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9 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
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13 Rose, D. 2022. Agricultural automation: the past, present and future of adoption. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022, background paper. Internal document.
14 McCampbell, M. 2022. Agricultural digitalization and automation in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from ten case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 25. Rome, FAO.
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62 McCampbell, M. 2022. Agricultural digitalization and automation in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from ten case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 25. Rome, FAO.
63 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
64 Daum, T. 2022. Agricultural mechanization and sustainable agrifood system transformation in the Global South. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-11. Rome, FAO.
65 Lowenberg-DeBoer, J. 2022. Economics of adoption for digital automated technologies in agriculture. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-10. Rome, FAO.
66 Rose, D. 2022. Agricultural automation: the past, present and future of adoption. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022, background paper. Internal document.
Chapter 2
1 McCampbell, M. 2022. Agricultural digitalization and automation in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from ten case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 25. Rome, FAO.
2 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
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8 Kirui, O. 2019. The agricultural mechanization in Africa: Micro-level analysis of state drivers and effects. ZEF-Discussion Papers on Development Policy No. 272. University of Bonn. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3368103
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52 Filipski, M., Aboudrare, A., Lybbert, T.J. & Taylor, J.E. 2017. Spice price spikes: Simulating impacts of saffron price volatility in a gendered local economy-wide model. World Development, 91: 84–99. https://arefiles.ucdavis.edu/uploads/filer_public/e3/9d/e39d6c38-56a6-4f56-8831-8947ef0648e2/2017_filipski_et_al_wd_spice_price_spikes.pdf
53 Diiro, G.M., Fisher, M., Kassie, M., Muriithi, B.W. & Muricho, G. 2021. How does adoption of labor saving agricultural technologies affect intrahousehold resource allocations? The case of push-pull technology in Western Kenya. Food Policy, 102: 102114. http://oar.icrisat.org/11845/1/Impact%20of%20Push%20Pull%20Technology%20on%20Intra-Household%20Labour%20Allocation%20in%20Kenya.pdf
54 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
55 Vemireddy, V. & Choudhary, A. 2021. A systematic review of labor-saving technologies: Implications for women in agriculture. Global Food Security, 29: 100541.
56 GIZ (German Agency for International Cooperation). 2020. Gender-transformative change in practice: 6 case studies. Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training for Women (ATVET4W). Pretoria. www.giz.de/en/downloads/giz2020_en_GTC%20in%20Practice_6%20Case%20Studies_Interactive.pdf
57 Majumder, J. & Shah, P. 2017. Mapping the role of women in Indian agriculture. Annals of Anthropological Practice, 41(2): 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/napa.12112
58 Theis, S., Sultana, N. & Krupnik, T.J. 2018. Overcoming gender gaps in rural mechanization: Lessons from reaper-harvester service provision in Bangladesh. GCAN Project Note 8. CSISA Research Note 9. Washington, DC, IFPRI. http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/132358
59 Flores Rojas, M. 2018. Gender sensitive labour saving technology. Drum seeder: saving time, effort and money. A case study from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Bangkok, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i9464en/i9464en.pdf
60 FAO. 2019. Fostering the uptake of labour-saving technologies: How to develop effective strategies to benefit rural women. Rome. www.fao.org/3/CA2731EN/ca2731en.pdf
61 Daum, T., Adegbola, P.Y., Adegbola, C., Daudu, C., Issa, F., Kamau, G., Kergna, A.O. et al. 2022. Mechanization, digitalization, and rural youth - Stakeholder perceptions on three mega-topics for agricultural transformation in four African countries. Global Food Security, 32: 100616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100616
62 Kim, J. 2019. Innovative technology in the agricultural sectors: Opportunities for green jobs or exacerbation of rural youth unemployment? Proceedings of the Future of Work in Agriculture Conference. Washington, DC. https://farmlabor.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk5936/files/inline-files/Jeongha%20Kim%3B%20Ag%20Tech.pdf
63 Khanna, M. 2021. Digital transformation of the agricultural sector: Pathways, drivers and policy implications. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 43(4): 1221–1242. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13103
Chapter 5
1 Rose, D.C., Lyon, J., de Boon, A., Hanheide, M. & Pearson, S. 2021. Responsible development of autonomous robotics in agriculture. Nature Food, 2: 306–309. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00287-9
2 Klerkx, L. & Rose, D. 2020. Dealing with the game-changing technologies of Agriculture 4.0: How do we manage diversity and responsibility in food system transition pathways? Global Food Security, 24: 100347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100347
3 Ag-Incentives. 2022. Ag-Incentives. Cited 4 May 2022. http://ag-incentives.org
4 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
5 Daum, T. & Birner, R. 2017. The neglected governance challenges of agricultural mechanisation in Africa – insights from Ghana. Food Security, 9(5): 959–979. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0716-9
6 Cramb, R. & Thepent, V. 2020. Evolution of agricultural mechanization in Thailand. In: X. Diao, H. Takeshima & X. Zhang, eds. An evolving paradigm of agricultural mechanization development: How much can Africa learn from Asia? pp. 165–201. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/134091/filename/134311.pdf
7 Justice, S. & Biggs, S. 2020. The spread of smaller engines and markets in machinery services in rural areas of South Asia. Journal of Rural Studies, 73: 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.11.013
8 IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2019. The market opportunity for Productive Use Leveraging Solar Energy (PULSE) in sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC. www.lightingglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/PULSE-Report.pdf
9 Rose, D. 2022. Agricultural automation: the past, present and future of adoption. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022, background paper. Internal document.
