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3 Writing well

3.1 General principles of writing

Read your text aloud. If you run out of breath or stumble over a sentence, it is probably too long or complex. You can check the readability of your text using the Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level tools available in Microsoft Word.

Remember that the introduction, conclusion and summary may be the only sections that your audience reads in full. Take special care to ensure that these are well written and succinct.

Use plain language and a clear style, avoiding ambiguity:

  • Opt for shorter, simpler words rather than long phrases, e.g. <correct-text>because<correct-text> instead of <incorrect-text>due to the fact that<incorrect-text>, or <correct-text>needs<correct-text> instead of <incorrect-text>has a requirement for<incorrect-text>.
  • Beware of buzzwords (e.g. <incorrect-text>synergy<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>visioning<incorrect-text>), as these may quickly fade from usage.
  • Avoid jargon, colloquialisms or slang; where necessary, explain the meaning.
  • Avoid unnecessary and vague adverbs and intensifiers (e.g. <incorrect-text>hopefully<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>really<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>very<incorrect-text>).
  • Prefer the active to the passive voice, e.g. <correct-text>The company designed the product to appeal to young people<correct-text> rather than <incorrect-text>The product was designed to appeal to young people<incorrect-text>.
  • Avoid double negatives: <correct-text>It is common to ...<correct-text> is better than <incorrect-text>It is not uncommon to ...<incorrect-text>.
  • Use terminology accurately and consistently. Editors of multi-author books should ensure that chapters by different authors employ the same terms for the same concepts.
  • Replace imprecise verbs (e.g. <incorrect-text>do<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>make<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>get<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>enhance<incorrect-text>) with more precise alternatives (e.g. <correct-text>perform<correct-text>, <correct-text>create<correct-text>, <correct-text>obtain<correct-text>, <correct-text>improve<correct-text>). 
  • When describing quantities, avoid <incorrect-text>a few<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>some<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>many<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>enough<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>several<incorrect-text> and <incorrect-text>a number of<incorrect-text> as these provide no useful information.

3.2 Common mistakes

  • Take care when using collective nouns (e.g. <correct-text>government is<correct-text>). Use the plural form of the verb for <correct-text>people<correct-text>, <correct-text>staff<correct-text> and <correct-text>the police<correct-text>, e.g. <correct-text>The staff <correct-text><correct-text-bold>have<correct-text-bold><correct-text> received a memorandum<correct-text>. Key exceptions, such as <correct-text>team<correct-text>, can be singular or plural depending on whether the context is emphasizing the group or its members.
  • Examples introduced by <correct-text>such as<correct-text>, <correct-text>for example<correct-text> or <correct-text>including<correct-text> should not be followed by <incorrect-text>etc.<incorrect-text> These terms imply that the subsequent examples are not an exhaustive list.

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TABLE 3.1 Common mistakes
instead of
use
different than or different to
different from
participate at
participate in
less
fewer (when referring to quantifiable units, e.g. fewer students, fewer days of sunshine)
with regards to
with regard to (or regarding, in regard to or as regards

3.3 Non-discriminatory language

As a UN agency, all of FAO’s communications and publications must be guided by a principle of neutrality when serving its Members.

FAO communications must be free of discriminatory language regarding age, gender, gender identity, Indigenous Peoples, migrants, people with disabilities, race, religion and sexual orientation.

3.3.1 Indigenous Peoples

The term <correct-text>Indigenous Peoples<correct-text> (always plural, with both words capitalized) has been agreed upon internationally and at the UN to represent the richness and variety of Indigenous Peoples across the world and their status as rights holders. Avoid referring to Indigenous Peoples as <incorrect-text>farmers<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>ethnic groups<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>local communities<incorrect-text> or <incorrect-text>marginalized communities<incorrect-text>, which are inaccurate. Terms like <correct-text>bands<correct-text>, <correct-text>pueblos<correct-text> or <correct-text>tribes<correct-text> may be appropriate, but only in specific contexts, and <correct-text>Indigenous women<correct-text> and <correct-text>Indigenous youth<correct-text> are broadly accepted. See the FAO Term Portal and AGROVOC for additional terminology. 

