IFADUNICEFWFPWHO
CHAPTER 1

1 FAO. 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017. Leveraging Food Systems for Inclusive Rural Transformation. www.fao.org/3/I7658e/I7658e.pdf

2 Cattaneo, A., Adukia, A., Brown, D.L., Christiaensen, L., Evans, D.K., Haakenstad, A., McMenomy, T. et al. 2022. Economic and social development along the urban–rural continuum: new opportunities to inform policy. World Development, 157: 105941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105941

3 UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2018. World Urbanization Prospects 2018. In: United Nations. [Cited 9 May 2023]. https://population.un.org/wup

4 UN DESA. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. In: United Nations. [Cited 9 May 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp

5 Tefft, J., Jonasova, M., Adjao, R. & Morgan, A. 2018. Food systems for an urbanizing world. Rome, World Bank and FAO. www.fao.org/3/i8346en/i8346en.pdf

CHAPTER 2

1 FAO. 2023. Global food security challenges and its drivers: conflicts and wars in Ukraine and other countries, slowdowns and downturns, and climate change. Council, Hundred and Seventy-second Session, Rome, 24–28 April 2023. CL 172/5. Rome. www.fao.org/3/nl652en/nl652en.pdf

2 FSIN (Food Security Information Network) & Global Network Against Food Crises. 2023. Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2023. Rome. www.fsinplatform.org/global-report-food-crises-2023

3 IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2023. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, April 2023. In: IMF. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/download-entire-database

4 FAO. 2023. FAOSTAT: Crops and livestock products. In: FAO. [Cited 18 May 2023]. www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/TCL

5 FAO. 2023. FAO Food Price Index. In: FAO | World Food Situation. [Cited 4 May 2023]. www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex

6 Schmidhuber, J. & Qiao, B. 2022. Global food import bill set to increase at a slower pace in 2022, nevertheless to another record level. In: FAO, ed. Food Outlook – Biannual Report on Global Food Markets, November 2022, pp. 76–78. Rome. www.fao.org/3/cc2864en/cc2864en_indicator_1.pdf

7 FAO. 2022. Food Outlook – Biannual Report on Global Food Markets. November 2022. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2864en

8 World Bank. 2023. Global Economic Prospects, January 2023. Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/38030

9 ILO (International Labour Organization). 2023. World Employment and Social Outlook. Trends 2023. Geneva, Switzerland. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/publication/wcms_865387.pdf

10 World Bank. 2022. Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2022. Correcting course. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity

11 World Bank. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for sub-Saharan Africa. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_ssa

12 World Bank. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for Middle East and North Africa. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_mena

13 World Bank. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for South Asia. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_sar

14 World Bank. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_lac

15 IMF. 2019. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2019. In: IMF. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2019/October

16 IMF. 2021. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2021. In: IMF. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October

17 European Union, FAO, UN-Habitat (United Nations Human Settlements Programme), OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) & World Bank. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

18 FAO. 2020. Gendered impacts of COVID-19 and equitable policy responses in agriculture, food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198en

19 UN Women. 2020. Whose time to care? Unpaid care and domestic work during COVID-19. New York, USA. https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Whose-time-to-care-brief_0.pdf

20 Mane, E., Macchioni, G.A., Cafiero, C. & Viviani, S. (forthcoming). Why are women more food insecure than men? Exploring socio-economic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems 2023. Rome, FAO.

21 FAO. 2023. The status of women in agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

22 FAO & WHO. 2019. Sustainable healthy diets – Guiding principles. Rome. www.fao.org/3/ca6640en/ca6640en.pdf

23 WHO. 2020. Healthy diet. In: WHO. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet

24 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162EN

25 FAO. 2023. FAOSTAT: Cost and Affordability of a Healthy Diet (CoAHD). In: FAO. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CAHD

26 World Bank. 2023. Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP). In: World Bank. [Cited 10 May 2023]. https://pip.worldbank.org

27 UN DESA. 2021. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2021. New York, USA, United Nations. www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-2021

28 World Bank. 2022. Macro Poverty Outlook. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2022. Washington, DC. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook

29 Asian Development Bank. 2020. The economic impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on developing Asia. ADB briefs No. 128. Manila. https://dx.doi.org/10.22617/BRF200096

30 IMF. 2021. World Economic Outlook, October 2021: Recovery during a pandemic. Health concerns, supply disruptions, and price pressures. Washington, DC. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/10/12/world-economic-outlook-october-2021

31 IMF. 2023. World Economic Outlook. A rocky recovery. Washington, DC. www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/WEO/2023/April/English/text.ashx

32 Grosso, G., Mateo, A., Rangelov, N., Buzeti, T. & Birt, C. on behalf of the Food and Nutrition Section of the European Public Health Association. 2020. Nutrition in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Supplement_1): i19–i23. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa034

33 WHO & UNICEF. 2004. Low birthweight: country, regional and global estimates. Geneva, Switzerland and New York, USA. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43184

34 Jornayvaz, F.R., Vollenweider, P., Bochud, M., Mooser, V., Waeber, G. & Marques-Vidal, P. 2016. Low birth weight leads to obesity, diabetes and increased leptin levels in adults: the CoLaus study. Cardiovascular Diabetology, 15: 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-016-0389-2

