Notes
Chapter 1
1. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development, UNICEF, World Food Programme and World Health Organization. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
3. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Food Programme and World Health Organization. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
4. FAO. 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/I7658e/I7658e.pdf
5. Ambikapathi, R., Schneider, K.R., Davis, B., Herrero, M., Winters, P. & Fanzo, J.C. 2022. Global food systems transitions have enabled affordable diets but had less favourable outcomes for nutrition, environmental health, inclusion and equity. Nature Food, 3(9): 764–779.
6. Njuki, J., Eissler, S., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Bryan, E. & Quisumbing, A. 2022. A review of evidence on gender equality, women’s empowerment, and food systems. Global Food Security, 33: 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100622
7. Lecoutere, E., Katrina Kosec, Quisumbing, A., Elias, M., Bryan, E. & Puskur, R. 2022. Equality and empowerment by gender and intersecting social differentiation in agri-food systems: Setting the stage. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129704
8. Pyburn, R. & van Eerdewijk, A. 2021. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future. Washington, DC: IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915
9. Hillenbrand, E., Karim, N., Mohanraj, P. & Wu, D. 2015. Measuring gender-transformative change: A review of literature and promising practices. CARE USA. Working Paper.
10. Cole, S.M., Kantor, P., Sarapura, S. & Rajaratnam, S. 2014. Gender-transformative approaches to address inequalities in food, nutrition and economic outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems. Working Paper: AAS-2014-42. Penang, Malaysia, CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.
11. Quisumbing, A.R., Meinzen-Dick, R.S. & Malapit, H.J. 2019. Gender equality: Women’s empowerment for rural revitalization. In 2019 Global Food Policy Report. Chapter 5, Pp. 44-51. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293502_05
12. Johnson, N., Balagamwala, M., Pinkstaff, C., Theis, S., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Quisumbing, A. 2018. How do agricultural development projects empower women? Linking strategies with expected outcomes. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2):1-19.
13. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
Chapter 2
1. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11: Women in Agriculture – Closing the gender gap for development. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. Klasen, S. 2019. What explains uneven female labor force participation levels and trends in developing countries? The World Bank Research Observer, 34(2): 161–197.
3. See World Bank, World Development Indicators database. Labor force, female (% of total labor force) - South Asia. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS?locations=8S Accessed 15 December 2023.
4. Pyburn, R., Slavchevska, V., Kruijssen, F., Karam, A. & Steijn, C. 2022. Gender dynamics in agri-food value chains: from diagnostics to change. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Amsterdam, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), Royal Tropical Institute.
5. Palacios-López, A., Christiaensen, L. & Kilic, T. 2017. How much of the labor in African agriculture is provided by women? Food Policy, 67: 52–63.
6. Grace, D., Roesel, K., Kang’ethe, E., Bonfoh, B. & Theis, S. 2015. Gender roles and food safety in 20 informal livestock and fish value chains. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01489. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
7. Barrientos, S. 2014. Gendered global production networks: Analysis of cocoa–chocolate sourcing. Regional Studies, 48(5): 791–803.
8. Curry, G.N., Koczberski, G. & Inu, S.M. 2019. Women’s and men’s work: The production and marketing of fresh food and export crops in Papua New Guinea. Oceania, 89(2): 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/ocea.5222
9. Fröcklin, S., de la Torre-Castro, M., Lindström, L. & Jiddawi, N.S. 2013. Fish traders as key actors in fisheries: Gender and adaptive management. Ambio, 42(8): 951–962.
10. Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C.L. & van Asseldonk, I.J. 2018. Gender and aquaculture value chains. A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture, 493: 328–337.
11. O’Neill, E. D., Crona, B., Ferrer, A. J. G., Pomeroy, R. & Jiddawi, N. S. 2018. Who benefits from seafood trade? A comparison of social and market structures in small-scale fisheries. Ecology and Society, 23(3): 12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799136
12. Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A. & Chiuri, W. 2011. Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: does the choice of commodity matter? The European Journal of Development Research, 23(3): 426–443.
13. Sarku, R. 2016. Analyses of gender roles in the oil palm industry in Kwaebibirem District, Ghana. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(3): 187–198.
14. Chen, T. 2017. Impact of the shea nut industry on women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso: A multi-dimensional study focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions. Social Protection and Forestry Working Paper No. 3. Rome, FAO.
15. Kent, R. 2018. “Helping” or “appropriating”? Gender relations in shea nut production in northern Ghana. Society & Natural Resources, 31(3): 367–381.
16. Fischer, E. & Qaim, M. 2012. Gender, agricultural commercialization, and collective action in Kenya. Food Security, 4, 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0199-7
17. Njiraini, G., Ngigi, M. & Baraké, E. 2018. Women in African agriculture: Integrating women into value chains to build a stronger sector. ZEF Working Paper Series 175. Bonn, Germany, Center for Development Research, University of Bonn. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3266365
18. Das, S., Delavallade, C., Fashogbon, A., Ogunleye, W. & Papineni, S. 2021. Occupational sex segregation in agriculture: Evidence on gender norms and socio-emotional skills in Nigeria. Policy Research Working Paper No. 9695. Washington, DC, World Bank Group.
19. World Bank. 2022. Breaking barriers: Female entrepreneurs who cross over to male-dominated sectors. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36940
20. World Bank Group. 2019. Women, Business and the Law 2019: A decade of reform. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31327
21. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2018. The Middle East and North Africa: Prospects and challenges. In: OECD & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027, pp. 67–107. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2018-5-en
22. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A., & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
23. Mayoux, L. 2012. Gender mainstreaming in value chain development: Experience with Gender Action Learning System in Uganda. Enterprise Development and Microfinance Journal, 23(4): 319–337.
