | 2A1, 2B1, 5C2 |
| Region: | Azerbaijan, Dagestan |
| Summary: | Presentation of a doctoral thesis at Baku. Analysis of soil types and description of wind erosion and the different factors which can contribute to it (results from field work). For example, a strip of forest (windbreak) 160 m long, 7 m wide and 3.0 to 4.5 m high (composed mainly of acacias) causes a significant decrease in wind speed for up to 50 m (from 4.9 m/s to 1.4 m/s, speed measured 10 cm above the ground), but at 100 m from the strip, the speed increases again to 4.9 m/s. Wind erosion affects 53.6% of southeastern Dagestan (light erosion affects 10.4% of the area of the region, moderate erosion - 10.5%, heavy erosion - 28.9%; sand dunes cover 3.8%). Sands and solonchaks are the most eroded. In Dagestan the acceleration of erosion has been caused by over-exploitation (without indicating what types). |
Two schematic maps:
1. Soil types (from the point of view of their vulnerability to wind erosion, 13 types)
2. The danger of erosion and measures for controlling it. Six types of terrain are identified and various solutions are suggested, such as: forest strips, drainage as a means of desalinization, revegetalization, regulating livestock farming and others.
Plants: Acacia, Maple
Author: Akadïemiïa Naouk Kazakhskoï SSR, Sïektor Gïeografii (Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, Geography Section), (Gvozdïetskiï N.A., ea., Moscow)
Title: Landshaftnaïa Karta Kazakhskoï SSR (Map of natural landscapes of Kazakhstan)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Kazakhskoï SSR - GUGiK, Alma Ata - Moscow
| Date: 1979 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, Institut Gïeografii (Kazakh: Gïeografiia Instituty), Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, Alma Ata |
| Classification: | 0 |
| Region: | Kazakhstan |
| Summary: | A map to the scale of
1:2,500,000, showing the landscape types in Kazakhstan,
prepared using materials of 1:1,000,000 and others more
detailed. In all, 485 landscape types are identified,
including 80 deserts, 51 semi-deserts, 49 of the arid
steppe type. Desertification processes are not shown on the map. Morphological criteria differentiate landscape types. This is the first map of landscape types drawn up in one of the republics of Central Asia. Contemporary maps which show the processes of desertification, the vulnerability of ecosystems and environmental changes caused by human activities have been developed on the basis of this map of natural landscapes. (The same is true for other states of Central Asia). Landscape types - deserts, semi-deserts and arid steppes - are identified according to the type of vegetation, and, in particular, the percentage of soil devoid of vegetation, but the map's legend does not take this into account. Within each group, several types can be identified which are uniform in terms of topography, the range in altitude, the soil and the vegetation. For example: semi-deserts; flat coastal plains; clay soils, sandy clay, and sands; landscapes with Festuca sulcuta vegetation types (solonchaks, solonïetz). |
Author: Akadiemiïa Naouk Turkmïenistana. Institut Pustyn' (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan, Institute of Deserts)
Title: Pustynïa Karakumy i pustynïa Tar (Karakumy Desert and Thar Desert)
Publisher: Ylym, Ashkhabad, 316 pp.
| Date: 1992 | Language: Russian (English version - see note) |
| Available: | In May 1993 - private collections in Moscow, IP Ashkhabad |
| Classification: | 0, 1A, 1C, 1D, 2B1, 2B2c, very generally 2A, 3C |
| Region: | India, Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | A comparative study of the
natural environment (very good description) and of the
human exploitation of the two deserts. Each chapter is
divided into two parts: one prepared by an
"ax-Soviet" writer (for the Karakumy Desert),
the other by an Indian specialist (for the Thar).
Desertification: Kharin N.G. and Babaïeva T.A., pp.
