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Book (stand-alone)Technical bookSustainable food cold chains: Opportunities, challenges and the way forward 2022
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An estimated 14 percent of the total food produced for human consumption is lost, while 17 per cent is wasted. This is enough to feed around 1 billion people in a world where currently 811 million people are hungry and 3 billion cannot afford a healthy diet. The lack of effective refrigeration is a leading contributor to this challenge, resulting in the loss of 12 percent of total food production, in 2017. Moreover, the food cold chain is responsible for 4 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, including from cold chain technologies and food loss and waste due to lack of refrigeration. This report explores how food cold chain development can become more sustainable and makes a series of important recommendations. These include governments and other cold chain stakeholders collaborating to adopt a systems approach and develop National Cooling Action Plans, backing plans with financing and targets, implementing and enforcing ambitious minimum efficiency standards. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer – a universally ratified multilateral environmental agreement – can contribute to mobilizing and scaling up solutions for delivering sustainable, efficient, and environmentally friendly cooling through its Kigali Amendment and Rome Declaration. Reducing non-CO2 emissions, including refrigerants used in cold chain technologies is key to achieve the Paris Agreement targets, as highlighted in the latest mitigation report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). At a time when the international community must act to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, sustainable food cold chains can make an important difference. -
Book (stand-alone)Technical reportDesalination for agricultural development: Addressing opportunities and challenges in the context of climate change and the global agricultural commodity market
Expert consultation workshop report
2025Also available in:
No results found.The integration of desalination into agricultural practices presents a transformative opportunity to address water scarcity in a rapidly changing climate. This guidance document has highlighted the technological advances, agronomic opportunities, economic challenges, environmental impacts and social considerations associated with doing so.Technologically, desalination has evolved significantly, offering viable solutions for both seawater and brackish water, with reverse osmosis leading the way. However, the high costs and energy requirements of desalination remain significant challenges, particularly for widespread agricultural use. Innovations in energy efficiency, brine management, and the potential for resource recovery from brine are promising developments that could lower costs and environmental impacts in the future.Agronomically, desalinated water can support high-value crops, and it has the potential to support food security in regions facing severe water scarcity. However, the unique chemical composition of desalinated water, including low nutrient content and the potential for phytotoxicity, necessitates careful management to avoid adverse effects on soil health and crop productivity. Blending desalinated water with water from other sources and adjusting fertilization practices can mitigate some of these concerns.Economically, the viability of desalination for agriculture depends on the value of the crops being irrigated, the proximity of desalination plants to agricultural lands, and the availability of financing mechanisms. The high cost of desalinated water requires targeted subsidies, public–private partnerships, and innovative financing models to make it accessible and sustainable for farmers, particularly in developing regions. Further research is needed to analyse the costs and benefits of desalination for “strategic” crops in water-scarce areas – such as cereals and animal fodder – which are intended to contribute to food security.Environmental sustainability is a critical consideration, with desalination’s energy intensity and brine disposal posing significant risks. The shift towards renewable energy sources and the development of brine valorization strategies are essential steps towards reducing the environmental footprint of desalination. Moreover, the potential for desalination to contribute to aquifer recharge and prevent overextraction of freshwater resources offers additional environmental benefits. -
Book (stand-alone)Technical bookIntegration of environment and nutrition in life cycle assessment of food items: opportunities and challenges 2021
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No results found.This report is the outcome of a consensus-building project to agree on best practices for environmental and nutritional Life Cycle Assessment (nLCA) methodology, and identify future research needs. The project involved 30 nutritional and environmental LCA researchers from 18 countries. It focused on the assessment of food items (as opposed to meals or diets). Best practice recommendations were developed to address the intended purpose of an LCA study and related modeling approach, choice of an appropriate functional unit, assessment of nutritional value, and reporting nLCA results. An nLCA study should report the quantities of as many essential nutrients as possible and aim to provide information on the nutritional quality and/or health impacts in addition to nutrient quantities. Outstanding issues requiring further research attention include: defining a minimum number of nutrients to be considered in an nLCA study; treatment of nutrients to limit; use of nutrient indexes; further development of Impact Assessment methods; representation of nutritional changes that may occur during subsequent distribution and food preparation in cradle-to-gate nLCA studies; and communication of data uncertainty and variability. More data are required for different regions (particularly developing countries); for the processing, distribution, retail, and consumption life cycle stages; and for food loss and waste. Finally, there is a need to extend nLCA methodology for the assessment of meals and diets, to consider further how to account for the multi-functionality of food in a sustainability framework, and to set nLCA studies within the context of environmental limits. These results provide a robust basis for improving nLCA methodology and applying it to identify solutions that minimize the trade-offs between nourishing populations and safeguarding the environment.
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BookletCorporate general interestAgrifood solutions to climate change
FAO's work to tackle the climate crisis
2023Amid a worsening climate crisis and slow progress in cutting greenhouse gases, sustainable agrifood systems practices can help countries and communities to adapt, build resilience and mitigate emissions, ensuring food security and nutrition for a growing global population. FAO is working with countries and partners from government to community level to simultaneously address the challenges of food security, climate change and biodiversity loss.But none of this will ultimately succeed unless the world commits to a significant increase in the quality and quantity of climate finance. -
Book (series)FlagshipThe State of Food and Agriculture 2019
Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction
2019The need to reduce food loss and waste is firmly embedded in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Food loss and waste reduction is considered important for improving food security and nutrition, promoting environmental sustainability and lowering production costs. However, efforts to reduce food loss and waste will only be effective if informed by a solid understanding of the problem. This report provides new estimates of the percentage of the world’s food lost from production up to the retail level. The report also finds a vast diversity in existing estimates of losses, even for the same commodities and for the same stages in the supply chain. Clearly identifying and understanding critical loss points in specific supply chains – where considerable potential exists for reducing food losses – is crucial to deciding on appropriate measures. The report provides some guiding principles for interventions based on the objectives being pursued through food loss and waste reductions, be they in improved economic efficiency, food security and nutrition, or environmental sustainability. -
Book (series)Technical studyThe impact of climate variability and extremes on agriculture and food security - An analysis of the evidence and case studies
Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018
2020Also available in:
No results found.Global climate studies show that not only temperatures are increasing and precipitation levels are becoming more varied, all projections indicate these trends will continue. It is therefore imperative that we understand changes in climate over agricultural areas and their impacts on agriculture production and food security. This study presents new analysis on the impact of changing climate on agriculture and food security, by examining the evidence on recent climate variability and extremes over agricultural areas and the impact of these on agriculture and food security. It shows that more countries are exposed to increasing climate variability and extremes and the frequency (the number of years exposed in a five-year period) and intensity (the number of types of climate extremes in a five-year period) of exposure over agricultural areas have increased. The findings of this study are compelling and bring urgency to the fact that climate variability and extremes are proliferating and intensifying and are contributing to a rise in global hunger. The world’s 2.5 billion small-scale farmers, herders, fishers, and forest-dependent people, who derive their food and income from renewable natural resources, are most at risk and affected. Actions to strengthen the resilience of livelihoods and food systems to climate variability and extremes urgently need to be scaled up and accelerated.