24. Masamha, B., Uzokwe, V.N. & Thebe, V. 2018. Women’s empowerment in traditional food value chains at the micro-level: Evidence from cassava smallholder farming in Tanzania. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 42(1): 28–47.
25. de Brauw, A., Kramer, B. & Murphy, M. 2021. Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142: 105445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
26. Toruño Morales, I. 2013. Análisis financiero-económico de fincas con varias actividades productivas y el rol de la familia en la producción y toma de decisiones en el Centro Norte de Nicaragua. MSc Thesis. Turrialba, Costa Rica, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Escuela de Posgrado.
27. Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. & Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers 14. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en
28. Durr, J. 2018. Women in agricultural value chains: Unrecognized work and contributions to the Guatemalan economy. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2): 20–35.
29. Rubin, D., Boonabaana, B. & Manfre, C. 2019. Building an inclusive agriculture: Strengthening gender equality in agricultural value chains. In: A.R. Quisumbing, R.S. Meinzen-Dick & J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 83–96. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_06
30. Own calculations based on FAO. 2022. Mapping of territorial markets – Methodology and guidelines for participatory data collection. Second edition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9484en
31. World Bank. 2021. Opportunities for climate finance in the livestock sector: Removing obstacles and realizing potential. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35495
32. FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
33. FAO & United Nations Environment Programme. 2020. The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en
34. Adam, R., McDougall, C., Bevitt, K., Freed, S., Gomese, C., Johnson, A. & Lau, J. et al. 2022. Four pathways to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture: Insights from FISH research. Penang, Malaysia, WorldFish. https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/handle/20.500.12348/5108
35. Serra, R., Harris-Coble, L., Dickerson, A.J., Povedano, S.A. & Pinzon, S. 2018. Gender and livestock value chains annotated bibliography. Gainesville, Florida, USA, Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. https://tinyurl.com/2n6gfapn
36. Tavenner, K. & Crane, T.A. 2018. Gender power in Kenyan dairy: Cows, commodities, and commercialization. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9867-3
37. It is widely reported that two-thirds of the world’s 600 million poor livestock keepers are rural women. While there is likely some truth to this estimate, its origin is unclear according to MacVicar, I. 2020. Women livestock keepers. Fact Check 9. Livestock Data for Decisions. Edinburgh, UK, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/37437
38. Here we look at gender inequalities with respect to employment in the sector while in Chapter 3 we discuss gender issues in ownership and rights over livestock.
39. Hovorka, A. J. 2012. Women/chickens vs. men/cattle: Insights on gender–species intersectionality. Geoforum, 43(4): 875–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.02.005
40. Hillesland, M., Doss, C. & Slavchevska, V. 2021. Who claims the rights to livestock? Exploring gender patterns of asset holdings in smallholder households in Uganda. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2098. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134962
41. Alemayehu, T., Bruno, J., Fasil, G. & Dessie, T. 2018. Socio-economic, marketing and gender aspects of village chicken production in the tropics: A review of literature. ILRI Project Report. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute.
42. FAO. 2012. Invisible guardians – Women manage livestock diversity. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 174. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i3018e/i3018e00.pdf
43. Njuki, J. & Sanginga, P.C. 2013. Women, livestock ownership and markets. Bridging the gender gap in Eastern and Southern Africa. London, Earthscan Routledge.
44. Omondi, I., Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Loriba, A., Kariuki, E. & Baltenweck, I. 2022. Women’s empowerment and livestock vaccination: Evidence from Peste des Petits Ruminants vaccination interventions in northern Ghana. Animals, 12(6): 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12060717
45. Serra, R., Ludgate, N., Dowhaniuk, K.F., McKune, S.L. & Russo, S. 2022. Beyond the gender of the livestock holder: Learnings from intersectional analyses of PPR vaccine value chains in Nepal, Senegal, and Uganda. Animals, 12(3): 241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030241
46. Flintan, F.E. 2021. Pastoral women, tenure and governance. ILRI Research Report 92. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134947
47. Ravichandran, T., Farnworth, C.R. & Galiè, A. 2021. Empowering women in dairy cooperatives in Bihar and Telangana, India: A gender and caste analysis. Agri-Gender: Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 6(1): 27–42. https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.612021.3
48. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R. et al. 2023. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
49. This section draws extensively from FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
50. FAO, Duke University & WorldFish, forthcoming, cited in FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
51. UN Women. 2020. Women’s economic empowerment in fisheries in the blue economy of the Indian Ocean rim: A baseline report. New York, USA, UN Women.
52. Kleiber, D., Harris, L.M. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2015. Gender and small-scale fisheries: A case for counting women and beyond. Fish and Fisheries, 16(4): 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12075.
53. Furkon, M., Nessa. N. & Ambo-Rappe, R. 2019. Invertebrate gleaning: forgotten fisheries. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 253: 012029. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/253/1/012029
54. Farnworth, C.R., Kantor, P., Kruijssen, F., Longley, C. & Colverson, K.E. 2015. Gender integration in livestock and fisheries value chains: Emerging good practices from analysis to action. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 11(3–4): 262–279.