280-288, for Turkmenistan; Venkateswarlu J., Sen A.K.,
Gupta G.P., pp. 288-302, for India. Desertification in Turkmenistan: general information. According to the authors the chief factor is overgrazing. The schematic map of Desertification in Turkmenistan shows the intensity of Desertification (6 degrees), the elements of Desertification (5 elements), the causes of Desertification (6 causes: insufficient grazing, overgrazing, over- exploitation of woodlands, use of fragile lands for agriculture, mining, construction, natural processes), and the improvement of the natural desert environment (2 types). The authors also show the differences in the intensity of Desertification in different administrative regions (oblasti) of Turkmenistan. |
Note: According to Russian participants there is an English version in India. Title: Karakumy Desert and Thar Desert.
Definition: Desertification (p. 280): "The intensification and/or expansion of desert conditions constitutes a process which leads to a decrease in the productivity of ecosystems; this decrease, in turn, leads to a decline in pastoral resources, agricultural production and the deterioration of the conditions of human life" (Institute of Deserts). The Indian researchers' definition is very different: it is limited to Desertification caused by human activity.
Author: Akadïemiïa Naouk Uzbïekskoï SSR. Otdïel gïeografii (Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Geography Section)
Title: Opustynivaniïe v Uzbïekistanïe i bor'ba s nim (Desertification and combating desertification in Uzbekistan).
Publisher: Fan, Tashkent, 156 pp.
| Date: 1988 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 1C4 (cartography), A, 2B2e, 3B-C, 5C |
| Region: | Uzbekistan |
| Summary: | A summary of documents,
probably the most up-to-date on desertification in
Uzbekistan. Presented in 5 chapters: 1) The natural
environment as the background of desertification; 2)
Factors and causes of desertification; 3) Current
conditions and predictions; 4) Cartography of
desertification; 5) Combating desertification. Chapter 2 focuses on the drop in temperature in the 1950's and 1970's, which contributed to droughts. Human activity is considered to be the main factor in desertification, especially overgrazing (examples on pp. 32-35). Desertification caused by modern technology plays a major role, especially trucking, which destabilizes ecosystems. Intensively-used unpaved truck routes often reach 0.5-1 km in width; north of Ustyurt, even up to 1-2 km. The criteria of desertification, chiefly an analysis of vegetation, are described on pp. 44-50. In chapter 3, five natural regions are identified (with schematic maps). The zone near the Aral Sea is analyzed in the most detail. Predictions are pessimistic. Chapter 4 presents the method used in the preparation of the map "The danger of erosion in the drylands of Uzbekistan"; there are charts with the criteria of the degradation of vegetation (pp. 80-81), wind erosion (p. 85), water erosion (pp. 89-90), salinization (pp. 93-95), desertification caused by modern technology (6 types, p. 98), a classification of landscape types (pp. 102-103), a chart of the current state of desertification according to landscape type (p. 104). The current state of desertification is shown on the map p. 100. Chapter 5 covers: sand dune fixation; desalinization, pasture improvement, combating desertification south of the Aral Sea, the rational use of pastures and irrigated lands. |
Note: Extensive bibliography, exclusively in Russian.
Desertification caused by modern technology: Destruction of the plant cover and soil resulting from the construction of roads, factories, mines, housing developments, railroads, irrigation installations, etc., and intense off-road vehicle traffic.
Author: Aliïev G.A. et al.
Title: Prirodnyïe usloviïa i rïesursy Apshïerona (Conditions and natural resources in the Apsheron Peninsula
Publisher: Elm, Baku, 180 pp.
