Part A: Fundamental considerations in livestock systems research
Part B: Livestock systems research at ILCA
Part C: A guide to the layout of the manual
References
This manual has been written for people working in national agricultural research systems (NARS) in sub-Saharan Africa. It is also relevant to those involved in training and programme planning for the livestock sectors in the region.
The manual assumes a basic understanding of the farming systems research1 approach and provides a comprehensive bibliography on the subject.2 It draws mainly, but not exclusively, on the research experiences of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and emphasises those areas in which particular expertise has been developed.
1 In the context of the terminology used at the farming systems research conference held at ICRISAT in India in 1986, the manual concentrates on 'adaptive systems research methodology'. However, in order to maintain consistency with ILCA's literature on the subject, the term 'livestock systems research' (LSR) is used throughout.2 The bibliography provides references on crop and livestock systems research within the region.
A discussion of on-station research methodology is not included, since this subject is dealt with elsewhere in the literature (e.g. Little and Hills, 1978), but the importance of maintaining strong links between on-farm and on-station research is emphasised (Module 2, Section 2). The focus is on the principles of livestock systems research which are generally applicable to the different types of production system (pastoral, agropastoral and mixed) in Africa, and when differences occur, they are given specific attention.
Part A of this Introduction gives a brief outline of the theory and practice of livestock systems research for those who wish to refresh their minds about the basic concepts and stages involved in this type of research. Part B shows how ILCA has been involved in systems research, and Part C outlines the structure of the manual by section and module to facilitate its use.
The system perspective
Sequencing livestock systems research
Practical considerations in livestock systems research
Over the last two decades, the performance of the livestock sector in Africa has been poor: output has grown at a low rate; per caput consumption and self-sufficiency rates have declined; imports of the major livestock commodities have risen; and environmental degradation is apparent (Sandford, 1983). The reasons for this poor performance reflect inappropriate policies, institutional deficiencies, resource constraints and a failure to design projects and technologies which are widely applicable to the problems commonly confronted.
Failures in technology development have stemmed from:
· weak links between agencies involved in research and those involved with the traditional farm sector. Technologies have therefore tended to be either irrelevant or only partially relevant to the producer.· emphasis given to technologies and criteria of performance developed in high-income countries (Behnke, 1984; de Ridder and Wagenaar, 1986a, b).
· failure to understand the situation of the small farmer/pastoralist. In general, the knowledge of the factors which influence production decisions at the farm level has been inadequate (Anderson, 1979; Byerlee and Collinson, 1980; Gilbert et al, 1980). A 'systems approach' to research is now generally recognised as the most appropriate means of gaining such knowledge.
A properly applied farming systems approach should:
· begin without pre-conceptions about the nature of the system· be improvement-oriented
· examine interactions/relationships between the internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) factors affecting household production goals, decisions and levels of performance, and, from this information, attempt to identify constraints to production at the household level
· be multidisciplinary in approach. This is necessary if interactions are to be adequately understood and constraints to production correctly identified.
· involve the farmer/pastoralist in the process of system description and diagnosis and the development of solutions, and
· evaluate 'solutions' in terms of their effects on the productivity, equity, stability and sustainability of the system.
Note: While the need for an appropriate policy and institutional framework is indisputable, emphasis is given to improving productivity and/or reducing risk through the development of new technologies.3 Issues such as stability, sustainability and equity have been given little attention to date, and conflicts between private and social goals have been difficult to resolve (Byerlee and Collinson, 1980; Gilbert et al, 1980; Caldwell, 1984; Conway, 1985; Norman and Collinson, 1985; Bawden et al, 1985; Caldwell and Walecka, 1986; IARCs, 1987).
3 The significance of an appropriate policy and institutional framework must be recognised at the outset. Inappropriate policies can, for example, restrict the uptake of new technology and may, therefore, have to be corrected before innovations can be widely adopted. Alternatively, livestock systems research may, by its findings, provide the basis for policy reform (CIMMYT, 1985).
Livestock systems research
Livestock production systems in Africa have a number of distinguishing features which can influence the methods of livestock systems research. They are:
· livestock mobilityFor instance, pastoral herds are highly mobile, and this affects the manner in which data can be collected and trials conducted.
· producer attitudes
Because of the value attached to livestock, particularly cattle, producers tend to be unwilling to divulge information about the livestock they own or hold and to participate in trials.
· multiple outputs
Livestock in Africa produce meat, milk, draught power, manure and other commodities. Some of these outputs are difficult to measure and value.
· communal land tenure systems
Communal grazing of livestock poses problems for on-farm/on-range trials and limits the scope for technological improvement.