3.3.2 Gender-neutral and gender-sensitive language

FAO is committed to achieving gender equality in its work. This includes the use of language that is inclusive; reflects a belief in equality between people regardless of their gender; and does not reinforce gender-based stereotypes or discriminatory attitudes, perceptions or behaviours. 

To avoid unintentionally implying that only men are being referred to, use forms of address and pronouns that are consistent with gender identity. The construction <correct-text>he or she<correct-text> may be used sparingly but avoid <incorrect-text>he/she<incorrect-text> or <incorrect-text>s/he<incorrect-text>. Try to rephrase text to avoid the frequent use of gendered pronouns. When it is unclear which pronoun a person has chosen, use <correct-text>they<correct-text>, <correct-text>them<correct-text> and <correct-text>their<correct-text> instead of <incorrect-text>s/he<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>him/her<incorrect-text> and <incorrect-text>his or her<incorrect-text> or rephrase to avoid pronouns altogether.

Gender-neutral language is language that does not refer to gender when describing people.

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TABLE 3.2 Gender-neutral alternatives to commonly used nouns
instead of
use
Chairman/woman
Chair, head
Layman
Layperson
Man (v.)
Operate, staff, work at
Man-hour
Work-hour, hour of labour
Mankind
Humanity, human race
Man-made
Manning
Manpower
Human resources, labour force, personnel, workers, workforce

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Gender-sensitive language refers to the use of terms that are inclusive and avoid reinforcing gender stereotypes. For example, a reference to a <correct-text>farmer’s wife<correct-text> implies that the woman has no role in farming. If it is known, the woman should be described beyond her role in relation to her spouse.

3.3.3 Age

Being old is sometimes unfairly equated with undesirable attributes, such as dependence, rigidity of thought or the inability to learn new things. <incorrect-text>The elderly<incorrect-text> is no longer considered an acceptable term, whereas terms such as <correct-text>pensioners<correct-text> and <correct-text>senior citizens<correct-text> may be accepted by some but not by others. <correct-text>Older people<correct-text> is generally accepted by all. Where possible, refer to a specific age, e.g. <correct-text>People over the age of 60 …<correct-text>.

3.3.4 Cultural and ethnic diversity

The two most common forms of cultural or ethnic bias are omission and stereotyping.

Omission involves the inclusion of certain points of view or experiences and the exclusion of others, which can greatly influence the reader. Stereotyping is the negative portrayal of members of minority groups. Even seemingly positive or benign ethnic characterizations that reinforce stereotypes are misleading.

Avoid phrases that express a particular ethnocentric perspective.

3.3.5 Disability

When discussing people with disabilities, there are several categories of discrimination:

  • People are not defined by a disability; therefore, avoid marginalizing language such as <incorrect-text>epileptics<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>the blind<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>the deaf<incorrect-text>. Instead use <correct-text>people with epilepsy<correct-text>, <correct-text>blind people<correct-text>, <correct-text>deaf people<correct-text>.
  • Do not patronize by implying that a disability has made someone unfortunate or a victim. A person may <correct-text>use a wheelchair<correct-text>, they are not <incorrect-text>confined to a wheelchair<incorrect-text>.
  • Language can perpetuate stigma around disabilities. Avoid <incorrect-text>schizophrenic<incorrect-text> or <incorrect-text>addict<incorrect-text>; instead,
    use <correct-text>person with schizophrenia<correct-text> or <correct-text>person with addiction<correct-text>.
  • Avoid condescending euphemisms such as <incorrect-text>differently abled<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>challenged<incorrect-text>, <incorrect-text>handi-capable<incorrect-text> and <incorrect-text>special<incorrect-text>, which mask the reality of disability, and instead use <correct-text>people with disabilities<correct-text> or <correct-text>disabled<correct-text>. 
  • Do not medicalize a person who is disabled, has an impairment or a medical condition by implying they are sick. People with disabilities are <correct-text>patients<correct-text> only in the context of medical care.
  • Mention a person’s disability only when relevant to the context, rather than stereotyping them as heroic or an inspiration for having defied a disability to experience success.
  • For further information, refer to the UN Disability-Inclusive Communications Guidelines.

3.4 Writing a blurb

A blurb is a short text that aims to attract the potential reader’s attention and make the reader curious to learn more. It is used on the back cover, on the preview page of the FAO Knowledge Repository, and for other marketing purposes.