10 Ministry of Transport and Communications, Finland. 2011. Communications Market Act. www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2003/en20030393.pdf
11 European Commission. 2020. Facing the challenges of broadband deployment in rural and remote areas: A handbook for project promoters and policy makers. www.byanatsforum.se/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Broadband-handbook-2020pdf.pdf
12 Van Loon, J., Woltering, L., Krupnik, T.J., Baudron, F., Boa, M. & Govaerts, B. 2020. Scaling agricultural mechanization services in smallholder farming systems: Case studies from sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America. Agricultural Systems, 180: 102792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102792
13 Diao, X., Takeshima, H. & Zhang, X. 2020. An evolving paradigm of agricultural mechanization development: How much can Africa learn from Asia? Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134095
14 Kwet, M. 2019. Digital colonialism is threatening the Global South. In: Aljazeera. Cited 25 July 2022. www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/3/13/digital-colonialism-is-threatening-the-global-south
15 Ávila Pinto, R. 2018. Digital sovereignty or digital colonialism. International Journal on Human Rights, 15(27): 15–27. https://sur.conectas.org/en/digital-sovereignty-or-digital-colonialism
16 African Union. 2020. The digital transformation strategy for Africa (2020-2030). Addis Ababa. https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/38507-doc-dts-english.pdf
17 Smart Africa. 2022. AgriTech blueprint for Africa. https://smart.africa/board/login/uploads/71613-continental-agritech-blueprint-eng.pdf
18 FAO & ITU. 2017. E-agriculture strategy guide: A summary. Bangkok. www.fao.org/3/i6909e/i6909e.pdf
19 Ströh de Martínez, C., Feddersen, M. & Speicher, A. 2016. Food security in sub-Saharan Africa: A fresh look on agricultural mechanisation. How adapted financial solutions can make a difference. Studies No. 91. Bonn, Germany, German Development Institute. www.die-gdi.de/uploads/media/Study_91.pdf
20 Bhattarai, M., Singh, G., Takeshima, H. & Shekhawat, R.S. 2020. Farm machinery use and the agricultural machinery industries in India. In: X. Diao, H. Takeshima & X. Zhang, eds. An evolving paradigm of agricultural mechanization development: How much can Africa learn from Asia? pp. 97–138. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134090
21 FAO & AUC. 2018. Sustainable agricultural mechanization: A framework for Africa. Addis Ababa. www.fao.org/3/CA1136EN/ca1136en.pdf
22 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
23 Win, M.T., Belton, B. & Zhang, X. 2020. Myanmar’s rapid agricultural mechanization: Demand and supply evidence. In: X. Diao, H. Takeshima & X. Zhang, eds. An evolving paradigm of agricultural mechanization development: How much can Africa learn from Asia? pp. 263–284. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293809_08
24 Meyer, R. 2011. Subsidies as an instrument in agriculture finance: A review. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/12696/707300ESW0P1120ies0as0an0Instrument.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
25 Houssou, N., Diao, X., Cossar, F., Kolavalli, S., Jimah, K. & Aboagye, P.O. 2013. Agricultural mechanization in Ghana: Is specialization in agricultural mechanization a viable business model? American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 95(5): 1237–1244 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aat026
26 Daum, T., Huffman, W. & Birner, R. 2018. How to create conducive institutions to enable agricultural mechanization: A comparative historical study from the United States and Germany. Economics Working Paper. Ames, USA, Department of Economics, Iowa State University. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/econ_workingpapers/47
27 Grain Producers Australia (GPA), Tractor and Machinery Association (TMA) & Society of Precision Agriculture Australia (SPAA). 2021. Code of practice. Agricultural Mobile Field Machinery with Autonomous Functions in Australia. www.graincentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Code-of-Practice.pdf
28 Lowenberg-DeBoer, J., Behrendt, K., Ehlers, M.-H., Dillon, C., Gabriel, A., Huang, I.Y., Kumwenda, I. et al. 2021. Lessons to be learned in adoption of autonomous equipment for field crops. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(2): 848–864. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13177
29 Justice, S., Flores Rojas, M. & Basnyat, M. 2022. Empowering women farmers – A mechanization catalogue for practitioners. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/cb8681en/cb8681en.pdf
30 Flores Rojas, M. 2018. Gender sensitive labour saving technology. Drum seeder: saving time, effort and money. A case study from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Bangkok, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i9464en/i9464en.pdf
31 Committee on World Food Security (CFS). 2014. Principles for responsible investment in agriculture and food systems. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-au866e.pdf
32 Alves, B.J.R., Madari, B.E. & Boddey, R.M. 2017. Integrated crop–livestock–forestry systems: prospects for a sustainable agricultural intensification. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 108: 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-017-9851-0
33 McCampbell, M. 2022. Agricultural digitalization and automation in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from ten case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 25. Rome, FAO.