· life-cycle duration
The life cycle of cattle is relatively long, thereby increasing the cost of research and reducing the chances of long-term participation by farmers and pastoralists in trials.
· life-cycle synchronisation
This can pose a problem when collecting production data or for on-farm trials, since in some systems, it is extremely difficult to obtain enough animals of the same age, sex and parity.
These problems are discussed in greater detail in Module 1 (Section 2). They are elaborated in the literature by Bernsten et al (1984) and Gryseels (1986) and debated by McIntire (1986).
While the characteristics of particular livestock systems may influence the methodology of livestock systems research, the terminology used and the sequencing of activities into phases is similar for all types of farming systems research (Zandstra, 1980; Byerlee and Collinson, 1980; Flora, 1984; Norman and Collinson, 1985; Caldwell and Walecka, 1986). The phases commonly identified4 are:
· the descriptive/diagnostic phase
· the design phase
· the testing phase, and
· the extension phase.4 The phases described are not always as distinct as might be implied in the literature. In practice, different LSR activities will overlap during the 'testing phase', phase', for example and system diagnosis and description may have to tee continued as new insights emerge.
The main objectives of the DESCRIPTIVE/DIAGNOSTIC PHASE are to:
· Describe the production system of each identified target group, using secondary data and informal surveys.This involves a preliminary analysis of the internal and external factors which influence household production decisions and goals (Module 1, Section 1) (Butler, 1984; CIMMYT, 1985; Grandin, 1988).
A proper understanding and interpretation of these wider features of the system is critical to technological design. The adoption of technology at a later stage will often be dependent on correct initial interpretation of the genera characteristics of a system - a fact which is often ignored or given inadequate attention (Barlow et al, 1986).
· Identify the target group for which intervention is intended.
The aim at this stage is to divide farmers or pastoralists into relatively homogeneous groups ('recommendation domains') on the basis of socio-cultural, environmental, institutional and economic characteristics, assuming that decisions about production and technology adoption within each group will be guided by similar considerations (Module 1 and Appendix 1, Section 1). More than one group may be identified. Secondary data sources and informal surveys are initially used for the purpose of group identification, but refinements resulting from the findings of forma diagnostic surveys and/or on-farm trials will often be required.
· Identify the factors which constrain or limit production and income within each target group by examining the existing relationships/linkages.
Constraints can sometimes be identified by reference to secondary data sources and/or through informal contacts with farmers and other informed people within the target area (Module 1, Section 1). At other times, further in-depth analyses of the system based on formal diagnostic survey techniques may be required.
Such analyses may be of a general nature (Module 2, Section 1), or they may be confined to specific issues (e.g. labour resources, animal health, nutrition - Modules 3-10, Section 1). For the general type of study, low-cost, rapid survey techniques using once-off questionnaires are normally sufficient (CIMMYT, 1985), but for the more in-depth study, repeat visits will often be required.
· Determine whether there is scope for improvement within the system being analysed, so as to decide on an appropriate course of action.
Available technologies should be 'pre-screened' for their suitability to the environment and the particular social and economic circumstances in each target area (Module 1, Section 1; Module 1, Section 2). A multidisciplinary team approach to problem identification and evaluation of alternative 'solutions' are strongly recommended.5
During the DESIGN PHASE, the focus is on technologies which are compatible with the resources and objectives of the producer and consistent with the system features identified during the descriptive/diagnostic phase. The two major rues are:
· Adaptation of technologies already developed by commodity research programmes will normally be given priority. Research institutions and extension agents should therefore be consulted to determine the suitability of these technologies to the circumstances of the target group.
· All feasible options should be evaluated, using technical, economic and institutional criteria and a multidisciplinary team approach. Technologies tested during the on-farm trial phase maybe commodity specific or they may need to be addressed to whole-farm issues which limit production and income (Norman and Collinson, 1985).
Another good rule is to determine whether the technologies identified or developed should actually aim to overcome constraints or to work within them, by exploiting the possibilities in the system. The decision will depend mainly on the types of technology currently available for adaptation, the degree of flexibility within the system itself, and the severity of the constraints encountered.
In the short term, significant improvements will often be achieved through technologies which exploit the existing options, but major long-term increases can only be obtained by overcoming constraints to production. Part B of Module 6 (Section 1) gives examples.
When selecting among existing technologies for improvement and designing new ones, the economic implications of adoption need to be carefully considered. This is done using prices and costs appropriate to the circumstances of the farmer or pastoralist. Given the normal time-lag between design, testing and extension of new technologies, prices and costs should be based on future trend estimates (Barlow et al, 1986).
