In Burundi, the PUCD project is working in the Rwaba watershed, particularly in the Sector of Nyamirinzi of the commune of Vugizo, Makamba Province, in the south of the country. The project area of 5 500 ha covers four collines (administrative divisions as for Rwanda, above) with ten sous-collines ("subhills"), constituting five subwatersheds. The commune is an administrative public institution with an internal structure based on a division between geographical zones and sectors (collines) composed of cellules or sous-collines. The colline is the lowest level of organization for administrative purposes.
The project is embedded within the institutional structure of the Sociéty régionale de développement du Buragane (SRD - the Regional Development Society of Buragane) in the Ministry of Agriculture. Implementation of the project is shared between FAO and the SRD. The Director of the SRD is also the national Director of the project. The SRD is the most important development organization in the region. Traditionally, its extension work has been based on the principles of "Training & Visit", but recently a process of reorientation has started. In particular the Director of the SRD perceives this project as a good opportunity to further develop participatory approaches of the SRD. Technical support for training and communication is provided by a local NGO, Conseil pour l'éducation et le développement (COPED - the Council for Education and Development).
The project area has a population of around 5 000, composed of Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups. Population density is approximately 100 persons per km2. Houses are scattered on the hillsides, with no clustered village structure. The colline represents not only a geographical reality but, in the case of Burundi, can also be considered as a social unit, based on functional socio-economic linkages between individual families. However, there are no farmers' organizations. The most important organizational units are the extended family (the rugo), and below it the household group (the intongo'), which is the production unit responsible for the management of the agricultural plots and fields belonging to an individual and his nuclear family.
The climate is tropical/temperate with a rainy season of eight months and a dry season of four months. The collines are a characteristic feature of the landscape with altitudes of around 1 500 m. In general, the soils are degraded and poor. Subsistence agriculture (or slightly above subsistence) is predominant, practised on small farms with an average size of one hectare. Market-oriented crop production will increase with the opening of new roads, now under construction. As in Rwanda, more and more land is being cultivated and grazing lands are disappearing. As a consequence, the number of cattle is decreasing and with it the amount of organic fertilizer available for agriculture and, hence, production. The gradual impoverishment of the subsistence economy is the consequence of a combination of interrelated factors, such as the overexploitation of the soils, the disappearance of fallow lands, the fragmentation of landholdings and the cultivation of marginal and fragile lands, which are easily affected by erosion.
The project started with a first workshop of two days for the project staff to elaborate the conceptual and methodological framework of the participatory approach. This workshop was part of a training programme for project and institutional staff that was designed to guarantee-opportunities for staff development based on field experiences. Thus, during the project, regular workshops were held, for example, to evaluate the results of the appraisal phase, to analyse and discuss priority needs and solutions as preparation for the restitution phase and for planning and programming purposes.
1. Appraisal phase
Appraisal activities were carried out in the four collines. Because of farmers' previous experiences with more top-down approaches, it was important to take the time to explain the participatory approach and methodology and to establish a dialogue between farmers and project staff. The following aspects were important for the planning of this phase: (1) there are no villages in Burundi, but instead people live in houses scattered on the hillsides; (2) there are almost no indigenous organizations and the existing organizational structures have been established by the State, the political party, the SRD and, to a certain extent, the Church; and (3) because of the socio-political situation people are not prepared to attend meetings unless they are organized by the respective authorities. Therefore, public authorities at different levels were fully briefed on the objectives and methodologies and the meetings were officially announced by them.
The appraisal phase took 15 days. One meeting was held at the level of each of the four collines with the head of the colline and some elders to talk about the history, evolution and daily life in general. Subsequently, meetings were conducted at the level of each of the ten sous-collines (subhills) with the respective heads, some heads of family groups and women, to talk about daily life, social stratification and organization, problems and opportunities, existing infrastructure, and so on. The meetings were conducted using semi-structured interviews for which a form had been prepared. At farm level, meetings were held to interview individuals on their farmland about issues like their farming system, household economy and division of labour. In addition, numerous informal encounters took place with groups of women, youth, artisans, etc. Group and individual interview techniques were the main tools used during most of the meetings, for which specific forms were prepared with guidelines. In the case of meetings with small and more homogeneous groups, some additional tools such as drawing and mapping were used. Most of the meetings were videotaped.
