Annexes

Annex A. What is degradation?

In general terms, degradation means the loss of integrity or quality. Applied to different contexts, degradation takes on different nuances (IPBES, 2018b). In the STAPER, degradation is characterized by a decline or loss of biodiversity or ecosystem functions. Degradation and restoration are considered context-specific and refer to both the state of ecosystems and to ecosystem processes. In the context of the UN Restoration Decade, degradation has been defined as a persistent deterioration of ecosystem attributes (e.g. abiotic condition, species composition, ecosystem structure and function, external exchanges) relative to reference conditions, due to direct (e.g. unsustainable resource use, land use change, overexploitation, contamination) or indirect (e.g. climate change) human intervention, that affect the ecosystem’s capacity to provide benefits to people and nature (Nelson et al., 2024). In reference to the ecological restoration of natural ecosystems, degradation is a level of deleterious human impact to ecosystems that results in the loss of biodiversity and simplification or disruption in their composition, structure and functioning, and generally leads to a reduction in the flow of ecosystem services (Gann et al., 2019).

Degradation is also used in the expression land degradation, which elicits several meanings in different contexts. For example, used broadly, land degradation refers to the decline or loss in biodiversity, ecosystem functions or services, and includes the degradation of all terrestrial ecosystems including associated aquatic ecosystems that are impacted by land degradation (IPBES, 2018a). In the context of Land Degradation Neutrality, the UNCCD (2019) has defined land degradation as the loss of biological or economic productivity and complexity in agricultural, range or forest land due to processes arising from human activities, such as the erosion or deterioration of soil and the loss of natural vegetation. Because the term land degradation is not specific to any particular type of ecosystem, the transformation of natural ecosystems into economically productive ones, such as rangelands and agricultural systems, usually causes the loss of quality to one and an increase in the other. Therefore, it is critical to understand the desired outcome of restoration to assess degradation.

The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (2021) defines ecosystem degradation as the decrease in the value of an ecosystem asset over an accounting period that is associated with a decline in the condition of an ecosystem asset during that accounting period. The decrease in value will be demonstrated by a fall in the net present value of expected future returns of the ecosystem services supplied by that asset. Ecosystem degradation will arise as the result of both managed and unmanaged declines in condition.

Degradation is often used in conjunction with more specific terms (simplified from IPBES [2018b}), such as: biodiversity degradation (loss of habitat or species), freshwater degradation (loss of quantity or quality of water, desirable biodiversity components, or hydrological functions), degradation of marine habitats (reduced percentage cover of coral or area of seagrass or oyster reef), rangeland degradation (loss of features that diminish its capacity to support herbivores), and soil degradation (loss of quantity or quality, including physical and chemical components).

Because the concept of degradation is context-specific, there may be challenges or conflicts in defining degradation for certain types of ecosystems, especially those that provide both biodiversity and production benefits. This is critical to note for some ecosystems such as natural grasslands that serve as rangelands or coastal and marine ecosystems that support fisheries. Increased productivity in either, e.g. through stock enhancement, may be a form of degradation for the underpinning natural ecosystem.

Annex B. A History of the concept of effective restoration

An early reference to the idea of effective restoration was published by Higgs in 1997, in which he tied it to ecological fidelity. Ecological fidelity, in turn, comprised structural/compositional replication, functional success and durability. The concept of effective restoration was broadened and elevated as one of three guiding principles in the “Principles and guidelines for ecological restoration in Canada's protected natural areas” (2008): effective, efficient, and engaging.

The first global guidelines for ecological restoration in protected areas were published in 2012. Guidelines for effective restoration included:

• Do no harm by first identifying when active restoration is the best option.

• Re-establish ecosystem structure, function and composition.

• Maximize the contribution of restoration actions to enhancing resilience.

• Restore [ecological] connectivity within and beyond the boundaries of protected areas.

• Encourage and re-establish traditional cultural values and practices that contribute to the ecological, social and cultural sustainability of the protected area and its surroundings.