| Date: 1979 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 0, 2B2j, 5C2, 5C4 |
| Region: | Azerbaijan |
| Summary: | In this description of the
environment and natural resources of the Apsheron
Peninsula, where Baku is located, problems of the
degradation of the environment are treated superficially;
damage is mainly due to the mining industry. The peninsula is affected by soil salinization and by wind erosion. Information is presented on fences which stop sand encroachment and further the formation of dunes in designated places, also on forest strips (recommended species: Ulmus campestris, Haloxylon sp., Ficus carica), seeding (species for sand dune fixation are not mentioned), and on the rinsing of solonchaks (saline soils). The authors describe the important role of park management in towns for improving the quality of life; for example, at Baku, parks covered respectively: 309 ha in 1950, 1,160 ha in 1960, 5,500 ha in 1975. The plan for the years 1976-1980 was to enlarge these areas by 6,640 ha (charts pp. 128-9). In 1975 parks, forest strips, and tree and shrub planting (including vines) covered 13,169 ha of the peninsula. |
Note: Species recommended for windbreaks: Ulmus campestris, Haloxylon sp., Ficus carica.
Authors: Andrianov B.V., Kïes' A.S.
Title: Zïemli drïevnïego oroshïeniïa i ikh znachïenïe v sovrïemïennom razvitii oroshaïemogo zïemlïedïeliïa (Irrigated lands in Antiquity and their importance in the contemporary development of irrigated agriculture)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 4, pp. 3-10, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1970 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan' |
| Classification: | 1Cl-3, 2B2a, 2D |
| Region: | Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan |
| Summary: | In the ex-Soviet Union,
irrigation was begun in Antiquity, covering a territory
of 8 to 10 million ha, located in Central Asia and in
southern Kazakhstan. Half of these lands were in the
basin between two rivers: the Amu-Darya and the
Syr-Darya. They have great scientific and practical
importance and could be redeveloped. For several years,
archaeologists, geomorphologists and pedologists have
carried out comprehensive research using aerial
photographs. The purpose of these studies was to explain
certain issues:
An archaeo-geomorphological map has been drawn up, based on this research, showing cultivated lands in Antiquity, their irrigation system and the time of use. These data are very important in the planning of a new irrigation system. |
Authors: Andrianov B.V., Zorin L.V., Nikolaïeva R.V.
Title: Kolïebaniïa uvlajnïennosti aral'o-kaspiïskogo rïegiona v golotsïenïe (Fluctuations in humidity in the Aralo-caspian region in the Holocene)
Publisher: Naouka - AN SSSR, Moscow, 226 pp.
| Date: 1980 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | IG RAN Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2B2a, 2B2, 2C-D, 3A-B |
| Region: | Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Caucasus |
| Summary: | This collection of 33
articles spans the last 2,000 years. The problems dealt
with are diverse, but most work focuses on changes in the
sea level and the coast line of the Aral and Caspian
Seas. However, the changes in question depend on factors
so varied that their usefulness in analyzing climate
change is low. Palynological analyses give the most
concrete results. They do not show a constant trend in
climate change, but long-term variations. Today the
climate is evolving towards a dry period. In the Caucasus, the most humid period was 1750-1300 B.C.; it was followed by a drier period; the driest period was in the 12th and 13th centuries (pp. 61-70, chart p. 69). In Central Asia, aridification and accompanying changes in the flora date from 4,000 years ago (p. 174). The zone with the widest range of temperature and atmospheric pressure began moving 10°-15° to the north, putting Central Asia between the northern and southern zones of atmospheric fronts, which caused a decline in precipitation. In the subsequent period, minute climatic variations have been observed in various regions of Central Asia (for example, in Fergana where the most humid period was the end of the first millenium B.C. and in the 9th and 12th centuries - p. 221). No regularities in these variations were observed. |
Author: Ataïev A.