Despite the fact that the appraisal phase was conducted under difficult conditions (lack of infrastructure, rainy season, time pressure), and although the results were far from complete, some important points emerged. Unexpectedly, population pressure appeared to be much lower than in other parts of the province and country and, consequently, problems of land availability and decrease in soil fertility were not as serious as elsewhere. It was found that the sous-colline was the most appropriate level on which to concentrate efforts and support for strengthening local capacities. In addition, a tentative list could be developed of priority problems including drinking water availability, road construction, erosion control, sanitary facilities, pest control and schools, representing environmental, social and infrastructural issues.
2. Restitution phase
After finishing the appraisal fieldwork, a three-day workshop was held to develop a first synthesis of the main issues formulated by the farmers. An outline was also prepared for a video programme to be used for restitution purposes afterwards. In addition, to prepare the field staff to conduct restitution meetings, practical exercises were conducted with the field staff on how to proceed with a problem analysis and find solutions using the results of the appraisal phase.
Restitution of the results of the appraisal phase took place during meetings at colline level with large numbers of participants(200-300), because no functional groups had been formed and no time was left to visit each of the 10 sous-collines. It was therefore decided to use video as the principal tool, not for a systematic restitution of the results but in order to provoke reactions and to stimulate a debate. The original idea was to visualize the complexity of the problems identified earlier by the people and their analysis of the situation, and then to motivate the people to take action and to organize themselves. Although the video was certainly not an exceptional product, it worked extremely well, in particular because it illustrated a number of issues of common interest in the region, and a large number of people attended the presentation.
Although there were some doubts beforehand about the possible negative effect of their presence, a number of government authorities were invited in order to strengthen their political support for the participatory approach. Their presence proved to be a positive factor, in that it stimulated the farmers to share their ideas and opinions. This, in turn, was a very important learning experience for these provincial and municipal authorities, who greatly appreciated it. In retrospect, it seems to have been a crucial and positive turning point in the development of institutional opportunities for the promotion of participatory approaches in the field. After each meeting, sous-colline-based groups were formed and working sessions were held, supported by project staff. During these sessions, the preliminary list of priority activities was reviewed and agreed upon and an agenda was prepared for a next meeting to discuss their work programme. In some cases special meetings with women were organized in view of the fact that during the large meetings their interventions were rather limited.
3. Planning phase
As mentioned above, during the restitution phase, follow-up actions were discussed in small groups at sous-colline level. These groups were asked to review and analyse their priority actions and to discuss the most appropriate organizational forms for the implementation of the activities. In some cases, considerable progress had been made by the people towards the planning meeting with the project team, such as preparing an overview of the available material, financial and human resources for the implementation of their project. In other cases the process took more time, and more support from the project staff was needed. Often, this depends on the basis of group formation and on individual qualities in particular.
During the planning meetings, the problem-tree method was used to elaborate upon the identified priority activities and to discuss the complexities involved. It was emphasized that this meeting was a first step in an iterative planning process of evaluation, programming and implementation. Only those priority actions were selected around which groups had been or would be formed. In some cases, groups would undertake more than one activity; in other cases, groups were formed to undertake one activity. For the groups involved, these activities were gradually considered projects.
Consequently, the support from the project staff was more and more focused on the different phases of preparation and planning of the different local project ideas of the various groups. These phases included: meetings to discuss the project idea; identification of activities needed to overcome initial handicaps; identification of similar projects elsewhere in the country; visits to groups or individuals already involved in similar projects to incorporate their knowledge in their own proposals; restitution by those who visited other places upon return to their community; decision-making by the group and approval of the proposal by the project staff; and training for the specific project activities by the field staff, other farmers or other agencies.
4. Implementation
At the time of the case study, approximately 130 families, organized in 21 groups, were involved in the preparation or implementation of their own project activities. These projects cover the following fields: water source construction and management, erosion control and soil fertility improvement, improved agricultural production, development of cattle, goat and poultry raising and the promotion of new activities in production, processing, recreation and social communication. These microprojects have been prepared and designed by the groups themselves with additional support from the project. This support has been provided with the objective of strengthening capacities of the groups involved in terms of analysis, planning, management of the resources in their environment, self-organization, mobilization of their own financial, human and material resources, economic and financial management and self-evaluation.
The size of the groups varied from 5 to 24 persons, depending on the type of microproject. Most of these groups have established their own rules and regulations and their own internal organization with clearly defined responsibilities, tasks and sanctions. Although still incipient, other organizations in the region are collaborating with the implementation of the locally based microprojects. For example, UNICEF and the public administration authorities of the region are providing financial and technical support for the projects of water source construction and management, which have been identified as priority activities in the 10 sous-collines covered by the project.