• Use research and monitoring, including from traditional ecological knowledge, to maximize restoration success.

In the STAPER, the concept of effective restoration was broadened further to include concepts such as capacity-building, training, technology transfer and cost-effectiveness.

The SER Standards Summary document (2019) stated: “Ecological restoration, when implemented effectively and sustainably, contributes to protecting biodiversity; improving human health and well-being; increasing food and water security; delivering goods, services, and economic prosperity; and supporting climate change mitigation, resilience, and adaptation.”

Key text from the UN Restoration Decade Standards of Practice state: “To be considered ecosystem restoration, however, the activity must result in net gain for biodiversity, ecosystem health and integrity, and human well-being, including sustainable production of goods and services.” Effective restoration then, at a minimum, must accomplish these items.

A 2021 guidance document for effective restoration measures for species and habitats in the European Union identified the following challenges and dilemmas for effective restoration:

• Proper understanding of ecosystem functioning, i.e. abiotic conditions and processes, including natural hydrology, natural disturbances and natural gradients in nutrient availability;

• Proper understanding of species (meta) functioning, i.e. dynamics, reproduction success, genetics, dispersal capacity, food resources, ecological traps, and extinction debt;

• Understanding current ecosystem species composition and function regarding historical land use and pressures;

• Facilitating recolonization of characteristic flora, fauna and vegetation types following the restoration and management of abiotic attributes (e.g. topography, hydrologic systems);

• Improving ecological resilience regarding pressures and threats at the landscape level, for example, fragmentation, acidification, nitrogen deposition and climate change; and

• Avoiding and controlling the encroachment of invasive alien species.

Annex C. Considerations for the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, including its Vision, Mission, Goals and Targets, is to be understood, acted upon, implemented, reported and evaluated, consistent with the following (Section C of the KM-GBF; CBD, 2024)

a Contribution and rights of indigenous peoples and local communities
The Framework acknowledges the important roles and contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities as custodians of biodiversity and as partners in its conservation, restoration and sustainable use. The Framework’s implementation must ensure that the rights, knowledge, including traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity, innovations, worldviews, values and practices of indigenous peoples and local communities are respected, and documented and preserved with their free, prior and informed consent, including through their full and effective participation in decision-making, in accordance with relevant national legislation, international instruments, including the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,[5] and human rights law. In this regard, nothing in this framework may be construed as diminishing or extinguishing the rights that indigenous peoples currently have or may acquire in the future;

b Different value systems
Nature embodies different concepts for different people, including biodiversity, ecosystems, Mother Earth, and systems of life. Nature’s contributions to people also embody different concepts, such as ecosystem goods and services and nature’s gifts. Both nature and nature’s contributions to people are vital for human existence and good quality of life, including human well-being, living in harmony with nature, and living well in balance and harmony with Mother Earth. The Framework recognizes and considers these diverse value systems and concepts, including, for those countries that recognize them, rights of nature and rights of Mother Earth, as being an integral part of its successful implementation;

c Whole-of-government and whole-of-society approach
This is a framework for all — for the whole of government and the whole of society. Its success requires political will and recognition at the highest level of government and relies on action and cooperation by all levels of government and by all actors of society;

d National circumstances, priorities and capabilities
The goals and targets of the Framework are global in nature. Each Party would contribute to attaining the goals and targets of the Framework in accordance with national circumstances, priorities and capabilities;

e Collective effort towards the targets
The Parties will catalyse implementation of the Framework through mobilisation of broad public support at all levels;

f Right to development
Recognizing the 1986 United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development,[6] the Framework enables responsible and sustainable socioeconomic development that, at the same time, contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity;

g Human rights-based approach
The implementation of the Framework should follow a human rights-based approach, respecting, protecting, promoting and fulfilling human rights. The Framework acknowledges the human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment; [7]