Title: Effiektivnost' zakrïeplïeniïa i oblïesieniïa pïeskov (Effectiveness of the stabilization and afforestation of sands)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Turkmenistan Academy of Sciences. Institute of Deserts), Ylym, Ashkhabad, 72 pp.
| Date: 1983 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 5C2, SB1-2 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | This publication is an outline of methods of protection against sand encroachment (fences, barriers, etc.) and the stabilization of sand by mechanical and chemical means. There is no information on the afforestation of sands or on methods of revegetalization, despite the book's title. However, there is a detailed description of techniques of protecting roads and industrial buildings from sand encroachment, an economic calculation for different techniques of chemical stabilization, including transport costs (rare in Soviet literature), and the state of these methods in the early 1980's. At that time, stabilization with petroleum and its derivatives was the least expensive method and lasted 2 to 5 years. |
Description of methods of chemical stabilization of sands:
In 1975 in Tashkent, a vehicle was made for the purpose of spraying sand with fixatives. The most frequently used substances were petroleum and its derivatives: nerozine, mulch with bitumen, mulch with fuel oil, bituminous emulsions, polymers K-9 and K-6, sunak, BRP-1, latex, SSB. Occasionally, aqueous solutions of polymers with clay in various proportions have been used; in this case, a permeable or impermeable cover is formed on the sand. Stabilization lasted 2 to 4 years depending on the substance used (the most economical were oil mulch with additives, and polymers).
Authors: Ataïev A.A., Frïeïkin, Z.G., Kïerimbïerdïïev S.
Title: Ekonomichïeskiïe aspïekty obvodnïeniïa i uluchshïeniïa pastbishch (Economic aspects of irrigation and the improvement of pastures)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 6, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1978 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 5B1, 5C1, 5C4, 5D1a, 5D1d |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | In Turkmenistan, out of 36
million ha of pasturelands 22 million are irrigated, or
60%. There are inequalities among the systems, both in
the layout of water points and in the technical condition
of their equipment. The optimal distance between water
points is 5 to 8 km so as neither to weaken the animals
nor destroy the pastures by their movements. Studies of
this matter show that when the distance between water
points is 2 km, the region irrigated can be 1,256 ha, and
the cost of irrigation is 8.4 roubles per hectare. When
the distance between water points is 6 km, 11,000 km can
be irrigated for a cost of 52 roubles per hectare; when
the distance is 10 km, irrigation can cover 31,400
hectares with a cost of 34 roubles per hectare. As for the depth of wells, the most economical are those 70 m deep. They supply more than 30m3 of water per 24 hours, with a cost of 22 roubles per m3 of water. The irrigation of large areas is planned using aqueducts. In addition to irrigation, work has begun on projects for improving the quality of pasturelands, especially in the Karakumy Desert. Several other projects have been carried out for the purpose of protecting and improving plants as well as for the formation of man-made pasturelands. During the ninth Five-Year Plan, these projects have consumed 1.835 million roubles. The improvement of pasturelands is planned for an area of 2.5 million hectares. |
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Aerokosmichïeskiïe mïetody izuchïeniïa prirodnykh usloviï pustyn' (The use of aerial photographs and satellite imagery for analyzing the natural conditions of deserts)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan), Ylym, Ashkhabad, 128 pp.
| Date: 1986 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 1C1, 2B2c |
| Region: | Central Asia (particularly Turkmenistan), Africa (Libya) |
| Summary: | Presentation of a method of analyzing aerial photographs and satellite imagery used to study the natural environment of deserts and pasturelands. Primarily, imagery from "Salyut" was used, but also some from "Meteor." One article is devoted to the range of desertification in Turkmenistan (pp. 25-43). The area affected by a given type and degree of desertification is indicated for each administrative unit of the republic. Figures are presented for the entire republic: 35.25% of the area is not affected by desertification; 11.05% light desertification; 15.65% moderate desertification; 5.26% strong desertification; 3.87% extreme desertification. Surface water covers 2.07%. Territories affected by the degradation of vegetation cover 38.19% of Turkmenistan, by wind erosion 7.59%, by fluvial erosion 5.12%, by soil salinization 10.97%, by desertification caused by modernization 0.85 % (3,947 km2). Forests planted on sands cover 0.95% (4,633 km2), protected lands near railroad lines 1.36%, improved lands near canals 4.78%, natural reserves 2.78%. This means that on nearly 10% of the territory there seems to be an improvement in natural conditions. |
Analyzing satellite imagery:
Satellite imagery is used primarily to interpret the state of the vegetation and the topography. Zones are discerned by their tone, their structure and the clarity of identical borders. All the elements represented by points or lines on the satellite imagery are identified by comparing to maps. In the field, tones and structural elements corresponding to the imagery are identified. Particular attention is paid to the state of vegetation near water points and to dunes. When possible, imagery from different years are compared to understand the dynamics of change.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Aktual'nyïe voprosy osvoïeniïa i prïeobrazovaniïa pustyn' SSSR (Contemporary problems of the economic development and transformation of deserts)
Publisher: Ylym, Ashkhabad, 240 pp.
