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5 Punctuation

5.1 Apostrophes

Apostrophes have two functions: to denote possession, e.g. the singular <correct-text>a reader’s letter<correct-text> (the letter of a reader) and the plural <correct-text>readers’ letters<correct-text> (the letters of more than one reader); and to indicate a contraction, e.g. <correct-text>We’re unable to meet the deadline<correct-text> (contraction of <correct-text>We are<correct-text>). In general, minimize the use of contractions.

Note the distinction between <correct-text>it’s<correct-text> (contraction of <correct-text>it is<correct-text>) and <correct-text>its<correct-text> (genitive), e.g. <correct-text>It’s an important document<correct-text>, but <correct-text>its importance is relative<correct-text>.

Apostrophes are not used when referring to plurals, including numbers and letters, e.g. <correct-text>the 1960s<correct-text>, not <incorrect-text>the 1960’s<incorrect-text> and <correct-text>straight As<correct-text>, not <incorrect-text>straight A’s<incorrect-text>.

5.2 Brackets and parentheses

Parentheses are used to include less important text in a sentence or to enclose descriptive information.

When only part of a sentence is enclosed in parentheses, punctuation is placed outside <correct-text>(as in this example). (When a complete sentence is enclosed in parentheses, its punctuation is also enclosed, as in this example.)<correct-text>

Use square brackets within parentheses <correct-text>(like this [not parentheses within parentheses])<correct-text>. Exceptions can be made where there is justification.

In quotations, use square brackets for editorial additions, e.g. <correct-text>[sic]<correct-text> to indicate an error. 

5.3 Colons

A colon may be used to introduce a list, definition, explanation or quotation. It is usually followed by a lower case letter, e.g. <correct-text>The programme draws on a range of materials: handbooks, worksheets, posters, notebooks, videos and games.<correct-text> However, an initial capital letter is used when a colon is followed by a complete sentence, e.g. <correct-text>Land-use planning can be summarized by the following questions: What is the present situation? Is change desirable?<correct-text> 

5.4 Commas

A comma may separate two independent clauses before a conjunction, e.g. <correct-text>The sector is largely based in the United States of America<correct-text><correct-text-bold>, but its reach is global.<correct-text-bold>

A comma is used after an introductory phrase or word, e.g. <correct-text-bold>However,<correct-text-bold> <correct-text>they are under no legal obligation to use the revenue received for environmental protection.<correct-text>

Commas may set off complementary information, e.g. <correct-text>A United Nations Resolution adopted in September 2015<correct-text><correct-text-bold>,<correct-text-bold><correct-text-italic> Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development<correct-text-italic><correct-text-bold>,<correct-text-bold><correct-text> includes several indicators for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).<correct-text>

Do not use a comma:

  • after <correct-text>i.e. <correct-text>or <correct-text>e.g.<correct-text>;
  • after <correct-text>such as<correct-text>;
  • before an opening parenthesis; or
  • before <correct-text>and<correct-text> in short lists, e.g. <correct-text>sheep, goats <correct-text><correct-text-bold>and<correct-text-bold><correct-text> oxen.<correct-text>

A comma may be used before the final <correct-text>and<correct-text> in a list to avoid ambiguity, e.g. <correct-text>The unit was responsible for overall management, research and development, <correct-text><correct-text-bold>and<correct-text-bold><correct-text> marketing<correct-text>. It may also be used where a sentence comprises a complex series of phrases, e.g. <correct-text>Ensure that the participants receive the training material in advance, have time to prepare their responses, <correct-text><correct-text-bold>and<correct-text-bold><correct-text> have access to relevant resources.<correct-text>

5.5 Ellipses

When using an ellipsis to indicate an omission in text <correct-text>…<correct-text> do not put spaces between the full stops. There should be a space on either side of the ellipsis unless immediately followed by a punctuation mark. Microsoft Word will format it into a symbol by default, and this default version is correct.

An ellipsis is needed at the end of a quotation if it is a complex statement that does not finish with its original punctuation. A concluding full stop may be added to the ellipsis if appropriate in the context <correct-text>….<correct-text> An ellipsis is not needed at the start of a quotation or at the end of a short fragment that is in running text. Use an ellipsis if omitting text in the middle of a quote.

5.6 En-dashes

  • An en-dash (<correct-text>–<correct-text>) is longer than a hyphen (-). FAO does not use the longer em-dash (<incorrect-text>—<incorrect-text>).
  • Do not use double hyphens (<incorrect-text>--<incorrect-text>) to denote an en-dash. See Appendix 3 Useful shortcuts and functions in Microsoft Word.
  • En-dashes can be used in pairs <correct-text>–<correct-text> leaving a space on either side <correct-text>–<correct-text> to set off an element that is not part of the main sentence. Ideally, they should not be used more than once per paragraph.
  • An en-dash can be used alone to add a phrase elaborating what has gone before <correct-text>–<correct-text> leaving a space on either side.
  • When occurring at a line break, keep the en-dash at the end of the line (not at the beginning of the next line).