35 WHO. 2023. Breastfeeding. In: WHO. [Cited 18 May 2023]. www.who.int/health-topics/breastfeeding

36 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

37 Bhutta, Z.A., Berkley, J.A., Bandsma, R.H.J., Kerac, M., Trehan, I. & Briend, A. 2017. Severe childhood malnutrition. Nature reviews. Disease primers, 3: 17067. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrdp.2017.67

38 Johnston, R., Dhamija, G., Kapoor, M., Agrawal, P.K. & Wagt, A. de. 2021. Methods for assessing seasonal and annual trends in wasting in Indian surveys (NFHS-3, 4, RSOC & CNNS). PLOS ONE, 16(11): e0260301. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260301

39 FAO & Tufts University. 2019. Twin peaks: the seasonality of acute malnutrition, conflict and environmental factors in Chad, South Sudan and the Sudan. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca6984en/ca6984en.pdf

40 WHO. 2021. Obesity and overweight. In: WHO. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight

41 Okunogbe, A., Nugent, R., Spencer, G., Powis, J., Ralston, J. & Wilding, J. 2022. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for 161 countries. BMJ Global Health, 7(9): e009773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009773

42 UNICEF. 1981. The International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes. Geneva, Switzerland.

43 WHO. 2023. Baby-friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) tools. In: WHO | Nutrition and Food Safety. [Cited 18 May 2023]. www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/food-and-nutrition-actions-in-health-systems/ten-steps-to-successful-breastfeeding

44 FAO, UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. Global Action Plan on Child Wasting. [Cited 18 May 2023]. www.childwasting.org

45 WHO. 2016. Report of the commission on ending childhood obesity. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/906889/retrieve

46 UNICEF. 2007. Technical note: how to calculate average annual rate of reduction (AARR) of underweight prevalence. In: UNICEF. [Cited 10 May 2023]. https://data.unicef.org/resources/technical-note-calculate-average-annual-rate-reduction-aarr-underweight-prevalence

47 Kothari, M.T., Abderrahim, N., Coile, A. & Cheng, Y. 2014. Nutritional Status of Women and Children: a 2014 update on nutritional status by sociodemographic and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) indicators collected in Demographic and Health Surveys. DHS Nutritional Reports No. 6. Rockville, USA, ICF International. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/NUT6/NUT6.pdf

48 Masters, W.A. 2016. The economic causes of malnutrition. In: M. Eggersdorfer, K. Kraemer, J.B. Cordaro, J. Fanzo, M. Gibney, E. Kennedy & A. Labrique, eds. Good Nutrition. Perspectives for the 21st century, pp. 92–104. Cambridge, UK, Karger. https://doi.org/10.1159/000452378

49 UNICEF. 2022. Child food poverty: a nutrition crisis in early childhood. New York, USA. https://data.unicef.org/resources/child-food-poverty

50 UNICEF. 2020. UNICEF conceptual framework on maternal and child nutrition. New York, USA. www.unicef.org/documents/conceptual-framework-nutrition

51 Popkin, B.M. 2004. The nutrition transition: an overview of world patterns of change. Nutrition Reviews, 62(7 Pt 2): S140-143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2004.tb00084.x

52 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2019. Rising rural body-mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults. Nature, 569: 260–264. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1171-x

53 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R. et al. 2021. The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28: 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466

54 Popkin, B.M. & Ng, S.W. 2022. The nutrition transition to a stage of high obesity and noncommunicable disease prevalence dominated by ultra-processed foods is not inevitable. Obesity Reviews, 23(1): e13366. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13366

CHAPTER 3

1 UN DESA. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. In: United Nations. [Cited 9 May 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp

2 Christiaensen, L. & Martin, W. 2018. Agriculture, structural transformation and poverty reduction: eight new insights. World Development, 109: 413–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.027

3 FAO. 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017. Leveraging food systems for inclusive rural transformation. Rome. www.fao.org/3/I7658e/I7658e.pdf

4 Johnston, B.F. & Kilby, P. 1975. Agriculture and structural transformation: economic strategies in late-developing countries. London, Oxford University Press.

5 Timmer, C.P. 2009. A world without agriculture. The structural transformation in historical perspective. Washington, DC, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.

6 Davis, J.C. & Henderson, J.V. 2003. Evidence on the political economy of the urbanization process. Journal of Urban Economics, 53(1): 98–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-1190(02)00504-1

7 IFAD. 2016. IFAD Strategic Framework 2016–2025. Enabling inclusive and sustainable rural transformation. Rome. www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/-/ifad-strategic-framework-2016-20251

8 Castells-Quintana, D. & Wenban-Smith, H. 2020. Population dynamics, urbanisation without growth, and the rise of megacities. The Journal of Development Studies, 56(9): 1663–1682. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1702160

9 Jedwab, R. & Vollrath, D. 2015. Urbanization without growth in historical perspective. Explorations in Economic History, 58: 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2015.09.002

10 ScienceDirect. 2023. Out-migration. In: ScienceDirect Topics. [Cited 9 May 2023]. www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/out-migration

11 Adger, W.N., Arnell, N.W., Black, R., Dercon, S., Geddes, A. & Thomas, D.S.G. 2015. Focus on environmental risks and migration: causes and consequences. Environmental Research Letters, 10(6): 060201. https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/6/060201