55. Brugere, C. & Williams, M. 2017. Women in aquaculture. In: Gender in aquaculture and fisheries for the Asian Fisheries Society. Cited 10 March 2023. https://genderaquafish.org/portfolio/women-in-aquaculture/
56. Lippe, R.S., Schweinle, J., Cui, S., Gurbuzer, Y., Katajamäki, W., Villarreal-Fuentes, M. & Walter, S. 2022. Contribution of the forest sector to total employment in national economies: Estimating the number of people employed in the forest sector. Rome, FAO and Geneva, Switzerland, ILO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2438en
57. Müller, J.G., Boubacar, R. & Guimbo, I.D. 2015. The ‘how’ and ‘why’ of including gender and age in ethnobotanical research and community-based resource management. Ambio, 44(1): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0517-8
58. Kimanzu, N., Schulte-Herbrüggen, B., Clendenning, J. Chiwona-Karltun, L., Krogseng, K. & Petrokofsky, G. 2021. What is the evidence base linking gender with access to forests and use of forest resources for food security in low- and middle-income countries? A systematic evidence map. Forests, 12(8): 1096. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081096
59. Sunderland, T., Achdiawan, R., Angelsen, A., Babigumira, R., Ickowitz, A., Paumgarten, F., Reyes-García, V. & Shively, G. 2014. Challenging perceptions about men, women, and forest product use: A global comparative study. World Development, 64: S56–S66.
60. World Bank. 2021. Harnessing forests as pathways to prosperity in Liberia. Policy Note. Washington, DC.
61. Colfer, C.J.P., Elias, M. & Jamnadass, R. 2015. Women and men in tropical dry forests: A preliminary review. International Forestry Review, 17(2): 70–90. https://doi.org/10.1505/146554815815834877
62. Ingram, V., Haverhals, M., Petersen, S., Elias, M., Sijapati Basnett, B. & Phosiso, S. 2016. Gender and forest, tree and agroforestry value chains: Evidence from the literature. In: C.J.P. Colfer, B. Sijapati Basnett & M. Elias, eds. Gender and forests: Climate change, tenure, value chains, and emerging issues, pp. 221–242. London, the United Kingdom, Earthscan.
63. Kiptot, E. 2015. Gender roles, responsibilities, and spaces: Implications for agroforestry research and development in Africa. International Forestry Review, 17(S4): 11–21. https://doi.org/0.1505/146554815816086426
64. Elias, M. & Arora-Jonsson, S. 2017. Negotiating across difference: Gendered exclusions and cooperation in the Shea value chain. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 35(1): 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775816657084
65. Ingram, V., Schure, J., Tieguhong, J.C., Ndoye, O., Awono, A. & Iponga, D.M. 2014. Gender implications of forest product value chains in the Congo basin. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 23(1–2): 67–86.
66. Martini, E., Tarigan, J., Purnomosidhi, P., Prahmono, A., Surgana, M., Setiawan, A., Megawati et al. 2012. Agroforestry and Forestry in Sulawesi Series: agroforestry extension needs at the community level in AgFor project sites in South and Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Working paper 159. Bogor, Indonesia, World Agroforestry Center Southeast Asia Regional Program.
67. Catacutan, D. & Naz, F. 2015. Gender roles, decision-making and challenges to agroforestry adoption in northwest Vietnam. International Forestry Review, 17(4): 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1505/146554815816086381
68. Davis, K., Franzel, S. & Spielman, D.J. 2019. Extension options for better livelihoods and poverty reduction: A selected review 2012–2015 [version 1; not peer reviewed]. Gates Open Research, 3: 386. https://doi.org/10.21955/gatesopenres.1115095.1
69. International Labour Organization (ILO). 2013. Guide to the Millennium Development Goals employment indicators. Geneva, Switzerland, ILO.
70. Lo Bue, M.C., Le, T.T.N., Santos Silva, M. & Sen, K. 2022. Gender and vulnerable employment in the developing world: Evidence from global microdata. World Development, 159: 106010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106010
71. Kelley, D.J., Baumer, B.S., Brush, C., Greene, P.G., Mahdavi, M., Majbouri, M., Cole, M., Dean, M. & Heavlow, R. 2017. Women’s entrepreneurship 2016/2017 report. Boston, MA, USA, The Fenway Group.
72. Fabry, A., Van den Broeck, G. & Maertens, M. 2022. Decent work in global food value chains: Evidence from Senegal. World Development, 152: 105790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105790
73. Said-Allsopp, M. & Tallontire, A. 2015. Pathways to empowerment? Dynamics of women’s participation in global value chains. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107: 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.089
74. Shackleton, S., Paumgarten, F., Kassa, H., Husselman, M. & Zida, M. 2011. Opportunities for enhancing poor women’s socio-economic empowerment in the value chains of three African non-timber forest products (NTFPs). International Forestry Review, 13(2): 136–151.
75. Christian, M.M, Evers, B.J. & Barrientos, S. 2013. Women in value chains: Making a difference. capturing the gains. Revised Summit Briefing, No. 6.3, February 2013. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2265832
76. Wijers, G.D. 2019. Inequality regimes in Indonesian dairy cooperatives: understanding institutional barriers to gender equality. Agriculture and Human Values, 36(2): 167–181.
77. Nordhagen, S. 2020. Supporting gender equity through food system businesses in lower-income countries. GAIN Working Paper No. 11. Geneva, Switzerland, Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition. https://tinyurl.com/2o6gm4qk
78. Hardy, M. & Kagy, G. 2018. Mind the (profit) gap: Why are female enterprise owners earning less than men? AEA Papers and Proceedings, 108: 252–255.
79. Islam, A. M., Gaddis, I., Palacios López, A. & Amin, M. 2020. The labor productivity gap between formal businesses run by women and men. Feminist Economics, 26(4): 228–258.