5 The composition of the team will depend on financial and manpower resources. It will largely determine the type of research to be conducted and may need to be altered as new priorities emerge or as new insights are obtained.
During the TESTING PHASE, the objective is to test, by on-farm trials, the solutions proposed during design. Initial assumptions about the characteristics of producers and the environment in which they operate, should also be re-assessed. Modifications to design will often be necessary as new information comes to light during the trial period. Access to research station facilities is therefore advantageous, since refinements are often best carried out under controlled conditions which allow careful monitoring of interactions and responses (Module 2, Section 2).
The following general principles apply for this phase:
· Farmers should be involved in the trial process and in the evaluation of technologies (Harrington, 1980; Norman and Collinson, 1985). They should, where possible, be representative6 of the target area or group (Gilbert et al, 1980).· Levels of farmer/researcher involvement need to be carefully defined at the outset and should take into account the characteristics and objectives of the trial. Trials should be planned in accordance with the financial and manpower resources available to the research team.
· Experiments should be simple, the number and complexity of the treatments declining as the level of farmer involvement in the management of the trial increases. (Module in Section 2 gives guidelines on the type and complexity of treatments used under different levels of trial management.)
· Results need to be evaluated on the basis of several criteria, including statistical significance, financial and economic performance, farmer assessment, environmental and equity considerations
· Replication of experiments over time is generally necessary. This is because satisfactory initial results will often be followed by appointing later outcomes (Price, 1983).
· The transferability of tested technologies to farmers outside the target area should be assessed. To a large extent, this will depend on the flexibility of the technologies and on the particular characteristics of the target area.
6 Logistical considerations may prevent selection of representative participants, particularly when they are widely dispersed within the target area.
For livestock on-farm trials, the following additional points apply
· Often, it is more appropriate to conduct trials aimed at monitoring farmers' reactions to the innovation, rather than attempting to obtain statistically analysable results, since obtaining the sample size required to conduct the latter type of trial is extremely difficult. This is particularly the case when the animals need to be grouped or 'blocked' on the basis of like characteristics, such as age, sex and parity.· Adequate supervision is a must particularly in trials conducted for the purpose of statistical analysis. Trial supervision can be extremely difficult when livestock are involved. Often, selected animals are dispersed over a wide area, making adequate supervision logistically impossible. At other times, participating farmers 'switch' animals between treatments if one group is observed to perform better than another. Module 2 in Section 2 outlines these problems and the ways in which they can be overcome.
The objective of the EXTENSION PHASE is to assess the impact of new technology in the wider community, not only the target area, by monitoring its uptake and examining its interactions with:
· production levels and the use of inputs
· resource allocation (e.g. in terms of changing land-use patterns)
· institutions (e.g. markets and credit), and
· different social groups (i.e. who benefits from the improvement?).The extension phase is when the real testing takes place and causes for success or failure are carefully assessed to ensure that the adaptive research process continues. This requires that contact with farmers, extension agents and researchers is maintained and feedback is ensured (von Kaufmann, 1986).
On-going monitoring and evaluation of technological impact should provide the basis for improving designs and developing new strategies to fit changing circumstances. In practice, however, this phase of systems research has been the most neglected (Barlow et al, 1986).
The practical aspects of operation need to be carefully considered both at the beginning and during the implementation of any systems research programme, since they will often determine the success or failure of work carried out during the first three stages of livestock systems research and, consequently, the long- term impact of the programme.
Among these operational aspects are institutional support, resource availability and time required to complete each phase of the research.
Institutional issues
Systems research programmes in Africa tend to lack the necessary institutional support for effective operation, and links with research, policy and planning agencies are weak. Expenditure on livestock research of any kind (but particularly for pastoral systems) has been low, and the attitude towards technological improvement has been half-hearted (Sandford, 1983).
Moreover, research and extension organisations tend to be established along strong disciplinary lines within rigid bureaucratic structures (Goodell, 1984; Heinemann and Biggs, 1985; Barlow et al, 1986) and to lack commitment to the concepts of systems analysis (Norman and Collinson, 1985). Farming systems research is also probably more costly than conventional means of disseminating innovations in agriculture, and the results obtained have often been disappointing (Swindale, 1987).
A systems research programme which emphasises multidisciplinary cooperation is thus often difficult to implement. Attempts to collaborate across institutions when there are no separate budgets for systems research work are rarely successful (Franzel et al, 1986).
Thus, when embarking on livestock systems research it is necessary to ensure that there is:
· adequate support for the programme· sufficient communication between the various disciplines involved, and
· a satisfactory mechanism for establishing priorities and objectives and for resource allocations. The definition and co-ordination of research activities should be as complete as possible and the approach adopted should be flexible (Dillon and Anderson, 1984).