12 Selod, H. & Shilpi, F. 2021. Rural-urban migration in developing countries: lessons from the literature. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 91: 103713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2021.103713

13 Turok, I. & McGranahan, G. 2013. Urbanization and economic growth: the arguments and evidence for Africa and Asia. Environment and Urbanization, 25(2): 465–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813490908

14 Tschirley, D., Haggblade, S. & Reardon, T., eds. 2014. Africa’s emerging food system transformation – Eastern and Southern Africa. East Lansing, USA, GCFSI (Global Center for Food Systems Innovation). https://gcfsi.isp.msu.edu/files/7214/6229/3434/w1.pdf

15 Jayne, T.S., Chamberlin, J., Traub, L., Sitko, N., Muyanga, M., Yeboah, F.K., Anseeuw, W. et al. 2016. Africa’s changing farm size distribution patterns: the rise of medium-scale farms. Agricultural Economics, 47(S1): 197–214. https://doi-org.fao.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/agec.12308

16 Mueller, V., Sheriff, G., Dou, X. & Gray, C. 2020. Temporary migration and climate variation in eastern Africa. World Development, 126: 104704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104704

17 FAO, IFAD, IOM (International Organization for Migration) & WFP. 2018. The linkages between migration, agriculture, food security and rural development. Rome. www.fao.org/3/CA0922EN/CA0922EN.pdf

18 de Bruin, S. & Holleman, C. 2023. Urbanization is transforming agrifood systems across the rural–urban continuum creating challenges and opportunities to access affordable healthy diets. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 23-08. Rome, FAO.

19 Mortreux, C., de Campos, R.S. & Adger, W.N. 2018. Mobility, displacement and migration, and their interactions with vulnerability and adaptation to environmental risks. Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration, pp. 29–41. London, Routledge.

20 Afifi, T. 2011. Economic or environmental migration? The push factors in Niger. International Migration, 49(s1): e95–e124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00644.x

21 Adams, H. 2016. Why populations persist: mobility, place attachment and climate change. Population and Environment, 37(4): 429–448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-015-0246-3

22 Penning-Rowsell, E.C., Sultana, P. & Thompson, P.M. 2013. The ‘last resort’? Population movement in response to climate-related hazards in Bangladesh. Environmental Science & Policy, 27: S44–S59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.03.009

23 EUROSTAT (Statistical Office of the European Union). 2000. Glossary on demographic statistics, 2000 edition. Luxembourg, European Commission.

24 Regassa, N. & Stoecker, B.J. 2012. Household food insecurity and hunger among households in Sidama district, southern Ethiopia. Public Health Nutrition, 15(7): 1276–1283. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011003119

25 Tegegne, A.D. & Penker, M. 2016. Determinants of rural out-migration in Ethiopia: who stays and who goes? Demographic Research, 35(34): 1011–1044. https://dx.doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2016.35.34

26 UNHCR. 2019. Global Trends – Forced displacement in 2018. Geneva, Switzerland. www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-global-trends-2018

27 UNHCR. 2020. Global Trends – Forced displacement in 2019. Geneva, Switzerland. www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-global-trends-2019

28 Cattaneo, A., Adukia, A., Brown, D.L., Christiaensen, L., Evans, D.K., Haakenstad, A., McMenomy, T. et al. 2022. Economic and social development along the urban–rural continuum: new opportunities to inform policy. World Development, 157: 105941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105941

29 Forster, T. & Mattheisen, E. 2016. Territorial food systems: protecting the rural and localizing human rights accountability. Right to Food and Nutrition Watch. Keeping seeds in people’s hands, pp. 38–44. Watch Consortium. www.brot-fuer-die-welt.de/fileadmin/mediapool/2_Downloads/Right_to_food_and_nutrition_Watch_2016_ENG_WEB.pdf

30 Bailey, C., Jensen, L. & Ransom, E. 2014. Rural America in a globalizing world: problems and prospects for the 2010s. Morgantown, USA, West Virginia University Press. http://wvupressonline.com/node/538

31 Love, H. & Loh, T.H. 2020. The ‘rural-urban divide’ furthers myths about race and poverty—concealing effective policy solutions. In: Brookings. [Cited 24 May 2023]. www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2020/12/08/the-rural-urban-divide-furthers-myths-about-race-and-poverty-concealing-effective-policy-solutions

32 van Huijstee, J., van Bemmel, B., Bouwman, A. & van Rijn, F. 2018. Towards an urban preview: modelling future urban growth with 2UP. The Hague, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/en/publications/towards-an-urban-preview

33 UN DESA. 2022. Methodology of the United Nations Population Estimates and Projections. In: World Population Prospects 2022. [Cited 18 May 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp/Methodology

34 OECD & Sahel and West Africa Club. 2020. Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020. Africapolis, mapping a new urban geography. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/b6bccb81-en

35 United Nations. 2022. UN Statistical Commission 2022 – Progress on implementation of the global urban and rural definitions. In: Share Your Green Design. [Cited 9 May 2023]. www.shareyourgreendesign.com/events/un-statistical-commission-2022-progress-on-implementation-of-the-global-urban-and-rural-definitions

36 European Commission. 2020. The degree of urbanisation, a new global definition of cities, urban and rural areas. In: European Commission | GHSL - Global Human Settlement Layer. [Cited 9 May 2023]. https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/degurba.php