The remnants of top-down approaches have been one of the principal initial constraints for the implementation of the participatory approach under the project. At institutional level, this legacy was particularly visible in the attitudes and behaviour patterns of the field staff assigned to the project. In spite of the attention paid to their training, progress in improving their interpersonal communication skills in the field has been very slow. One of the constraining factors in this respect has been the language problem, as in the case of Pakistan. International staff members do not speak the local language. Therefore, they do not follow the dynamics of the interaction between field staff and local population. These field situations should have been systematically used by the international staff as learning opportunities for the local field staff.
At community level, people were used to doing what they were told to do. Hence, there were initially expectations that did not coincide with the project approach. Much time had to be invested in explaining how the project would operate, building up its credibility as a serious partner. The scattered settlement pattern of the rural population, in combination with poor infrastructure, has been a further complicating factor for smooth communication and coordination. At project level, one of the principal constraints has been the limited institutional capacity to provide adequate support to the different groups with the technical, economic and social appraisal and planning of their microprojects, and to initiate concrete field activities without too much delay.
The case study has shown a reappearance of social dynamics within the communities, characterized by an increased awareness of their own capabilities, and of their existing resources and potential, and by the start of spontaneous collective initiatives. In fact, people are comparing this new approach with the traditional top-down interventions:
When the FAO came to contact us we thought that they came to tell us what to do as usually happens. But to our surprise, they asked us to tell them what had to be done for our development. Many meetings have taken place to determine the real needs and to plan how to satisfy them. Water was our main priority and another priority was the grain mill. FAO trains us so that we understand the whole problem that we want to solve. They do not impose, we plan together and they don't look at us from above.
lkibiri, the traditional system of solidarity and collective action, is being taken up again by many groups. This is happening in spite of bad experiences with the cooperative movement that was promoted in the past in the region. It seems that the decision of the project to concentrate its support on sous-colline level has been an important factor in this context. The emphasis that has been put on organization during the planning of the microprojects, without imposing rules and regulations, has contributed significantly to strengthen the self-confidence of the groups.
It has been rather difficult to develop and promote a coherent technical menu. The project objective of sustainable management of natural resources by the local people cannot be achieved unless farmers perceive concrete benefits in terms of production and income. The production and income components usually reflect the immediate needs. Therefore, in order to ensure a more coherent menu of project options, linkages should be sought between activities identified to respond to immediate needs, and activities for natural resource conservation and management, in order to use the first type of activity as a starter for the second type.
Because the national staff lacked previous experience with participatory approaches, project take-off has been difficult. In particular during this period much attention should be paid to the exchange of field experiences and the supervision of the project field staff. On the basis of their own practical field experiences, field staff members develop a better understanding of their role and functions in promoting a participatory process at local level. On the other hand, the SRD took keen interest in the participatory approach, as could be learned from the fact that special staff meetings were organized to discuss the consequences of the participatory approach for the functioning of their institution.
Relatively little use has been made of the different appraisal tools. In order to arrive at a more comprehensive and complete appraisal of the local situation, different tools should be used for the different settings. They have to be used creatively and should be adapted to the local situation. This requires testing and verification on a pilot basis. The case study has demonstrated that adequate time planning and management is equally important, and that the available human and time resources should not be overestimated. When semi-structured interviews have to be conducted, forms or written guidelines should not be prepared by the technical staff, since in most cases they will be used by the field staff as questionnaires. Technical and field staff should jointly discuss and identify the issues to be raised. Restitution of the results of the appraisal phase constitutes a fundamental step towards planning and should be done systematically at the proper levels without mixing different objectives (such as to strengthen political commitment and to further analyse priority activities).
Large numbers of people attended the restitution meetings. The follow-up meetings, however, took place with small groups that were formed around specific activities. Most of the members of these groups belong to the better-off farmers who have the resources to respond to the project. In order to prevent this situation, the different interest groups at local level should be identified carefully during the appraisal phase and their priority activities should be discussed further with each of them separately. One cannot expect that these disadvantaged groups will benefit automatically from the project. Additional and carefully targeted project intervention strategies are required to reach these groups.
There is no doubt that local knowledge and skills have been mobilized and integrated within the identification, planning and organization of the microprojects, in particular during the appraisal phase of needs, constraints and opportunities. However, it is difficult to indicate exactly which elements have been integrated within which activities and how this was done. Apparently this process has followed a more or less "natural" course of sharing of information, knowledge and skills between the local people and project staff. The case study has shown that the project team and the institutions involved are very much aware of the farmers' logic, analytical capacity, creativity, initiatives and knowledge of the environment. On the other hand, technical matters related to implementation of the microprojects have been dealt with mainly on the basis of institutional know-how.