| Date: 1981 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 0, 5C1-2, 5C4, 5D1a, 5D2a |
| Region: | Ex-Soviet Union - Central Asia |
| Summary: | An anthology of 15 articles
dedicated to M.P. Pïetrov on his 75th birthday, and a
bibliography of his work. The articles deal with the
natural environment of Central Asian deserts (sand
deserts in particular), physical and geographical
regionalization and methods of drawing up
geomorphological maps using satellite imagery. The study
"Large Central Asian canals and the combat against
desertification" (pp. 136-146) contains information
on the Karakumy and Amu-Bukhara Canals. Conditions for
the year 1976 and plans (in parentheses) are as follows:
|
Plants used to stabilize sands: Ammodendron conollyi Bunge (sand Acacia), Haloxylon persicum Bunge ex Boiss (white saxaoul), Aellenia subaphylla var. arenaria (Chenopodiaceae), Ephedra strobilacea Bunge (Ephedraceae), Salsola richteri (Mog.) Karl et Litr., S. paletzkiana Litr.., (chenopodiaceae), Calligonum sp. (55 species in Turkmenistan), Gramineaae: Aristida Karelinii, A. pennata, Heliotropium arguzioides, Tourmefortia sogoliana, Carex physodes.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Combating Desertification in the USSR: problems and experience
Publisher: UNEP/USSR Commission for UNEP, Centre of International Projects, Moscow, 120 pp.
| Date: 1982 | Language: English |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 1A-B, 2A, 2B2, 3C3-5, 4A1-2, 5A-D |
| Region: | Soviet Central Asia, Kazakhstan |
| Summary: | This document describes the climatic conditions of arid and semi-arid lands in Soviet Central Asia and Kazakhstan, and formulates definitions of desertification. Desertification factors according to B. G. Rozanov (1977, cf. bibl. entry 52) are presented, as are the natural and human factors in desertification, the stages of desertification in Central Asian pasturelands as a result of excessive animal production, (the succession of plant associations, examples, decline in the productivity of pasturelands). Information is given on: desertification observed along the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya deltas after the diversion of water for irrigation; projects in the USSR in the development and improvement of pasturelands; irrigated agriculture with numerous maps and examples such as the Steppe of Hunger (Golodnaïa Steppe), and the stabilization of sands by afforestation (this information is on Central Asia and the northern Ukraine). The problem of sand stabilization is presented with a description of traditional and modern methods, species selection, seedling survival, the hardening of soil using chemical methods (fuel oil, petrol, various bituminous substances, etc., information on the depths of these treatments and on the cost: fuel oil mulch 43-53 roubles/ha, petroleum mulch 52 roubles/ha, reinforcement with fences. In Turkmenistan, afforestation and revegetalization projects have been implemented on sands at the rate of 80,000 ha per year (total area of sand dunes: 1,323,000 ha). |
Remarks:
1. Rich bibliography (176 titles, mostly in Russian).
2. Russian version - bibl. entry 71.
3. The report is an official document presenting the position of the government of the USSR.
Species used in the afforestation of sands: kandym, cherkez, black saxaoul, Calligonum.