37 European Union, FAO, UN-Habitat, OECD & World Bank. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

38 Cattaneo, A., Nelson, A. & McMenomy, T. 2021. Global mapping of urban–rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(2): e2011990118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011990118

39 European Commission. 2023. Download the data produced by the GHSL. In: European Commission | GHSL - Global Human Settlement Layer. [Cited 9 May 2023]. https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download.php?ds=smod

40 de Bruin, S. & Dengerink, J. 2020. The impact of urbanisation on food systems in West and East Africa. Opportunities to improve rurual livelihoods. The Hague, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-the-impact-of-urbanisation-on-food-systems-4090.pdf

41 McConville, J. 2014. Chapter 1: The peri-urban context. Peri-Urban Sanitation and Water Service Provision Report. Challenges and opportunities for developing countries, pp. 1–4. Stockholm, Stockholm Environment Institute. www.jstor.com/stable/resrep00480.4

42 Dupont, V. 2005. Peri-urban dynamics: population, habitat and environment on the peripheries of large Indian metropolises – An Introduction. Peri-urban dynamics: population, habitat and environment on the peripheries of large Indian metropolises. A review of concepts and general issues. CSH occasional paper No. 14. New Delhi, Centre de Sciences Humaines.

43 Munro, G. 2022. Secondary cities are vital for Africa’s future – and their citizens know best how to improve them. In: World Economic Forum. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/africa-secondary-cities-infrastructure

44 Cities Alliance & AfDB (African Development Bank). 2022. The dynamics of systems of secondary cities series in Africa: urbanisation, migration and development. Brussels and Abidjan. www.citiesalliance.org/resources/publications/book/dynamics-systems-secondary-cities-africa

45 Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. & Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en

46 Dorosh, P. & Thurlow, J. 2013. Agriculture and small towns in Africa. Agricultural Economics, 44(4–5): 449–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12027

47 de Bruin, S., Dengerink, J. & van Vliet, J. 2021. Urbanisation as driver of food system transformation and opportunities for rural livelihoods. Food Security, 13(4): 781–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01182-8

48 Christiaensen, L., De Weerdt, J. & Todo, Y. 2013. Urbanization and poverty reduction: the role of rural diversification and secondary towns. Agricultural Economics, 44(4–5): 435–447. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12028

49 Gibson, J., Datt, G., Murgai, R. & Ravallion, M. 2017. For India’s rural poor, growing towns matter more than growing cities. World Development, 98: 413–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.014

50 Imai, K.S., Gaiha, R. & Garbero, A. 2018. Poverty reduction during the rural–urban transformation: rural development is still more important than urbanisation. IFAD Research Series 22. Rome, IFAD. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161893817301059

51 Agergaard, J., Tacoli, C., Steel, G. & Ørtenblad, S.B. 2019. Revisiting rural–urban transformations and small town development in sub-Saharan Africa. The European Journal of Development Research, 31(1): 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-018-0182-z

52 Dolislager, M.J., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Mason, N.M., Reardon, T. & Tschirley, D. 2022. Consumption of healthy and unhealthy foods by the African poor: evidence from Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. Agricultural Economics, 53(6): 870–894. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12738

53 Sauer, C.M., Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Alphonce, R., Ndyetabula, D. et al. 2021. Consumption of processed food & food away from home in big cities, small towns, and rural areas of Tanzania. Agricultural Economics, 52(5): 749–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12652

54 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R. et al. 2021. The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28: 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466

55 Dolislager, M.J., Holleman, C., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O. & Reardon, T. 2023. Analysis of food demand and supply across the rural–urban continuum for selected countries in Africa. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 23-09. Rome, FAO.

56 Reardon, T. 2013. Asia agrifood system’s 5 linked transformations: implications for agricultural research and development strategies. A foresight study of the Independent Science and Partnership Council. Montpellier, France, CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research). https://iaes.cgiar.org/sites/default/files/ISPC_StrategyTrends_FarmSize_Reardon.pdf

57 HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security). 2020. Food security and nutrition: building a global narrative towards 2030. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. www.fao.org/3/ca9731en/ca9731en.pdf

58 Kraak, V.I., Swinburn, B., Lawrence, M. & Harrison, P. 2014. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutrition, 17(11): 2467–2483. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980014000093

59 HLPE. 2017. Nutrition and food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i7846e/i7846e.pdf

60 UNSCN (United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition). 2016. Impact assessment of policies to support healthy food environments and healthy diets: implementing the framework for action of the second international conference on nutrition. UNSCN Discussion Paper. Rome. www.unscn.org/files/ICN2_TPM/UNSCN_Impact_Assessment_Nutrition_ICN2_Discussion_Paper_3_FINAL.pdf

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164 Xu, F., Crush, J. & Zhong, T. 2023. Pathways to food insecurity: migration, hukou and COVID-19 in Nanjing, China. Population, Space and Place, 29(1): e2640. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2640

165 Odunitan-Wayas, F.A., Alaba, O.A. & Lambert, E.V. 2021. Food insecurity and social injustice: the plight of urban poor African immigrants in South Africa during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Public Health, 16(1): 149–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1854325