80. Rijkers, B. & Costa, R. 2012. Gender and rural non-farm entrepreneurship. World Development, 40(12): 2411–2426.
81. Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. & Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers 14. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en
82. Campos, F.M.L., Coleman, R.D., Conconi, A., Donald, A.A., Gassier, M., Goldstein, M.P., Chavez, Z.L., et al., 2019. Profiting from parity: Unlocking the potential of women’s businesses in Africa. Washington, DC, World Bank Group.
83. Ferrant, G., Pesando, L.M. & Nowacka, K. 2014. Unpaid care work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. OECD Issues Paper. Paris, OECD Publishing.
84. Jayachandran, S. 2021. Social norms as a barrier to women’s employment in developing countries. IMF Economic Review, 69(3): 576–595.
85. Ali, D., Bowen, D., Deininger, K. & Duponchel, M. 2016. Investigating the gender gap in agricultural productivity: Evidence from Uganda. World Development, 87: 152–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.006
86. Palacios-López, A. & López, R. 2015. The gender gap in agricultural productivity: The role of market imperfections. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(9): 1175–1192. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1028539
87. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). 2023. Unpaid work. In: UNDESA. New York, USA. Cited 12 January 2023. https://tinyurl.com/2zyeopx4
88. Karimli, L., Samman, E., Rost, L. & Kidder, T. 2016. Factors and norms influencing unpaid care work: Household survey evidence from five rural communities in Colombia, Ethiopia, the Philippines, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Cowley, Oxford, UK, Oxfam. https://tinyurl.com/2pvjaa3k.
89. World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund. 2017. Safely managed drinking water: Thematic report on drinking water 2017. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/325897
90. Geere, J.A. & Cortobius, M. 2017. Who carries the weight of water? Fetching water in rural and urban areas and the implications for water security. Water Alternatives, 10(2): 513–540.
91. This is based on an analysis using data from 61 demographic and health and multiple indicator cluster surveys.
92. Lowe, C., Ludi, E., Le Sève, M.D. & Tsui, J. 2019. Linking social protection and water security to empower women and girls. Working Paper 567. London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute.
93. Bryan, E. & Garner, E. 2022. Understanding the pathways to women’s empowerment in northern Ghana and the relationship with small-scale irrigation. Agriculture and Human Values, 39(3): 905–920.
94. Koolwal, G. & Van de Walle, D. 2013. Access to water, women’s work, and child outcomes. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61(2): 369–405.
95. Hemson, D. 2007. ‘The toughest of chores’: policy and practice in children collecting water in South Africa. Policy Futures in Education, 5(3): 315–326.
96. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. & Foster, W. (forthcoming). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
97. Piedrahita, N., Costa, V. & Mane, E. (forthcoming). Gender gap in agricultural labour productivity: A cross country comparison. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
98. Benali, M., Slavchevska, V., Davis, B., Piedrahita, N., Sitko, N., Nico, G. & Azzarri, C. (forthcoming). Gender pay gaps among agriculture and non-agriculture wage workers: a cross-country examination. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
99. Ricciardi, V., Mehrabi, Z., Wittman, H., James, D. & Ramankutty, N. 2021. Higher yields and more biodiversity on smaller farms. Nature Sustainability, 4(7): 651–657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00699-2
100. Hicks, J.H., Kleemans, M., Li, N.Y. & Miguel, E. 2017. Reevaluating agricultural productivity gaps with longitudinal microdata. NBER Working Paper 23253. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research.
101. McCullough, E.B. 2017. Labor productivity and employment gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 67: 133–152.
102. de Janvry, A., Duquennois, C. & Sadoulet, E. 2022. Labor calendars and rural poverty: A case study for Malawi. Food Policy, 109: 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102255
103. Briones, R.M. 2019. The wage gap between male and female agricultural workers. In: Outside looking in: Gendered perspectives in work and education, pp. 109–136. Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies. https://tinyurl.com/2mdr6ofb
104. Due to constraints with the data, this study includes all non-agricultural wage employment, including beyond the agrifood system.
105. Fisher, M., Lewin, P.A. & Pilgeram, R. 2021. Farmworkers and the gender wage gap: An empirical analysis of wage inequality in US agriculture. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(4): 2145–2163. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13202
106. Hertz, T., Winters, P., De La O, A.P., Quinones, E.J, Davis, B. & Zezza, A. 2008. Wage inequality in international perspective: Effects of location, sector, and gender. ESA Working Paper No. 08–08. Rome, Agricultural Development Economics Division, FAO.
Chapter 3
1. Kosec, K., Hidrobo, M., Gartaula, H., Van Campenhout, B. & Carrillo, L. 2023. Making complementary agricultural resources, technologies, and services more gender-responsive. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129706
2. Doss, C. & Mika, H. 2021. This land is her land: A comparative analysis of gender, institutions, and landownership. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2089. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134943
3. United Nations Children’s Fund. 2023. Girls’ education: Gender equality in education benefits every child. In: UNICEF. New York, USA. Cited 1 February 2023. https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education
4. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https://tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
5. Figure 5. UNESCO. 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https://tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
6. FAO. 2012. Voluntary Guidelines on the responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security. Rome. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5322b79e4.html
7. This section mainly draws on the country reports for SDG 5.a.1 and 5.a.2, for which FAO is a custodian agency.
8. The information presented in this section is based on the country reports for SDG Indicator 5.a.2. Since the country reports provide one data point in terms of time, additional publicly available sources regarding laws and legal reforms from before 2010 and after submission of the country reports were consulted to identify changes in law since the State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11 report.