Resource issues
The resource requirements of all planned LSR activities must be thoroughly assessed. To do this, the objectives must be clearly at the beginning of each phase of the programme. To ensure that the stated objectives are met, it may then be necessary to modify plans or expand resource capabilities. Alternatively, initial objectives may need to be tailored to fit the resources available. The two major resource requirements to be considered are:
· Manpower. The composition of the research team will need to be clearly specified for each phase of the programme. It will vary with the circumstances and the objectives of the study, and recurrent fund limits will often result in the need to adjust initial intentions. Senior staff may also not be available to work on the team when needed because of conflicting responsibilities or transfers to alternative occupations.· Budget. It is advisable to budget adequately for capital and recurrent expenditures and to include contingency allowances in the estimates made. Budget requirements will be influenced by the method chosen to collect data.
Phasing
The time required to complete each phase of livestock systems research should be kept to a minimum, since, quite apart from the obvious budgetary implications, past failures to achieve results in reasonable time had affected the credibility of systems research (Gilbert et al, 1980).
The International Livestock Centre for Africa was established in 1974 to serve as a multidisciplinary institution for research into livestock production issues in sub-Saharan Africa. One of its major objectives is to train national scientists in systems research; conferences on pastoral systems research (ILCA, 1983) and the role of livestock in mixed farming systems (Kearl, 1986) were conducted with this in mind.
Initially, detailed baseline studies of different livestock production systems were emphasised, as well as transfer of technologies developed elsewhere.7 Research teams focused on on- farm rather than on-station research, and a multidisciplinary approach was adopted. The broad objectives which were defined for systems research in sub-Saharan Africa (Gryseels et al, 1987) were to:
· diagnose constraints to increased animal production
· develop prototype technologies under farm conditions
· develop research methodologies, and
· help build national capabilities to conduct livestock systems research.7 Other institutions involved in livestock systems research work within the region include the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA), the Small Ruminants Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP) and the Winrock Foundation (Bernsten et al, 1984).
ILCA has conducted livestock systems research in smallholder mixed farming systems (in the Ethiopian highlands and in the humid zone of Nigeria) and in agro-pastoral systems (in subhumid Nigeria and in the arid and semi-arid zones of West Africa). A detailed diagnostic study of the Maasai pastoral system in Kenya has also been recently been completed (Solomon Bekure et al, 1987). The manual draws on these experiences throughout.
Section 1, entitled DESCRIPTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS, is divided into 11 modules
Section 2, entitled LIVESTOCK ON-FARM TRIALS, is concerned with phases 2 and 3 in livestock systems research, it is divided into three modules
The manual is not a textbook on systems theory, but a practical guide to those aspects of systems research and problems that are likely to be confronted during the different stages of the research. It has two sections, each divided into modules with comprehensive reference lists. The modules are 'disposable' and subject to periodical updating. Readers are encouraged to use only those modules that are relevant to their research work, and to make use of the reference material listed for further reading.
Module 1, Baseline data and exploratory surveys in livestock systems research:
- sources and uses of secondary data
- informal surveys, and
-developing hypotheses about system relationships/linkages.
Module 2, Diagnostic surveys in livestock systems research:
- types of diagnostic survey (questionnaire designs)
- how to select and train enumerators
- scheduling of operations
- pre-testing of questionnaires, and
- sampling methods and other practical considerations.
Module 3, Labour inputs:
- purposes of labour data collection- types of data collected (supply of household labour, the pattern of labour use, labour profiles)
- methods of data collection (by direct observation and by recall techniques).
Module 4, Household budgets and assets:
- purposes of data collection
- types of data collected (assets inventory, income and expenditure data)
- methods of data collection (by recall and by direct observation).
Module 5, Animal production:
- purposes of data collection- types of data collected (inter-species composition of the livestock holding, herd/flock structure, reproductive performance, mortality, growth and weight gain, outputs)
- methods of data collection (ageing by dentition, recall surveys, progeny history method, direct observation and measurement).
Module 6, Range resource evaluation:
- definitions and concepts
- purposes of data collection
- types of data collected (ground, aerial and remote sensing data)
- methods of data collection (ground methods for vegetation and soils, aerial surveys).
Module 7, Animal nutrition:
- definitions and concepts- purposes of data collection
- types of data collected (animal and feed data)
- methods of data collection (to measure intake, to assess the composition of feed consumed and the nutritive value of feed)
- sampling crop residues, hays, grains and wet feeds for laboratory analysis.