166 Ramsey, R., Giskes, K., Turrell, G. & Gallegos, D. 2012. Food insecurity among adults residing in disadvantaged urban areas: potential health and dietary consequences. Public Health Nutrition, 15(2): 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011001996

167 Omidvar, N., Tabatabie, M.G., Sadeghi, R., Mohammadi, F. & Shavazi, M.J.A. 2013. Food insecurity and its sociodemographic correlates among Afghan immigrants in Iran. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 31(3): 356–366. https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v31i3.16828

168 Chambers, E.C., Duarte, C.S. & Yang, F.M. 2009. Household instability, area poverty, and obesity in urban mothers and their children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 20(1): 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0110

169 Satterthwaite, D., McGranahan, G. & Tacoli, C. 2010. Urbanization and its implications for food and farming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1554): 2809–2820. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0136

170 Robinson, E. & Yoshida, N. 2016. Improving the nutritional quality of food markets through the informal sector: lessons from case studies in other sectors. IDS Evidence Report, 171. Brighton, UK, IDS (Institute of Development Studies). https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/8959

171 Crush, J. & Young, G. 2019. Resituating Africa’s urban informal food sector. Urban Forum, 30(4): 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-019-09374-4

172 Abadi, N., Techane, A., Tesfay, G., Maxwell, D. & Vaitla, B. 2018. The impact of remittances on household food security: a micro perspective from Tigray, Ethiopia. 40th edition. WIDER Working Paper 2018/40. UNU-WIDER (United Nations University). www.wider.unu.edu/node/156659

173 Babatunde, R.O. 2018. Impact of remittances on food security and nutrition of migrants household: evidence from Nigeria. 2018 Conference, 28 July–2 August 2018, Vancouver, Canada, International Association of Agricultural Economists. International Association of Agricultural Economists. https://ideas.repec.org//p/ags/iaae18/276986.html

174 FAO. 2018. The State of Food and Agriculture 2018. Migration, agriculture and rural development. Rome. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I9549EN

175 Scheffran, J., Marmer, E. & Sow, P. 2012. Migration as a contribution to resilience and innovation in climate adaptation: social networks and co-development in Northwest Africa. Applied Geography, 33: 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.10.002

176 Duda, I., Fasse, A. & Grote, U. 2018. Drivers of rural-urban migration and impact on food security in rural Tanzania. Food Security, 10(4): 785–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0788-1

177 Smith, L.C., Ruel, M.T. & Ndiaye, A. 2004. Why is child malnutrition lower in urban than rural areas? FCND discussion papers 176. IFPRI. https://ideas.repec.org//p/fpr/fcnddp/176.html

178 Srinivasan, C.S., Zanello, G. & Shankar, B. 2013. Rural-urban disparities in child nutrition in Bangladesh and Nepal. BMC Public Health, 13(1): 581. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-581

179 Headey, D., Bezemer, D. & Hazell, P.B. 2010. Agricultural employment trends in Asia and Africa: too fast or too slow? The World Bank Research Observer, 25(1): 57–89. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkp028

180 Darrouzet-Nardi, A.F. & Masters, W.A. 2017. Nutrition Smoothing: Can Proximity to Towns and Cities Protect Rural Children against Seasonal Variation in Agroclimatic Conditions at Birth? PloS One, 12(1): e0168759. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168759

181 Mulmi, P., Block, S.A., Shively, G.E. & Masters, W.A. 2016. Climatic conditions and child height: sex-specific vulnerability and the protective effects of sanitation and food markets in Nepal. Economics and Human Biology, 23: 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2016.07.002

182 Hirvonen, K. & Hoddinott, J. 2014. Agricultural production and children’s diets: evidence from rural Ethiopia. Washington, DC, IFPRI. www.ifpri.org/publication/agricultural-production-and-children%E2%80%99s-diets-evidence-rural-ethiopia

183 Hoddinott, J., Headey, D.D. & Dereje, M. 2014. Cows, missing milk markets and nutrition in rural Ethiopia. Washington, DC, IFPRI. www.ifpri.org/publication/cows-missing-milk-markets-and-nutrition-rural-ethiopia

184 Sibhatu, K.T. & Qaim, M. 2017. Rural food security, subsistence agriculture, and seasonality. PLOS ONE, 12(10): e0186406. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186406

185 Headey, D., Stifel, D., You, L. & Guo, Z. 2018. Remoteness, urbanization, and child nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Economics, 49(6): 765–775. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12458

186 Casari, S., Di Paola, M., Banci, E., Diallo, S., Scarallo, L., Renzo, S., Gori, A. et al. 2022. Changing dietary habits: the impact of urbanization and rising socio-economic status in families from Burkina Faso in sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrients, 14(9): 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14091782

CHAPTER 4

1 de Bruin, S., Dengerink, J. & van Vliet, J. 2021. Urbanisation as driver of food system transformation and opportunities for rural livelihoods. Food Security, 13(4): 781–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01182-8

2 de Bruin, S. & Dengerink, J. 2020. The impact of urbanisation on food systems in West and East Africa. Opportunities to improve rurual livelihoods. The Hague, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-the-impact-of-urbanisation-on-food-systems-4090.pdf

3 Tabeau, A., Zeist, W., Berkhout, E., Doelman, J., Esch, S.V., Meijl, H. & Stehfest, E. 2019. Projections of African agricultural land and agri-food sector development: how much regional aggregation of Africa matter. Conference presentation at the 22nd Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, Warsaw, Poland, 19–21 June 2019. www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Projections-of-African-agricultural-land-and-sector-Tabeau-Zeist/ba110001183a51736c791312f95a9bf0b442b582

4 van Ittersum, M.K., van Bussel, L.G.J., Wolf, J., Grassini, P., van Wart, J., Guilpart, N., Claessens, L. et al. 2016. Can sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(52): 14964–14969. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610359113

5 de Bruin, S. & Holleman, C. 2023. Urbanization is transforming agrifood systems across the rural–urban continuum creating challenges and opportunities to access affordable healthy diets. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 23-08. Rome, FAO.