An unspaced en-dash is used:

  • between words of equal weight (<correct-text-bold>South–South<correct-text-bold><correct-text> cooperation<correct-text>, <correct-text-bold>rice–fish<correct-text-bold><correct-text> farming<correct-text>);
  • for relationships (<correct-text-bold>dose–response<correct-text-bold><correct-text> curve<correct-text>, <correct-text-bold>cost–benefit<correct-text-bold><correct-text> analysis<correct-text>) when the first part of a compound does not modify the second part;
  • for a range of values (<correct-text>pp. <correct-text><correct-text-bold>1–20<correct-text-bold><correct-text><correct-text>); and
  • for a range of dates (<correct-text-bold>1987–1993<correct-text-bold><correct-text>; <correct-text><correct-text-bold>2011–2015<correct-text-bold>). See also 10.3 Dates.

5.7 Full stops

Use full stops:

  • with <correct-text-bold>a.m.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold>p.m.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold>e.g.<correct-text-bold> and <correct-text-bold>i.e.<correct-text-bold>;
  • in shortened forms of words such as <correct-text-bold>ed.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold-italic>et al.<correct-text-bold-italic>, <correct-text-bold>Inc.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold>No.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold>p.<correct-text-bold>, <correct-text-bold>pp.<correct-text-bold> and <correct-text-bold>vol.<correct-text-bold>; and
  • at the end of bibliographic references and general notes, except those ending with a URL.

Do not use full stops:

  • after people’s qualifications, e.g. <correct-text>MSc<correct-text> and <correct-text>PhD<correct-text>;
  • in initialisms and acronyms, e.g. <correct-text>ILO<correct-text> and <correct-text>AIDS<correct-text>;
  • after abbreviations of units of measurement, e.g. <correct-text>12 kg<correct-text> and <correct-text>30 m<correct-text>;
  • after a heading or the title of a figure, table or box; or
  • in contractions where the last letter is the same as that of the original word, e.g. <correct-text>vs<correct-text> (versus) and <correct-text>vols<correct-text> (volumes).

5.8 Hyphens

Avoid overuse of hyphens. For general usage, consult the hyphenation guide of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Turn off the automatic word-break hyphenation function in Microsoft Word by selecting Layout -> Hyphenation -> None.

Some guidelines:

  • Avoid breaking words or hyphenated phrases at the end of a line. If necessary, break them between syllables only. Use a non-breaking space or a non-breaking hyphen to avoid ending a line of text with a hyphen. See Appendix 3 Useful shortcuts and functions in Microsoft Word.
  • Use upper case for all major hyphenated words in proper nouns, e.g. <correct-text>European Commission for the Control of <correct-text><correct-text-bold>Foot-and-Mouth Disease<correct-text-bold>.
  • Most compound adjectives should be hyphenated when they qualify a noun, e.g. <correct-text-bold>long-term<correct-text-bold><correct-text> planning<correct-text>, but <correct-text>plan for the <correct-text><correct-text-bold>long term<correct-text-bold>; <correct-text-bold>over-the-counter<correct-text-bold><correct-text> medicine<correct-text>, but <correct-text>the medicine was bought <correct-text><correct-text-bold>over the counter<correct-text-bold>.
  • No hyphen should be used after an adverb ending in <correct-text>-ly<correct-text>, e.g. <correct-text>a <correct-text><correct-text-bold>radically changed<correct-text-bold><correct-text> situation<correct-text>.
  • Adverbs not ending in <correct-text>-ly<correct-text> are followed by a hyphen when used together with an adjective to modify a noun, e.g. <correct-text>a <correct-text><correct-text-bold>well-known<correct-text-bold><correct-text> problem<correct-text>, but the <correct-text>problem was well known<correct-text>.
  • Use hyphens for clarity when describing ages, amounts or lengths of time. Compare: <correct-text-bold>15-year-old<correct-text-bold><correct-text> fish<correct-text> (fish that are 15 years old) with <correct-text-bold>15 year-old<correct-text-bold><correct-text> fish<correct-text> (15 fish that are all one year old). <correct-text>A <correct-text><correct-text-bold>15-kg<correct-text-bold><correct-text> bag of wheat, a <correct-text><correct-text-bold>3-year<correct-text-bold><correct-text> plan<correct-text>.
  • Separate a prefix from a date with a hyphen, e.g. <correct-text-bold>pre-2000<correct-text-bold>.
  • Use hyphens when the modifiers in a list end in the same word, e.g. <correct-text-bold>The survey covered upper-, middle- and lower-income countries<correct-text-bold>.
  • Do not use hyphens in phrasal verbs, e.g. <correct-text>reserves began to <correct-text><correct-text-bold>build up<correct-text-bold>, but <correct-text>the <correct-text><correct-text-bold>build-up<correct-text-bold><correct-text> was considerable<correct-text>.
  • Words beginning with prefixes are generally written as one word, with the following exceptions:
    • when the meaning can be misinterpreted, e.g. re-form (form again), but reform (change to a better state);
    • when the prefix ends and the base word begins with certain vowel combinations, leading to potential confusion, e.g. pre-eminent;
    • when the prefixes co-, non-, ex- and self- are used to make a compound, e.g. co-publisher, non-contributory, ex-directory, self-discipline; or
    • when the base word is capitalized, is a number, or is an abbreviation, e.g. pro-European, post-1970, pre-UCS trial.