9. Different marital property regimes can be identified as: i) separation of property: all types of assets acquired before or during marriage remain separate property; ii) partial community of property: assets acquired during the marriage become common property, but assets acquired before marriage and through inheritance remain separate property; iii) absolute community of property: all assets acquired before or during marriage become common property; and iv) deferred partial or full community of property regime: some or all property that the husband or wife acquires before and during marriage remains the property of the person who acquired it, but if the marriage dissolves, the assets are divided (Almodóvar-Reteguis, N., Kushnir, K. & Meilland, T. 2011. Mapping the legal gender gap in using property and building credit. Women, Business and the Law Topic Note. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/48s6w3e8) Reports on SDG Indicator 5.a.2 show that most countries have a prevalent marital regime in place, whereas other countries provide for several optional regimes or fail to regulate the effects of marriage. Often the default marital property regime overlaps with other regimes relevant to land or property acquisition, such as customary or religious law.
10. Exceptions include Kenya. Matrimonial Property Act, 2013, Kenya. Marriage Act, 2014, and Gabon. Loi N° 004/2021 du 15/09/2021 portant modification de certaines dispositions de la loi portant Code Civil, 2021.
11. Interesting examples are Mali and Senegal, that establish equal inheritance rights for women and men as the rule, unless a person explicitly chooses the (customary or) Muslim regime that does not recognize equality (respectively Mali. Loi N°2011 – 087 portant Code des personnes et de la famille, 2011 and Senegal. Loi N° 72–61 portant Code de la famille, 1972).
12. Kenya. Land registration Act, Cap. 300, 2012.
13. Bolivia (Plurinational State Of). Ley Nº 3545 – Modifica la Ley Nº 1715, Servicio Nacional de Reforma Agraria, 2006.
14. Dominican Republic. Ley Nº 55 – Modifica la Ley Nº 5.879 de 1962 sobre Reforma Agraria, 1997.
15. Nepal. Financial Bills 2020 for the following Provinces: 1, 2, Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali and Sudur Paschim.
16. Thailand. Regulations of the Department of Lands Regarding the registration of spouse’s signature and dividing property between spouses in land and other immovable properties, B.E. 2553, 2010.
17. The most recent example is Sierra Leone where important reforms were introduced in 2022 (Sierra Leone. The Customary Land Rights Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The National Land Commission Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Act, 2022). These are not yet reflected in the results reported in this publication.
18. General recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women covers the use of temporary special measures (TSM) as a mechanism to address gender disparities and to accelerate progress towards de facto equality between men and women. TSM which are often also referred to as affirmative action or positive discrimination measures, include legislative, executive, administrative and regulatory instruments, as well as the (re)allocation of resources, preferential treatment and quota systems (para. 22). (UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), General recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, on temporary special measures, 2004. https://www.refworld.org/docid/453882a7e0.html).
19. Bayisenge, J., Höjer, S. & Espling, M. 2015. Women’s land rights in the context of the land tenure reform in Rwanda – the experiences of policy implementers. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 9(1): 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.985496
20. Deininger, K., Goyal, A. & Nagarajan, H. 2013. Women’s inheritance rights and intergenerational transmission of resources in India. Journal of Human Resources, 48(1): 114–141.
21. Gaddis, I., Lahoti, R. & Swaminathan, H. 2022. Women’s legal rights and gender gaps in property ownership in developing countries. Population and Development Review, 48(2): 331–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12493
22. This finding is based on analysis of a sample of 28 countries for which there is information on the number of protections of women’s rights in the law (based on SDG 5.a.2) and estimates of the gender gap in land ownership among the agricultural populations (expressed as a percentage of men’s ownership).
23. Prindex. 2020. Women’s perceptions of tenure security: Evidence from 140 countries. London. https://prindex.net/reports/womens-perceptions-tenure-security-evidence-140-countries/. The Prindex surveys, implemented in 140 countries worldwide, asked women and men to imagine how likely or unlikely it was they lost the right to all or part of their property against their will in the next five years. Married women and men were also asked if they worried about losing property in the case of divorce or spousal death. In all countries these questions were asked with respect to the main property, which is the home, and another property. The analysis provided here focuses on a subsample of 70 middle- and low-income countries and on responses that are relevant to agriculture.
24. The index asks individuals a variety of questions which mix concerns over access to water, and the availability of water for specific domestic tasks. It does not ask about access to water for productive purposes, nor does it inquire about who in the household is responsible for domestic tasks or water collection activities (Northwestern University. n.d. The HWISE scale. Evanston, IL, USA. https://doi.org/10.21985/n2-1g6s-6a43).
25. Young, S.L., Bethancourt, H.J., Ritter, Z.R. & Frongillo, E.A. 2022. Estimating national, demographic, and socioeconomic disparities in water insecurity experiences in low-income and middle-income countries in 2020–21: A cross-sectional, observational study using nationally representative survey data. The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(11): e880–e891. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00241-8
26. Wutich, A. 2009. Intrahousehold disparities in women and men’s experiences of water insecurity and emotional distress in urban Bolivia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 23(4): 436–454.