6 Monteiro, C.A., Cannon, G., Levy, R.B., Moubarac, J.-C., Louzada, M.L., Rauber, F., Khandpur, N. et al. 2019. Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition, 22(5): 936–941. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980018003762

7 Monteiro, C., Cannon, G., Jaime, P., Canella, D., Louzada, M.L., Calixto, G., Machado, P. et al. 2016. Food classification. Public health NOVA. The star shines bright. World Nutrition, 7(1–3): 28–38. https://worldnutritionjournal.org/index.php/wn/article/view/5/4

8 Bennett, M.K. 1941. International contrasts in food consumption. Geographical Review, 31(3): 365–376. https://doi.org/10.2307/210172

9 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Minten, B., Haggblade, S., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Dolislager, M.J., Snyder, J. et al. 2015. Chapter 4: Transformation of African agrifood systems in the new era of rapid urbanization and the emergence of a middle class. In: O. Badiane & T. Makombe, eds. Beyond a middle income Africa: Transforming African economies for sustained growth with rising employment and incomes, pp. 1–16. ReSAKSS Annual Trends and Outlook Report 2014. Washington, DC, IFPRI. www.ifpri.org/publication/transformation-african-agrifood-systems-new-era-rapid-urbanization-and-emergence-middle

10 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D.L., Snyder, J., Hu, C. & White, S. 2014. Urbanization, diet change, and transformation of food supply chains in Asia. East Lansing, USA, Michigan State University.

11 International Trade Administration. 2022. Ethiopia - Country Commercial Guide. In: International Trade Administration. [Cited 26 May 2023]. www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/ethiopia-roads-railways-and-logistics

12 Dolislager, M.J., Reardon, T., Arslan, A., Fox, L., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Sauer, C. & Tschirley, D.L. 2021. Youth and adult agrifood system employment in developing regions: rural (peri-urban to hinterland) vs. urban. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 571–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808198

13 Popkin, B.M. & Reardon, T. 2018. Obesity and the food system transformation in Latin America. Obesity Reviews, 19(8): 1028–1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12694

14 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R. et al. 2021. The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28: 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466

15 Reardon, T., Echeverria, R., Berdegué, J., Minten, B., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Tschirley, D. & Zilberman, D. 2019. Rapid transformation of food systems in developing regions: highlighting the role of agricultural research & innovations. Agricultural Systems, 172: 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.022

16 Reardon, T., Timmer, C.P., Barrett, C.B. & Berdegué, J. 2003. The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85(5): 1140–1146. www.jstor.org/stable/1244885

17 Sauer, C.M., Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Alphonce, R., Ndyetabula, D. et al. 2021. Consumption of processed food & food away from home in big cities, small towns, and rural areas of Tanzania. Agricultural Economics, 52(5): 749–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12652

18 Stage, J., Stage, J. & Mcgranahan, G. 2010. Is urbanization contributing to higher food prices? Environment and Urbanization, 22(1): 199–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809359644

19 Faye, N.F., Fall, T., Reardon, T., Theriault, V., Ngom, Y., Barry, M.B. & Sy, M.R. 2023. Consumption of fruits and vegetables by types and sources across urban and rural Senegal. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies, (forthcoming). https://doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-05-2022-0090

20 GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. 2020. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 396(10258): 1223–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2

21 Raghunathan, K., Headey, D. & Herforth, A. 2021. Affordability of nutritious diets in rural India. Food Policy, 99: 101982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101982

22 Headey, D.D. & Alderman, H.H. 2019. The relative caloric prices of healthy and unhealthy foods differ systematically across income levels and continents. The Journal of Nutrition, 149(11): 2020–2033. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz158

23 WFP. 2022. Fill the Nutrient Gap: Guinea-Bissau. Summary report. Rome. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000140034/download

24 Moszoro, M. & Soto, M. 2022. Road Quality and Mean Speed Score. Working Paper No. 2022/095. Washington, DC, IMF. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2022/05/20/Road-Quality-and-Mean-Speed-Score-518200

25 Latino, L.R., Pica-Ciamarra, U. & Wisser, D. 2020. Africa: The livestock revolution urbanizes. Global Food Security, 26: 100399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100399

26 European Union, FAO, UN-Habitat, OECD & World Bank. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

27 Dolislager, M.J., Holleman, C., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O. & Reardon, T. 2023. Analysis of food demand and supply across the rural–urban continuum for selected countries in Africa. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 23-09. Rome, FAO.