Community Forestry Notes
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1 |
Household food security and forestry: an analysis of socio-economic issues, 1989 (Ar/E/F/S) |
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2 |
Community forestry: participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation, 1989 (E/F/S) |
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3 |
Community forestry: rapid appraisal, 1989 (E/F/S) |
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4 |
Community forestry: herders' decision-making in natural resources management in arid and semi-arid Africa, 1990 (E°/F) |
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5 |
Community forestry: rapid appraisal of tree and land tenure, 1989 (E/F/S) |
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6 |
The major significance of `minor' forest products: the local use and value of forests in the West African humid forest zone, 1990 (E°) |
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7 |
Community forestry: ten years in review, 1991 (E/F/S°) |
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8 |
Shifting cultivators: local technical knowledge and natural resource management in the humid tropics, 1991 (E/F/S) |
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9 |
Socioeconomic attributes of trees and tree planting practices, 1991 (E/F**/S) |
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10 |
A framework for analyzing institutional incentives in community forestry, 1992 (E/F/S) |
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11 |
Common forest resource management: annotated bibliography of Asia, Africa and Latin America, 1993 (E/F**/S**) |
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12 |
Introducing community forestry: annotated listing of topics and readings, 1994 (E) |
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13 |
What about the wild animals? Wild animal species in community forestry in the tropics, 1995 (E) |
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14 |
Legal bases for managing forest resources as common property, 1999 (E) |
Community Forestry Field Manuals
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1 |
Guidelines for planning, monitoring and evaluating cookstove programs, 1990 (E/F/S°) |
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2 |
The community's toolbox: the idea, methods and tools for participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation in community forestry, 1990 (E/F/S) |
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3 |
Guidelines for integrating nutrition concerns into forestry projects, 1991 (E/F/S) |
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4 |
Tree and land tenure: rapid appraisal tools, 1994 (E/F/S) |
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5 |
Selecting tree species on the basis of community needs, 1995 (E/F**/S) |
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6 |
Marketing information systems for non-timber forest products, 1995 (E) |
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7 |
Crafting institutional arrangements for community forestry, 1997 (E) |
Community Forestry Case Studies
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1 |
Case studies of farm forestry and wasteland development in Gujarat, India, 1988 (E) |
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2 |
Forestland for the people. A forest village project in Northeast Thailand, 1988 (E) |
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3 |
Women's role in dynamic forest-based small scale enterprises. Case studies on uppage and lacquerware from India, 1991 (E°) |
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4 |
Case studies in forest-based small scale enterprises in Asia. Rattan, matchmaking and handicrafts, 1991 (E°) |
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5 |
Social and economic incentives for smallholder tree growing. A case study from Murang'a District, Kenya, 1993 (E) |
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6 |
Shifting cultivators of Indonesia: marauders or managers of the forest? Rice production and forest use among the Uma' Jalan of East Kalimantan, 1993 (E/Viet) |
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7 |
Peasant participation in community reforestation. Four communities in the Department of Cuzco, Peru, 1993 (E) |
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8 |
The impact of social and environmental change on forest management. A case study from West Kalimantan, Indonesia, 1993 (E) |
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9 |
Tree and land tenure in the Eastern Terai, Nepal. A case study from the Siraha and Saptari Districts, Nepal, 1993 (E) |
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10 |
Tree and land tenure: using rapid appraisal to study natural resource management. A case study from Anivorano, Madagascar, 1995 (E) |
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11 |
Shifting cultivation in Bhutan: a gradual approach to modifying land use patterns. A case study from Pema Gatshel District, Bhutan, 1995 (E) |
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12 |
Farmer experimentation and innovation. A case study of knowledge generation processes in agroforestry systems in Rwanda, 1996 (E) |
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13 |
Developing participatory and integrated watershed management. A case study of the FAO/Italy Inter-regional Project for Participatory Upland Conservation and Development (PUCD), 1998 (E) |
Community Forestry Working Papers
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1 |
The role of alternative conflict management in community forestry, 1994 (E) |
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2 |
Participatory approaches to planning for community forestry, 1995 (E) |
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3 |
Forest resources and institutions, 1998 (E) |
Community Forestry Conflict Management Series
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Proceedings: electronic conference on "addressing natural resource conflicts through community forestry," January-May 1996, (E) |
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• |
Integrating conflict management considerations into national policy frameworks. Proceedings of a satellite meeting to the XI World Forestry Congress, 10-13 October 1997, Antalya, Turkey, (E) |
Community Forestry Guideaines
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1 |
Women in community forestry: a field guide for project design and implementation, 1989 (E/F/S) |
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2 |
Integrating gender considerations into FAO forestry projects, 1993 (E/F**/S |
Community Forestry Audio Visuals and Slide Booklets
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Forestry and food security, 1993 (E/F/S) |