27. Pearson, A.L., Mack, E.A., Ross, A., Marcantonio, R., Zimmer, A., Bunting, E.L., Smith, A.C. et al. 2021. Interpersonal conflict over water is associated with household demographics, domains of water insecurity, and regional conflict: Evidence from nine sites across eight sub-Saharan African countries. Water, 13(9): 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091150
28. Clement, F. & Nicol, A. 2019. Gender, poverty and politics along the real-virtual water spectrum. In: T. Allan, B. Bromwich, M. Keulertz & A. Colman, eds. The Oxford handbook of food, water and society, pp. 250–267. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190669799.013.63
29. Joshi, D., Monterroso, I., Gallant, B., Perera, K. & Peveri, V. 2021. A gender–natural resources tango: Water, land, and forest research. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 221–258. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
30. Nauges, C. & Strand, J. 2013. Water hauling and girls’ school attendance. Some new evidence from Ghana. Policy Research Working Paper 6443. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6443
31. van Houweling, E., Hall, R.P., Diop, A.S., Davis, J. & Seiss, M. 2012. The role of productive water use in women’s livelihoods: Evidence from rural Senegal. Water Alternatives, 5(3): 658–677.
32. Caruso, B.A., Conrad, A., Patrick, M., Owens, A., Kviten, K., Zarella, O., Rogers, H. & Sinharoy, S.S. 2022. Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis. PLOS Water, 1(6): e0000026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026
33. Mekonnen, D.K., Choufani, J., Bryan, E., Haile, B. & Ringler, C. 2022. Irrigation improves weight-for-height z-scores of children under five, and women’s and household dietary diversity scores in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 18(4): e13395. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13395
34. Mitra, A. & Rao, N. 2019. Gender, water, and nutrition in India: An intersectional perspective. Water Alternatives, 12(1): 169–191.
35. Doss, C. & Meinzen-Dick, R. 2020. Land tenure security for women: A conceptual framework. Land Use Policy, 99: 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105080
36. Meinzen-Dick, R. & Zwarteveen, M. 1998. Gendered participation in water management: Issues and illustrations from water users‘ associations in South Asia. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007533018254
37. Theis, S., Bryan, E. & Ringler, C. 2019. Addressing gender and social dynamics to strengthen resilience for all. In: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick & J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 126–139. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_09
38. van Koppen, B. 1998. Water rights, gender, and poverty alleviation. Inclusion and exclusion of women and men smallholders in public irrigation infrastructure development. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 361–374. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007537119163
39. UN Women & United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2021. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals. The Gender and Snapshot 2021. New York, USA, UN Women.
40. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. & Foster, W. (forthcoming). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
41. The limitations of focusing on headship are discussed extensively in the literature (see also Box 2.10 in Chapter 2). In this chapter, we draw on all sources of information, both individual and household level, for indicators of changes over time in access to resources of all groups of women in agrifood systems.
42. Njuki, J., Waithanji, E., Sakwa, B., Kariuki, J., Mukewa, E. & Ngige, J. 2014. A qualitative assessment of gender and irrigation technology in Kenya and Tanzania. Gender, Technology and Development, 18(3): 303–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852414544010
43. Kulkarni, S. 2012. Redefining irrigation as if gender mattered. IWMI-Tata Water Policy Research Highlight, 14. Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.
44. Dickin, S., Segnestam, L. & Sou Dakouré, M. 2021. Women’s vulnerability to climate-related risks to household water security in Centre-East, Burkina Faso. Climate and Development, 13(5): 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1790335
45. Horbulyk, T. & Balasubramanya, S. 2018. Impact of water users associations on water and land productivity, equity and food security in Tajikistan. Final report, Volume 1. Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.
46. Sugden, F., Maskey, N., Clement, F., Ramesh, V., Philip, A. & Rai, A. 2014. Agrarian stress and climate change in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: Gendered vulnerability in a stratified social formation. Global Environmental Change, 29: 258–269. y
47. Kristjanson, P., Waters-Bayer, A., Johnson, N., Tipilda, A., Njuki, J., Baltenweck, I., Grace, D. & MacMillan, S. 2014. Livestock and women’s livelihoods. In: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman & A. Peterman, eds. Gender in agriculture: Closing the knowledge gap, pp. 209–233. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_9
48. Acosta, A., Nicolli, F. & Karfakis, P. 2021. Coping with climate shocks: The complex role of livestock portfolios. World Development, 146: 105546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105546
49. McKune, S.L., Borresen, E.C., Young, A.G., Auria Ryley, T.D., Russo, S.L., Diao Camara, A., Coleman, M. & Ryan, E.P. 2015. Climate change through a gendered lens: Examining livestock holder food security. Global Food Security, 6: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2015.05.001
50. Bain, C., Ransom, E. & Halimatusa’diyah, I. 2020. Dairy livestock interventions for food security in Uganda: What are the implications for women’s empowerment? Rural Sociology, 85(4): 991–1020.
51. Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Girard, A.W., Baltenweck, I., Dominguez-Salas, P., Price, M.J., Jones, R. et al. 2019. Women’s empowerment, food security and nutrition of pastoral communities in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 23: 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005
52. Gitungwa, H., Gustafson, C.R., Jimenez, E.Y., Peterson, E.W., Mwanzalila, M., Makweta, A., Komba, E., Kazwala, R.R., Mazet, J.A.K. & VanWormer, E. 2021. Female and male-controlled livestock holdings impact pastoralist food security and women’s dietary diversity. One Health Outlook, 3(1): 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-020-00032-5
53. Tropical livestock units are the number of different species of livestock converted into a common unit using standard conversion factors (see Table 6 in Ahmed, M.H. & Mesfin, H.M. 2017. The impact of agricultural cooperatives membership on the wellbeing of smallholder farmers: empirical evidence from eastern Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 5: 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-017-0075-z).