CHAPTER 5

1 Moustier, P., Holdsworth, M., Anh, D.T., Seck, P.A., Renting, H., Caron, P. & Bricas, N. 2023. The diverse and complementary components of urban food systems in the Global South: characterization and policy implications. Global Food Security, 36: 100663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100663

2 Reardon, T. 2015. The hidden middle: the quiet revolution in the midstream of agrifood value chains in developing countries. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 31(1): 45–63. www.jstor.org/stable/43664670

3 Christiaensen, L. & Todo, Y. 2014. Poverty reduction during the rural–urban transformation – The role of the missing middle. World Development, 63: 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.10.002

4 Sonnino, R., Marsden, T. & Moragues-Faus, A. 2016. Relationalities and convergences in food security narratives: towards a place-based approach. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41(4): 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12137

5 FAO. 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017. Leveraging food systems for inclusive rural transformation. Rome. www.fao.org/3/I7658e/I7658e.pdf

6 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

7 Barrett, C.B., Benton, T., Fanzo, J., Herrero, M., Nelson, R.J., Bageant, E., Buckler, E. et al. 2022. Socio-technical innovation bundles for agri-food systems transformation. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-88802-2

8 Fears, R. & Canales, C. 2023. The role of science, technology and innovation in transforming food systems globally. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation, pp. 831–847. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_44

9 Mercandalli, S., Girard, P., Dione, B. & Michel, S. 2023. Assessing rural-urban linkages and their contribution to territorial development: insights from Zimbabwe’s small and medium-sized cities. Sustainability, 15(7): 6223. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076223

10 FAO. 2022. Assessment of retail food environments and green spaces for healthy cities – Methodological guidance based on the experiences in Dar es Salaam, Lima, Tunis. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0191en

11 Spires, M., Berggreen-Clausen, A., Kasujja, F.X., Delobelle, P., Puoane, T., Sanders, D. & Daivadanam, M. 2020. Snapshots of urban and rural food environments: EPOCH-based mapping in a high-, middle-, and low-income country from a non-communicable disease perspective. Nutrients, 12(2): 484. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020484

12 Nguyen, T., Pham Thi Mai, H., van den Berg, M., Huynh Thi Thanh, T. & Béné, C. 2021. Interactions between food environment and (un)healthy consumption: evidence along a rural-urban transect in Viet Nam. Agriculture, 11(8): 789. www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/8/789

13 Balineau, G., Bauer, A., Kessler, M. & Madariaga, N. 2021. Food systems in Africa: rethinking the role of markets. Africa Development Forum Series. Paris and Washington, DC, AFD (Agence Française de Développement) and World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e4ee2280-2f08-5c24-98f1-1b81745bf267/content

14 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en

15 City of Mandurah. 2021. Advertising in road reserves policy. Council policy, POL-RDS 08. Mandurah, Australia. www.mandurah.wa.gov.au/-/media/files/com/downloads/council/governance/policies/roads/advertising-in-road-reserves-policy.pdf

16 Mayor of London. 2018. Mayor confirms ban on junk food advertising on transport network. In: Mayor of London. [Cited 10 May 2023]. www.london.gov.uk/press-releases/mayoral/ban-on-junk-food-advertising-on-transport-network-0

17 Yau, A., Berger, N., Law, C., Cornelsen, L., Greener, R., Adams, J., Boyland, E.J. et al. 2022. Changes in household food and drink purchases following restrictions on the advertisement of high fat, salt, and sugar products across the transport for London network: a controlled interrupted time series analysis. PLOS Medicine, 19(2): e1003915. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003915

18 WHO. 2023. Global database on the Implementation of Nutrition Action (GINA). In: WHO. [Cited 23 May 2023]. https://extranet.who.int/nutrition/gina/en/home

19 WHO. 2022. Fiscal policies to promote healthy diets: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240049543

20 Liu, S., Veugelers, P.J., Liu, C. & Ohinmaa, A. 2022. The cost effectiveness of taxation of sugary foods and beverages: a systematic review of economic evaluations. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy, 20(2): 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-021-00685-x

21 WHO. 2022. Nutrition labelling: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240051324

22 WHO. 2022. Protecting children from the harmful impact of food marketing: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240051348

23 Barrett, M., Crozier, S., Lewis, D., Godfrey, K., Robinson, S., Cooper, C., Inskip, H. et al. 2017. Greater access to healthy food outlets in the home and school environment is associated with better dietary quality in young children. Public Health Nutrition, 20(18): 3316–3325. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017002075

24 CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2014. Healthier food retail: an action guide for public health practitioners. Atlanta, USA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpao/state-local-programs/pdf/Healthier-Food-Retail-guide-full.pdf

25 NYCEDC (New York City Economic Development Corporation). 2023. Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH). In: NYCEDC. [Cited 16 May 2023]. https://edc.nyc/program/food-retail-expansion-support-health-fresh

26 Local Government Association. 2015. Tipping the scales: case studies on the use of planning powers to restrict hot food takeaways. London. www.local.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/L15-427%20Tipping%20the%20scales%20WEB.pdf

27 Moyles, P. 2018. No fry zone opening statement to joint Oireachtas Committee Children and Youth Affairs. In: Houses of the Oireachtas open data APIs. [Cited 16 May 2023]. https://data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/committee/dail/32/joint_committee_on_children_and_youth_affairs/submissions/2018/2018-05-30_opening-statement-mr-phillip-moyles-chairperson-no-fry-zone-4-kids_en.pdf

28 Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. 2008. Special act on safety control of children’s dietary life. Act No. 12391. Cheongju, Republic of Korea.