Desertification factors according to B.G. Rozanov (1977)
1. Degradation of the vegetation and soil erosion as a result of overgrazing.
2. Increase in erosion and deflation due to the use of lands for agricultural.
3. Destruction of vegetation for use as energy source.
4. Destruction of vegetation and soil as a result of the construction of roads, factories, mines, housing developments, irrigation installations, geological research.
5. Destruction of vegetation and soil caused by motor vehicle traffic.
6. Destruction of vegetation and soil by livestock near water points.
7. Secondary salinization of soil in irrigated zones.
8. Expansion of saline deserts in basins without permanent stream flow.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Opyt rïespublik Srïednieï Azii i Kazakhstana v rïeshïenii zïemïeltno-vodnoï problïemy i bor'by s opustynivaniïem i ïego zoachïeniïe dlïa Afriki (Experiences of the [Soviet] Central Asian republics and of Kazakhstan in developing deserts and in estimating desertification; the importance of these experiences for Africa)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', No 3-4, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1989 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan. |
| Region: | Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Africa |
| Summary: | This document is a follow-up
to a seminar held in Ashkhabad in 1988. Ninety texts are
included, 33 of which were published in two subsequent
issues of "Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn"'.
The largest number (18) are articles concerned with
desertification and its intensification in Africa, 6 are
devoted to theoretical considerations, to research
methods in studying desertification and to techniques for
its prevention; 8 articles are on combating
desertification in Soviet Central Asia and in Kazakhstan
(particularly as it relates to irrigation), and on the
possible use of this experience in Africa; 1 text deals
with Iraq. The final resolution contains a definition of
desertification (see: Definition). The majority of these articles deal with problems of the environment, while social concerns are treated only marginally. In N° 3, pp. 5-10, the article entitled "From the application of Central Asian experiences to the implementation of agrarian reform in Africa" is a description of reforms introduced in the years 1921-1922, leading to the transition from the former feudal system of land and water in Turkmenistan. |
Definition: "Desertification, a process caused by human economic activity, especially the use of water and soil resources in agriculture, results in the degradation of the economic systems of land, not only in arid and semi-arid regions, but also in marginal lands.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Prirodnyïe usloviïa i rïesursy pustyn' SSSR, ikh ratsional'noïe ispol'zovaniïe (Resources and natural conditions of the deserts of the USSR and their rational use)
Publisher: Ylym - Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan), Ashkhabad, 438 pp.
| Date: 1984 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | IP Ashkhabad, BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 0, 2A1-2, 3C4, 5C1-2, 5C4, 5D2a |
| Region: | Deserts and semi-deserts of the ex-Soviet Union |
| Summary: | An account of the 1981 conference in Ashkhabad. This volume contains 64 brief entries divided into 5 parts: a) climate and natural resources, regionalization and protection of the environment (notably the future of the Aral Sea, description of its degradation, and, again, transfer of water from Siberian rivers); b) research on deserts using remote sensing (9 articles on methodology); c) soil resources (erosion and deflation of deserts and the steppes along the Volga; description of the process whereby an excess of fertilizer and of cultivation influence salinity); d) water resources of deserts (use of groundwater, mineralization of water for irrigation, the importance of the Karakumy Canal; the chemical features of the Aral Sea and its future; e) sand dunes and preventive measures, characteristics of sands and their water balance, protection of railroads from sand encroachment, tree plantation, using sands for the cultivation of sorghum and rice, sand storms, sand stabilization using chemical methods). |
Brief description of methods of desert research: Classical methods of analyzing aerial photographs and satellite imagery (cf. bibl. entry 10) were used to draw up maps of vegetation, the condition of pasturelands, soils, zones requiring protection, soil salinity. A light to completely white phototone, pale contours and the presence of darker patches are important for detecting salinization. The scale of these maps is from 1:10,000 to 1:1,000,000, and smaller. For interpreting satellite imagery, the most rapid method is that which uses maps showing landscape types.