54. Comparison with results observed at household level is limited due to the availability of data.
55. World Bank. 2023. Generating relevant data for policy makers and the research community. In: The World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 4 February 2023. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/collections/lsms
56. This confirms the rationale for moving towards individual-level data, rather than data collected by sex of household head, where possible. Data which uses the sex of the household head often captures data on more disadvantaged female-headed households (e.g. widows).
57. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A. & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
58. Dumas, S.E., Maranga, A., Mbullo, P., Collins, S., Wekesa, P., Onono, M. & Young, S.L. 2018. “Men are in front at eating time, but not when it comes to rearing the chicken”: Unpacking the gendered benefits and costs of livestock ownership in Kenya. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 39(1): 3–27.
59. Njuki, J. & Sangina, P.C., eds. 2013. Women, livestock ownership and markets: Bridging the gender gap in eastern and southern Africa. Abingdon, UK, Routledge. https://tinyurl.com/27k3qqqa
60. Köhler-Rollefson, I. 2012. Invisible guardians: Women manage livestock diversity. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No.174. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3018e.pdf
61. Baltenweck, I., Achandi, E., Bullock, R., Campbell, Z., Crane, T., Eldermire, E., Gichuki, L. et al. 2021. What can we learn from the literature about livestock interventions and women’s empowerment? ILRI Research Brief 105. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/117227
62. Chanamuto, N.J.C. & Hall, S.J.G. 2015. Gender equality, resilience to climate change, and the design of livestock projects for rural livelihoods. Gender & Development, 23(3): 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1096041
63. Tavenner, K., van Wijk, M., Fraval, S., Hammond, J., Baltenweck, I., Teufel, N., Kihoro, E. et al. 2019. Intensifying inequality? Gendered trends in commercializing and diversifying smallholder farming systems in East Africa. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00010
64. Serra, R., Harris-Coble, L., Dickerson, A.J., Povedano, S.A. & Pinzon, S. 2018. Gender and livestock value chains annotated bibliography. Gainesville, FL, USA, Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. https://tinyurl.com/2n6gfapn
65. Flintan, F. 2021. Pastoral women, tenure, and governance. PIM Flagship Brief December 2021. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134947
66. International Livestock Research Institute. 2021. Losing livestock, losing land, losing face: Pastoralist women and change in Gujarat, India. Nairobi, Kenya. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/117283
67. Njuguna-Mungai, E., Omondi, I., Galiè, A., Jumba, H., Derseh, M., Paul, B.K., Zenebe, M., Juma, A. & Duncan, A. 2022. Gender dynamics around introduction of improved forages in Kenya and Ethiopia. Agronomy Journal, 114(1): 277–295.
68. Ransom, E., Bain, C., Bal, H. & Shannon, N. 2017. Cattle as technological interventions: The gender effects of water demand in dairy production in Uganda. FACETS, 2: 715–732. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0031
69. Silong, A.K.F. & Gadanakis, Y. 2020. Credit sources, access and factors influencing credit demand among rural livestock farmers in Nigeria. Agricultural Finance Review, 80(1): 68–90.
70. Acosta, D., Ludgate, N., McKune, S.L. & Russo, S. 2022. Who Has Access to Livestock Vaccines? Using the social-ecological model and intersectionality frameworks to identify the social barriers to Peste des Petits ruminants vaccines in Karamoja, Uganda. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 160.
71. McKune, S., Serra, R. & Touré, A. 2021. Gender and intersectional analysis of livestock vaccine value chains in Kaffrine, Senegal. PLOS ONE, 16(7): e0252045. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252045
72. Quisumbing, A.R. & Doss, C.R. 2021. Chapter 82—Gender in agriculture and food systems. In: C.B. Barrett & D.R. Just, eds. Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 5: 4481–4549. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesagr.2021.10.009
73. Anderson, C.L., Reynolds, T.W., Biscaye, P., Patwardhan, V. & Schmidt, C. 2021. Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: Assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2): 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071
74. Kaminski, A.M., Cole, S.M., Al Haddad, R.E., Kefi, A.S., Chilala, A.D., Chisule, G., Mukuka, K.N., Longley, C., Teoh, S.J. & Ward, A.R. 2020. Fish losses for whom? A gendered assessment of post-harvest losses in the Barotse Floodplain Fishery, Zambia. Sustainability, 12(23): 10091. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122310091
75. Fischer, G., Wittich, S., Malima, G., Sikumba, G., Lukuyu, B., Ngunga, D. & Rugalabam, J. 2018. Gender and mechanization: Exploring the sustainability of mechanized forage chopping in Tanzania. Journal of Rural Studies, 64: 112–122.
76. Houmy, K., Clarke, L.J., Ashburner, J.E. & Kienzle, J. 2013. Agricultural mechanization in sub-Saharan Africa: Guidelines for preparing a strategy. Integrated Crop Management, 22. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i3349e/i3349e.pdf
77. FAO. 2022. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9479en
78. Vemireddy, V. & Choudhary, A. 2021. A systematic review of labor-saving technologies: Implications for women in agriculture. Global Food Security, 29: 100541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100541
79. Caunedo, J. & Kala, N. 2021. Mechanizing agriculture. NBER Working Paper Series No. 29061. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research.