5.9 Lists

Be consistent throughout the document with list formatting. Always follow the opening sentence or sentence fragment with a colon, and always use:

  • the same style of bullet to indicate each item in an unordered vertical list;
  • the same number and letter hierarchy for complex lists (avoid mixing numbers and bullets in sublists); and
  • consistent punctuation and grammar.

5.9.1 Unordered lists

The following examples may be used as general guidelines for unordered vertical lists. Note that these guidelines apply regardless of whether the introductory part is a full sentence or a sentence fragment.

For lists with very short entries (one or two words), the list items are lower case (except if proper nouns) and no punctuation follows the items.

<correct-text>Available audiovisual equipment includes:<correct-text>

  • <correct-text>radios<correct-text>
  • <correct-text>televisions<correct-text>
  • <correct-text>cameras<correct-text>

For lists with longer, more complex entries, the list items are lower case (except if proper nouns) and end with a semicolon. The penultimate item ends with a semicolon followed by <correct-text>and<correct-text>, and the last item ends with a full stop.

<correct-text>A variety of audiovisual equipment is available to staff members, including:<correct-text>

  • <correct-text>radios, for communicating between locations;<correct-text>
  • <correct-text>televisions, for screening content; <correct-text><correct-text-bold>and<correct-text-bold>
  • <correct-text>cameras, for recording events.<correct-text>

When every item in the list is a complete sentence, all items must be in sentence case and end with a full stop. 

<correct-text>Any staff members wishing to borrow audiovisual equipment must follow a set of rules:<correct-text>

  • <correct-text>The necessary equipment should be requested from suppliers.<correct-text>
  • <correct-text>All staff should provide a budget code for each request.<correct-text>
  • <correct-text>Staff should account for any borrowed equipment.<correct-text>

5.9.2 Numbered lists

Use a numbered list when a specific sequence is dictated, to facilitate subsequent cross-referencing, e.g. <correct-text>see <correct-text><correct-text-bold>step 12<correct-text-bold>, or because the preceding text makes specific mention of a ranking or number of entries, e.g. <correct-text>There are <correct-text><correct-text-bold>15 reasons<correct-text-bold><correct-text> you should offer your support<correct-text>.

5.10 Quotation marks

Punctuation should be included within the quotation marks <correct-text>“if it is part of the original material!”<correct-text> but if it is not part of the quote, it should be <correct-text>“outside the quote”.<correct-text>

<correct-text>“Where the quotation is a grammatically complete sentence, starting with a capital letter, the full stop lies within the closing quotation marks.”<correct-text>

Quotation marks should be used only for direct quotes and scare quotes (expressions that are colloquial, ironic or purposely use non-standard language). Scare quotes should be used rarely.

Always use double quotation marks (<correct-text>“<correct-text>) rather than single quotation marks (<incorrect-text>‘<incorrect-text>) unless there is a quote within a quote, e.g. <correct-text>Baresi (1998, p. 72) reports that “farmers complain about <correct-text><correct-text-bold>‘unofficial’<correct-text-bold><correct-text> agents.”<correct-text>

When a quotation is approximately three lines or longer, indent the quotation and do not use quotation marks.

Titles that are not italicized (chapter headings, article titles, frameworks, approaches and so forth) may be in quotation marks in text only.

5.11 Semicolons

Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses that have different subjects and are not connected by a conjunction. A semicolon is followed by an initial lower case letter.

In long sentences comprising a series of complex clauses, at least one of which contains a comma, semicolons may replace commas, e.g. <correct-text>The meeting covered IT, human resources and capacity building; reviewed the minutes of the previous meeting and proposed amendments to the agenda; and explored concerns raised by the participants in relation to the new information-sharing platform and software upgrades.<correct-text>

5.12 Slashes

The slash <incorrect-text>/<incorrect-text> should generally be avoided in running text. When used, there should be no space before or after the slash.

Try to rephrase any sentences that have been written with <incorrect-text>and/or<incorrect-text>, as it may cause confusion and difficulty in translation. 

Acceptable uses of the slash include:

  • to designate mutually exclusive alternatives such as <correct-text-bold>yes/no<correct-text-bold> or <correct-text-bold>pass/fail<correct-text-bold>, particularly in tables or forms;
  • to denote periods such as academic or fiscal years, e.g. <correct-text>the <correct-text><correct-text-bold>2008/09<correct-text-bold><correct-text> financial year<correct-text> or <correct-text>the Australian summer of <correct-text><correct-text-bold>2009/10<correct-text-bold>; and
  • to indicate <incorrect-text>per<incorrect-text> between units of measurement and values, e.g. <correct-text>12 <correct-text><correct-text-bold>mg/kg<correct-text-bold>.

5.13 Spaces

Leave only one space after the full stop between sentences.

Use a non-breaking space between numbers and units; for figure, table and box numbers (e.g. <correct-text>Figure 1<correct-text>); after <correct-text-bold>e.g.<correct-text-bold> and <correct-text-bold>i.e.<correct-text-bold>; and in other similar cases.
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