Module 8, Animal health:
- purposes of data collection
- types of data collected (passive and active data)
- methods of data collection (recall methods, cross-sectional studies)
- retrospective and prospective studies
- sampling to detect disease presence and prevalence rates.
Module 9, Livestock marketing:
- concepts and definitions- purposes of data collection
- types of data collected (producer and market data)
- methods of data collection (for estimating livestock numbers, offtake and acquisition, and to understand market functions).
Module 10, Management practices:
- definition of management
- herding practices
- watering practices
- breeding practices (isolating breed/genetic effects)
- comparisons within and between breeds.
Module 11, Organisation, presentation and analysis of results:
- statistical tables graphs and charts summary statistics standard errors confidence intervals
- testing for differences between two groups (t-test)
- testing for relationships between two categories (chi-squared test)
- linear correlation and regression.
The modules are organised in a logical sequence. Module 1 shows how to conduct preliminary inquiries and use secondary data to obtain insights about the system being studied. Module 2 shows how this information can be used to diagnose the system in greater depth. Modules 3-10 deal with specific topics (e.g. animal production performance, range condition) which may require more in-depth study during the course of diagnostic work. Module 11 describes how the data collected can be presented and analysed.
Each module is self contained and can be used without referring to other modules or other reading material. However, when it is useful to clarify particular points, cross references between different modules are used.
In-depth studies of particular issues (e.g. labour use, animal production, animal nutrition) should always be justified on the basis of preliminary inquiries and should not be attempted unless there is very good reason to do so (Module 1). Modules 3-9 thus follow a logical pattern8 in which the user is constantly reminded to:
· define the purposes of the study· use methods of data collection which are appropriate to the circumstances and the type(s) of data needed.
8 Module 10 follows a slightly different format.
The manpower and financial resources available will often set Emits on the method(s) used.
In defining the purposes of data collection, each module emphasises the need to understand the relationships or linkages which exist between different system components. It is through examining these relationships that an understanding of the system is developed and the scope for improvement often determined. Examples of the types of relationships which might need to be examined in the study of a particular issue are given in Modules 3-10. Module 11 shows how these kinds of relationships can be tested for statistical significance.
Module 1, Definitions, problems and initial considerations in planning livestock on-farm trials:
- definitions and concepts- problems confronted in livestock on-farm trials
- justification of on-farm trials with livestock (e.g. the relevance of technology to the problems identified, the appropriateness and practicality of on-farm trials)
- choosing the technology to test (the 'screening' process).
Module 2, Design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of livestock on-farm trials:
- the role of on-station research- on-farm trials (objectives, resources, management and supervision, selection of trial participants)
- 'statistical' trials (determination of sample size, specifying treatment characteristics, problems with farmers' cooperation)
- 'monitoring' trials
- trial implementation (operations and their phasing, data collection)
- evaluation and re-design
- statistical significance
- financial attractiveness, evaluation by farmers, adoption and other criteria of evaluation.
Module 3, Analysing data from on-farm trials:
- statistical analysis of on-farm trials (paired 't' test)- analysis of variance
- financial of on-farm trials (gross margins, partial budgets, whole-farm budgets, cash-flow budgets).
Appendix 1, On-farm feeding trials: Additional considerations
- supplementation, adjustment and compensatory gain
- seasonal effects
- feed variability
- interactions
- typical problems
- valuing feeds.
Appendix 2, On-farm animal health trials: Additional considerations
- farmers' participation
- levels of assistance offered
- cooperation during the trial
- animal sales/disposals
- efficacy and availability of vaccines and drugs, cooperation by veterinarians
- immunity and trial effects
- interactions
- prospective animal health studies.
Section 2 emphasises the difficulties commonly confronted when livestock on-farm trials are conducted. It defines two broad categories of livestock on-farm trials making use of ILCA's experiences:
· Statistical trials, which are designed with the specific intention of obtaining statistically analysable results using techniques such as the paired 't' test and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).· Monitoring trials, which are used when statistical analysis of the results is impractical but when farmer reactions to a technology need to be monitored.
Obtaining a sufficient sample size and supervising the trial are the two main difficulties confronted when 'statistical' trials are conducted. There is little point in persisting with 'statistical' trials if the problems involved cannot be overcome. On the other hand, there will also be circumstances when 'monitoring' and/or on-station trials will be more appropriate, at least initially.
Rather than write separate modules for particular types of trial (e.g. animal feeding trials, health trials), the three modules written are of a general nature with the principles outlined being applicable to all types of on-farm trial. The Appendices are used to highlight particular issues which may need to be considered when feeding and animal health trials are being planned.
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