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Fruits of our work: women in community forestry, Tanzania [slide booklet], 1991 (E) |
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Gender analysis for forestry development planning - why? & how?, 1996 (E) |
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Gender analysis for forestry development planning - why? & how? [slide booklet], 1997 (E) |
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What is a tree?, 1994 (E/F) |
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What is a tree? [slide booklet], 1995 (E) |
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Women and community forestry in Sudan [slide booklet], 1991 (E) |
Community Forestry Cartoon Booklets
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1 |
Food for the future, 1990 (Ch/E/F/P/S) |
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2 |
Our trees and forests, 1992 (Ch/E/F/S) |
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3 |
I am so hungry I could eat a tree, 1992 (Ch/E/F/S) |
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4 |
Fabulous forest factories, 1993 (Ch/E/F/S) |
Other Community Forestry Publications
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Community forestry posters, 1997 (E) |
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Forests, trees and food, 1992 (E/S) |
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Forests, trees and people programme [brochure], 1998 (E/F/S) |
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Forestry and food security [brochure], 1996 (E/F/S) |
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Forestry and food security [poster], 1996 (E/F/S) |
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The gender analysis and forestry international training package, 1995 (E) |
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People and forests: community forestry at FAO, 1997 (E/F/S) |
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Restoring the balance: women and forest resources, 1989 (E/F/S) |
FAO Forestry Papers
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7 |
Forestry for local community development, 1978 (E/F/S) |
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64 |
Tree growing by rural people, 1985 (Ar/E/F/S°) |
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79 |
Small-scale forest-based processing enterprises, 1987 (E/F°/S°) |
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90 |
Forestry and food security, 1989 (Ar/E/F/S°) |
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136 |
Managing forests as common property, 1998 (E) |
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Ar - Arabic |
F - French |
Viet - Vietnamese |
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Ch - Chinese |
S - Spanish |
** in preparation |
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E - English |
P - Portuguese |
° out of print; available as a PDF file |
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Anglophone |
FTPP/FAN: |
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Africa: |
Forest Action Network |
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PO. Box 21428 | |
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Nairobi, Kenya | |
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Fax: (254-2) 718398 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Asia: |
FTPP@RECOFTC |
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Regional Community Forestry Training Center | |
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Kasetsart University | |
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PO. Box 1111 | |
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Bangkok 10903, Thailand | |
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Fax: (66-2) 561-4880 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Central America: |
Facilitador subregional para Centroamérica |
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Apdo. Postal 8198 - 1000 | |
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San José, Costa Rica | |
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Fax: (506) 280-2441 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Europe: |
The Editor, FTP Newsletter |
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Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences | |
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Box 7005 | |
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S-75007 Uppsala, Sweden | |
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Fax: (46-18) 673420 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Francophone |
Facilitateur régional pour l'Afrique francophone |
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Africa: |
FTPP@IPD-AC |
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Institut panafricain pour le dčveloppement | |
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B.P. 4078 | |
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Douala, Cameroun | |
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Fax: (237) 403068 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Latin America |
El Editor |
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and Caribbean |
Revista Bosques, árboles y comunidades rurales |
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(Spanish): |
Av. Manuel Gómez 634, |
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Apartado 11-0152 | |
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Lince, Lima, Peru | |
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Fax: (51-1) 265-0441 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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North America |
FTPP/NACARCE |
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and Caribbean |
North American & Caribbean Regional Center |
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(English): |
5400 Grosvenor Lane |
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Bethesda, Maryland 20814, USA | |
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Fax: (301) 897-3690 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] | |
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Other regions: |
The Senior Community Forestry Officer |
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Forestry Policy and Planning Division | |
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Forestry Department | |
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | |
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Viale delle Terme di Caracalla | |
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Rome 00100, Italy | |
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Fax: (39-06) 5705-5514 | |
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E-mail: [email protected] |