h Gender
Successful implementation of the Framework will depend on ensuring gender equality and empowerment of women and girls, and on reducing inequalities;

i Fulfilment of the three objectives of the Convention and its Protocols and their balanced implementation
The goals and targets of the Framework are integrated and are intended to contribute in a balanced manner to the three objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Framework is to be implemented in accordance with these objectives, with the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity, and with the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing, as applicable;

j Consistency with international agreements or instruments
The Framework needs to be implemented in accordance with relevant international obligations. Nothing in this Framework should be interpreted as agreement to modify the rights and obligations of a Party under the Convention or any other international agreement;

k Principles of the Rio Declaration
The Framework recognizes that reversing the loss of biological diversity, for the benefit of all living beings, is a common concern of humankind. Its implementation should be guided by the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development;

l Science and innovation
The implementation of the Framework should be based on scientific evidence and traditional knowledge and practices, recognizing the role of science, technology and innovation;

m Ecosystem approach
This Framework is to be implemented based on the ecosystem approach of the Convention;

n Intergenerational equity
The implementation of the Framework should be guided by the principle of intergenerational equity which aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs and to ensure meaningful participation of younger generations in decision-making processes at all levels;

o Formal and informal education
Implementation of the Framework requires transformative, innovative and transdisciplinary education, formal and informal, at all levels, including science-policy interface studies and lifelong learning processes, recognizing diverse world views, values and knowledge systems of indigenous peoples and local communities;

p Access to financial resources
The full implementation of the Framework requires adequate, predictable and easily accessible financial resources;

q Cooperation and synergies
Enhanced collaboration, cooperation and synergies between the Convention on Biological Diversity and its Protocols, other biodiversity-related conventions, other relevant multilateral agreements and international organisations and processes, in line with their respective mandates, including at the global, regional, subregional and national levels, would contribute to and promote the implementation of the Framework in a more efficient and effective manner;

r Biodiversity and health
The Framework acknowledges the interlinkages between biodiversity and health and the three objectives of the Convention. The Framework is to be implemented with consideration of the One Health Approach, among other holistic approaches that are based on science, mobilize multiple sectors, disciplines and communities to work together, and aim to sustainably balance and optimize the health of people, animals, plants and ecosystems, recognizing the need for equitable access to tools and technologies including medicines, vaccines and other health products related to biodiversity, while highlighting the urgent need to reduce pressures on biodiversity and decrease environmental degradation to reduce risks to health, and, as appropriate, develop practical access and benefit-sharing arrangements.

Annex D. Opportunities for synergies between Rio conventions

The clear connection between reversal of land degradation and ecosystem restoration creates opportunities for synergies between the CBD and UNCCD monitoring and reporting.

Coordinated efforts to revise NBSAPs and strengthen LDN targets present an immediate opportunity to align restoration commitments to simultaneously realize multiple benefits and maximize returns on investment. Enhancing the synergy between CBD and UNCCD’s work may entail: [3]⁸

• Actively bridging institutional, policy development and implementation silos across relevant government institutions responsible for CBD and UNCCD work;

• Undertaking an objective, critical and constructive policy coherence assessment of land restoration targets;

• Jointly mapping strategic intervention areas and corresponding response measures that can be implemented in an effective, complementary, inclusive and mutually supportive manner as part of an integrated landscape approach;

• Prioritizing degraded areas in ecosystems of high integrity and in Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) when planning land restoration targets, including in freshwater and coastal ecosystems;

• Enhancing the connectivity and integrity of natural ecosystems when planning for land restoration and rehabilitation measures, for example, by adopting biodiversity-friendly practices;

• Including biodiversity-friendly practices when planning land rehabilitation measures across productive landscapes;

• Incorporating human rights considerations and approaches when planning habitat protection and restoration actions aiming at biodiversity conservation;

• Applying the international ecological restoration principles and standards developed by the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), and the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure for effective land restoration planning and implementation;

• Co-investing in transformative projects that aim at joint implementation of KM-GBF target 2 and LDN targets at the national level, and incentivizing research and development of pilot sites where LDN and biodiversity targets can be conceptualized and implemented jointly so further knowledge on the challenges, synergies and opportunities on aligning land-based restoration commitments can be demonstrated.