OCCP recommends creating a single blurb, called a “multipurpose blurb,” that can be adapted for different purposes, depending on medium, audience and space available. Follow this structure:

  • It should be 250–300 words total, divided into three paragraphs of 50–100 words.
  • The first one or two sentences (maximum 30 words) contain the essence of the publication; this is useful for newsletters or on the web.
  • The first paragraph presents the main focus and selling points of the publication and should be able to stand alone, e.g. for use in the publications catalogue. Keep sentences short and easy to scan.
  • The second paragraph gives complementary information, such as broader context, secondary themes and more detail. The first two paragraphs together can be used for some marketing materials or the web.
  • The third paragraph expands further on the topic, providing background, recommendations or perspectives. The three paragraphs together can be used on the book’s back cover and the FAO Knowledge Repository preview page.

For a well-written blurb, follow these guidelines:

  • Use strong opening and closing sentences.
  • Include striking statistics related to the issue the work is addressing. (Note that new data or sensitive information must not be publicly disclosed before the launch date of a publication under embargo.)
  • Highlight the unique aspects of the work, such as recent data and analysis.
  • Ensure the blurb has a strong logical and narrative flow.
  • Write in a clear style appropriate to the readership of the publication.
  • Avoid overuse of technical terms.
  • Include relevant keywords as part of the text to strengthen online discoverability.

3.5 Writing a title

The title of your publication should be accurate, catchy and short. Your title needs to attract your target audience.

Include key ideas in the first ten words as this is what will appear in search engine results. Avoid abbreviations (with the exceptions of <correct-text>FAO<correct-text> and <correct-text>COVID-19<correct-text>).

Future translations should be considered when writing a title: keep in mind that some languages require more words to express the same idea.

Do not add punctuation to separate a title and subtitle on the cover, title page or first page; visually separate them using line breaks or different typefaces. For the required citation, any references to the title in the text, and for running heads or feet, use the following punctuation:

  • Set off dates or locations that are part of a title (or part of a subtitle) using a comma.
  • Where it is necessary to have multiple phrases within a title or within a subtitle, separate them with a colon, e.g. <correct-text-italic>Trees, forests and land use in drylands: a study in six African countries – First annual assessment, 2024<correct-text-italic>. The first word following the colon may be lower case or capitalized.
  • Separate a title from a subtitle using an en-dash, e.g. <correct-text-italic>Unemployment in rural areas – A study in six African countries<correct-text-italic>.
  • The content type may be included as the subtitle, but not as the main title, e.g. <correct-text-italic>Mainstreaming small-scale fisheries into climate action for sustainable development in Namibia – Policy brief<correct-text-italic>.

3.5.1 Writing a title for a figure, table or box

Titles of figures, tables and boxes should be written in clear language that can be understood by a wide audience and outside the context of the publication. Where possible, identify the geographic area and period of time covered.

Do not use a full stop at the end of the title. When two or more figures or tables are related, the titles should be consistent, e.g.:

<correct-text>Figure 1 Distribution of households by income in Nicaragua, 1999–2019<correct-text>

<correct-text>Figure 2 Distribution of female-headed households by income in Guatemala, 1999–2019<correct-text>

Unless constrained by space, use the full word for units (<correct-text>percentage<correct-text>, <correct-text>tonnes<correct-text>) in the titles of figures, tables and boxes instead of abbreviations. Ensure consistency throughout the publication. For names of countries, use the Short Name for Lists and Tables in NOCS.

3.5.2 Series titles

A series title must be clear, consistent, concise and unique. Avoid abbreviations and words indicating frequency of publication. Series titles must not refer specifically to units, offices or divisions.

Capitalize the first word, the final word and major words in series titles. If the series title includes the publication type, it should be written in plural, such as <correct-text>Manuals<correct-text>, <correct-text>Standards<correct-text> or <correct-text>Working Papers<correct-text>, and be part of the title without any punctuation, e.g. <correct-text>FAO Animal Production and Health Manuals<correct-text>.

The title should use legible and unambiguous typography and appear in the same place on the cover and the title page. In the citation, the series title appears exactly as it does on the cover and title page of the publication.
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