34 Northrup, D.L., Basso, B., Wang, M.Q., Morgan, C.L.S. & Benfey, P.N. 2021. Novel technologies for emission reduction complement conservation agriculture to achieve negative emissions from row–crop production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(28): e2022666118.
35 FAO. 2020. Conservation agriculture. In: FAO. Rome. Cited 1 August 2022. www.fao.org/conservation-agriculture/en
36 Jaleta, M., Baudron, F., Krivokapic-Skoko, B. &Erenstein, O. 2019. Agricultural mechanization and reduced tillage: antagonism or synergy? International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 17(3): 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2019.1613742
37 Giller, K.E., Witter, E., Corbeels, M. & Tittonell, P. 2009. Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics’ view. Field Crops Research, 114(1): 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2009.06.017
38 Baudron, F., Nazare, R. & Matangi, D. 2019. The role of mechanization in transformation of smallholder agriculture in Southern Africa: Experience from Zimbabwe. In: R. Sikora, E. Terry, P. Vlek & J. Chitja, eds. Transforming agriculture in Southern Africa, pp. 152–159. London, Routledge. www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780429401701-21/role-mechanization-transformation-smallholder-agriculture-southern-africa-fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-baudron-raymond-nazare-dorcas-matangi
39 FAO. 2022. Responsible business conduct (RBC) in agriculture. In: FAO. Rome. Cited 29 June 2022. www.fao.org/responsible-business-conduct-in-agriculture/en
40 European Commission. 2022. Just and sustainable economy: Commission lays down rules for companies to respect human rights and environment in global value chains. Press Release. Brussels https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_1145
41 Torero, M. 2019. Robotics and AI in food security and innovation: Why they matter and how to harness their power. In: J. von Braun, M.S. Archer, G.M. Reichberg & M. Sánchez Sorondo, eds. Robotics, AI, and humanity: Science, ethics, and policy, pp. 99–107. Springer.
42 Adu-Baffour, F., Daum, T. & Birner, R. 2019. Can small farms benefit from big companies’ initiatives to promote mechanization in Africa? A case study from Zambia. Food Policy, 84: 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2019.03.007
43 Daum, T., Capezzone, F. & Birner, R. 2021. Using smartphone app collected data to explore the link between mechanization and intra-household allocation of time in Zambia. Agriculture and Human Values, 38: 411–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-020-10160-3
44 Sims, B., Hilmi, M. & Kienzle, J. 2016. Agricultural mechanization. A key input for sub-Saharan African smallholders. Integrated Crop Management No. 23. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i6044e/i6044e.pdf
45 Tsan, M., Totapally, S., Hailu, M. & Addom, B. 2019. The digitalisation of African agriculture report 2018-2019. Wageninghen, Netherlands. CTA. www.cta.int/en/digitalisation-agriculture-africa
46 Trendov, N.M., Varas, S. & Zeng, M. 2019. Digital technologies in agriculture and rural areas – Status report. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca4985en/CA4985EN.pdf
47 Charlton, D., Hill, A.E. & Taylor, E.J. 2022. Automation and social impacts: winners and losers. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-09. Rome, FAO.
48 Mapiye, O., Makombe, G., Molotsi, A., Dzama, K. & Mapiye, C. 2021. Towards a revolutionized agricultural extension system for the sustainability of smallholder livestock production in developing countries: The potential role of ICTs. Sustainability, 13(11): 5868. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13115868
49 Bhattacharyya, T., Wani, S.P. & Tiwary, P. 2021. Empowerment of stakeholders for scaling-up: digital technologies for agricultural extension. In: S.P. Wani, K.V. Raju & T. Bhattacharyya, eds. Scaling-up solutions for farmers, pp. 121–147. Cham, Springer International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-77935-1_3
Annex 1
1 McCampbell, M. 2022. Agricultural digitalization and automation in low- and middle-income countries: Evidence from ten case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 25. Rome, FAO.
2 Ceccarelli, T., Chauhan, A., Rambaldi, G., Kumar, I., Cappello, C., Janssen, S. & McCampbell, M. 2022. Leveraging automation and digitalization for precision agriculture: Evidence from the case studies. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 24. Rome, FAO.