29 Ministry of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia. 2012. Pekeliling KSU Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan: garis panduan penguatkuasaan larangan penjualan makanan dan minuman di luar pagar sekolah oleh pihak berkuasa tempatan. [KSU Circular of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government: guidelines for the enforcement of the prohibition on the sale of food and beverages outside school fences by local authorities]. Putrajaya, Malaysia. www.moh.gov.my/index.php/database_stores/store_view_page/31/230

30 Community Health Councils. 2017. Fast food restaurant policy in a food desert: a health impact assessment. Los Angeles, USA. www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/external-sites/health-impact-project/chc_fastfood_hia_2017_final.pdf

31 Reinbott, A., Schelling, A., Kuchenbecker, J., Jeremias, T., Russell, I., Kevanna, O., Krawinkel, M.B. et al. 2016. Nutrition education linked to agricultural interventions improved child dietary diversity in rural Cambodia. British Journal of Nutrition, 116(8): 1457–1468. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516003433

32 Kumar, N., Nguyen, P.H., Harris, J., Harvey, D., Rawat, R. & Ruel, M.T. 2018. What it takes: evidence from a nutrition- and gender-sensitive agriculture intervention in rural Zambia. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 10(3): 341–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2018.1478874

33 Fisher, E., Attah, R., Barca, V., O’Brien, C., Brook, S., Holland, J., Kardan, A. et al. 2017. The livelihood impacts of cash transfers in sub-Saharan Africa: beneficiary perspectives from six countries. World Development, 99: 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.020

34 Wouterse, F., Murphy, S. & Porciello, J. 2020. Social protection to combat hunger. Nature Food, 1(9): 517–518. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-00144-1

35 Onwuchekwa, C., Verdonck, K. & Marchal, B. 2021. Systematic review on the impact of conditional cash transfers on child Health service utilisation and child health in Sub-Saharan Africa. Frontiers in Public Health, 9: 643621. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.643621

36 Ambikapathi, R., Shively, G., Leyna, G., Mosha, D., Mangara, A., Patil, C.L., Boncyk, M. et al. 2021. Informal food environment is associated with household vegetable purchase patterns and dietary intake in the DECIDE study: empirical evidence from food vendor mapping in peri-urban Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Global Food Security, 28: 100474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100474

37 Adeosun, K.P., Greene, M. & Oosterveer, P. 2022. Informal ready-to-eat food vending: a social practice perspective on urban food provisioning in Nigeria. Food Security, 14(3): 763–780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01257-0

38 WHO & FAO. 2022. Food safety is everyone’s business in street food vending. Technical document. Geneva, Switzerland and Rome. www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-HEP-NFS-AFS-2022.4

39 Petrics, H. & Stamoulis, K. 2020. Gender aspects of urban food security and nutrition: the critical role of urban food environments. Urban Agriculture Magazine, 37: 13–15. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/109186/UA-Magazine-37_web.pdf?sequence=1#page=13

40 Riley, L. & Dodson, B. 2014. Gendered mobilities and food Access in Blantyre, Malawi. Urban Forum, 25(2): 227–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-014-9223-7

41 WHO. 2022. WHO/FAO Inter-Regional meeting to promote healthy diets through the informal food sector in Asia. 20–22 August 2019, Bangkok. www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/sea-nut-201

42 Gupta, V., Downs, S.M., Ghosh-Jerath, S., Lock, K. & Singh, A. 2016. Unhealthy fat in street and snack foods in low-socioeconomic settings in India: a case study of the food environments of rural villages and an urban slum. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 48(4): 269-279.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2015.11.006

43 Health Promotion Board. 2023. Healthier Dining Programme. [Cited 11 May 2023]. https://hpb.gov.sg/healthy-living/food-beverage/healthier-dining-programme

44 Centre for Liveable Cities, Singapore. 2014. Hawker Centres. Urban Solutions(4): 42–48. www.clc.gov.sg/docs/default-source/urban-solutions/urb-sol-iss-4-pdfs/case-study-singapore-hawker-centres.pdf

45 Health Promotion Board. 2023. Healthier Dining Grant. In: Healthier Dining Programme. [Cited 11 May 2023]. https://hpb.gov.sg/healthy-living/food-beverage/healthier-dining-programme/about-the-healthier-dining-grant

46 Health Hub. 2023. Eat, Drink, Shop Healthy Challenge. In: Health Hub. [Cited 11 May 2023]. www.healthhub.sg/programmes/136/eat-drink-shop-healthy-challenge

47 Otsuka, K. 2007. The rural industrial transition in East Asia: influences and implications. In: S. Haggblade, P.B.R. Hazell & T. Reardon, eds. Transforming the rural nonfarm economy: opportunities and threats in the developing world, pp. 216–233. Baltimore, USA, Johns Hopkins University Press for IFPRI.

48 World Bank. 2007. Will resilience overcome risk? Special focus: agriculture for development. East Asia & Pacific Update - November 2007. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3f6f001c-eb51-5837-a476-7d6f9b202272/content

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