Annex E. Additional resources, guidelines, and tools

Resources, guidelines, and tools are incorporated into the major groups of activities (A-D) of the STAPER. These groups are: (A) Assessment of Opportunities for Ecosystem Restoration, (B) Improving the Institutional Enabling Environment for Ecosystem Restoration, (C) Planning, Implementation, and Ongoing Management of Ecosystem Restoration Activities, and (D) Monitoring, Evaluation, Feedback and Sharing Results. This resource list is intended to be adaptable and to help countries around the world develop and implement effective ecosystem restoration initiatives. Colour-coding is used to indicate major ecosystem type or types: dark green for terrestrial ecosystems, red for production ecosystems, blue for inland water ecosystems, dark blue for marine ecosystems, and light green for multiple ecosystems.

In addition to the specific resources and tools categorized by major groups of STAPER activities, the following major global resources provide comprehensive guidelines and frameworks applicable across various aspects of ecosystem restoration.

Global Resource	Purpose	Year	Lead Organization/Author	STAPER activities covered
				A	B	C	D
Action plan for the UN Decade on ecosystem restoration, 2021–2030	A detailed action plan to guide worldwide ecosystem restoration efforts throughout the course of the UN Restoration Decade	2023	UNEP, FAO
Ecological connectivity	The guidelines provide strategies and tools for enhancing ecological connectivity and transboundary conservation to support the KM-GBF and NBSAPs	2023	IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas
Ecological restoration for protected areas	This resource provides guidance for terrestrial/marine, and freshwater protected area managers on the restoration of natural and associated values in protected areas	2012	IUCN (Keenleyside et al.)
Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring (FERM)	An operational monitoring and reporting framework developed by FAO and partners for UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, included its guideline		FAO
International principles and standards for the ecological restoration and recovery of mine sites	This resource presents the first international framework for the delivery of socially and environmentally responsible ecological restoration after mining, regardless of whether restoration is legally mandated	2022	SER (Young et al.)
International principles and standards for the practice of Ecological Restoration	The global standard for ecological restoration practice, including assessment and planning, implementation, monitoring, and ongoing management activities	2019	SER (Gann et al.)
International principles and standards for native seeds in ecological restoration	The Standard defines what is considered native seed in ecological restoration and highlights the differences between native seeds versus seeds of improved genetics	2020	SER (Pedrini and Dixon)
Principles for ecosystem restoration to guide the United Nations Decade 2021–2030	This resource outlines ten principles for ecosystem restoration to guide the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration	2021	FAO, IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management, SER
Restoration opportunities assessment methodology (ROAM)	A strategy framework established to analyse restoration potential across landscapes and inform decision-making processes	2014	IUCN & World Resources Institute
Road to restoration	A roadmap that provides approaches and strategies for countries to restore landscapes while achieving sustainable development goals. See also AURORA in monitoring below	2019	FAO & World Resources Institute
Scientific conceptual framework for land degradation neutrality	This resource provides a scientific basis for understanding, implementing, and monitoring Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN), bridging the gap between vision and practical implementation	2017	UNCCD (Orr et al.)
Standards of practice to guide ecosystem restoration	Key recommendations for ecosystem restoration process, applicable across all sectors of society, land or sea ecosystems, and regions, as well as the broad array of ecosystem restoration activities under the UN Decade	2024	FAO, SER, IUCN (Nelson et al.)

A. Assessment of opportunities for ecosystem restoration

B. Improving the institutional enabling environment for ecosystem restoration

C. Planning, Implementation, and Ongoing Management of Ecosystem Restoration Activities

D. Monitoring and reporting T2 at the national level across ecosystems