80. Christiaensen, L., Rutledge, Z. & Taylor, J.E. 2021. Viewpoint: The future of work in agri-food. Food Policy, 99: 101963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101963
81. Farnworth, C.R., Bharati, P., Krishna, V.V., Roeven, L. & Badstue, L. 2022. Caste-gender intersectionalities in wheat-growing communities in Madhya Pradesh, India. Gender, Technology and Development, 26(1): 28–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2022.2034096
82. Afridi, F., Bishnu, M. & Mahajan, K. 2023. Gender and mechanization: Evidence from Indian agriculture. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 105(1): 52–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12315
83. Farnworth, C.R., San, A.M., Kundu, N.D., Islam, M.M., Jahan, R., Depenbusch, L., Nair, R.M., Myint, T. & Schreinemachers, P. 2020. How will mechanizing mung bean harvesting affect women hired laborers in Myanmar and Bangladesh? Sustainability, 12(19): 7870. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12197870
84. Paris, T.R. & Chi, T.T.N. 2005. The impact of row seeder technology on women labor: A case study in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Gender, Technology and Development, 9(2): 157–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/097185240500900201
85. Daum, T., Adegbola, Y.P., Kamau, G., Kergna, A.O., Daudu, C., Zossou, R.C., Crinot, G.F. et al. 2020. Perceived effects of farm tractors in four African countries, highlighted by participatory impact diagrams. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 40(6): 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00651-2
86. Baudron, F., Misiko, M., Getnet, B., Nazare, R., Sariah, J. & Kaumbutho, P. 2019. A farm-level assessment of labor and mechanization in Eastern and Southern Africa. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39: 1–13.
87. Achandi, E.L., Mujawamariya, G., Agboh-Noameshie, A.R., Gebremariam, S., Rahalivavololona, N. & Rodenburg, J. 2018. Women’s access to agricultural technologies in rice production and processing hubs: A comparative analysis of Ethiopia, Madagascar and Tanzania. Journal of Rural Studies, 60: 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.03.011
88. Croppenstedt, A., Goldstein, M. & Rosas, N. 2013. Gender and agriculture: Inefficiencies, segregation, and low productivity traps. The World Bank Research Observer, 28: 79–109.
89. Huyer, S. 2016. Closing the gender gap in agriculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2): 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416643872
90. Jost, C., Kyazze, F., Naab, J., Neelormi, S., Kinyangi, J., Zougmore, R., Aggarwal, P. et al. 2016. Understanding gender dimensions of agriculture and climate change in smallholder farming communities. Climate and Development, 8(2): 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2015.1050978
91. Theis, S., Lefore, N., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Bryan, E. 2018. What happens after technology adoption? Gendered aspects of small-scale irrigation technologies in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9862-8
92. Kawarazuka, N. 2018. Agricultural mechanization: How far do women farmers benefit? In: CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas. Cited 31 January 2023. https://www.rtb.cgiar.org/news/agricultural-mechanization-far-women-farmers-benefit/
93. Paris, T., Diaz, C. & Hossain, I. 2011. Participatory evaluation of a rice flour mill by poor rural women. Gender, Technology and Development, 15(2): 275–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/097185241101500205
94. Gebre, G.G., Isoda, H., Rahut, D.B., Amekawa, Y. & Nomura, H. 2021. Gender gaps in market participation among individual and joint decision-making farm households: Evidence from southern Ethiopia. European Journal of Development Research, 33: 649–683. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00289-6
95. Coulter, J.E., Witinok-Huber, R.A., Bruyere, B.L. & Dorothy Nyingi, W. 2019. Giving women a voice on decision-making about water: Barriers and opportunities in Laikipia, Kenya. Gender, Place & Culture, 26(4): 489–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2018.1502163
96. Gumucio, T., Hansen, J., Huyer, S. & van Huysen, T. 2020. Gender-responsive rural climate services: A review of the literature. Climate and Development, 12(3): 241–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1613216
97. Manfre, C., Rubin, D., Allen, A., Summerfield, G., Colverson, K. & Akeredolu, M. 2013. Reducing the gender gap in agricultural extension and advisory services: How to find the best fit for men and women farmers. MEAS Brief #2. Discussion Paper. Urbana, IL, USA, Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services project.
98. Ragasa, C., Berhane, G., Tadesse, F. & Taffesse, A.S. 2013. Gender differences in access to extension services and agricultural productivity. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 19(5): 437–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2013.817343
99. Galiè, A. 2013. Empowering women farmers: The case of participatory plant breeding in ten Syrian households. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 34(1): 58–92.
100. Memon, Q.U.A., Wagan, S.A., Chunyu, D., Shuangxi, X., Jingdong, L. & Damalas, C.A. 2019. Health problems from pesticide exposure and personal protective measures among women cotton workers in southern Pakistan. Science of TheTotal Environment, 685: 659–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.173
101. Mrema, E.J., Ngowi, A.V., Kishinhi, S.S. & Mamuya, S.H. 2017. Pesticide exposure and health problems among female horticulture workers in Tanzania. Environmental Health Insights, 11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178630217715237
102. Mudege, N.N., Mdege, N., Abidin, P.E. & Bhatasara, S. 2017. The role of gender norms in access to agricultural training in Chikwawa and Phalombe, Malawi. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(12): 1689–1710. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1383363
103. Huyer, S., Gumucio, T., Tavenner, K., Acosta, M., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Mungai, C. et al. 2021. From vulnerability to agency in climate adaptation and mitigation. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 261–294. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
104. Lamontagne-Godwin, J., Williams, F.E., Aslam, N., Cardey, S., Dorward, P. & Almas, M. 2018. Gender differences in use and preferences of agricultural information sources in Pakistan. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 24(5): 419–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2018.1491870
105. Kosec, K. & Wantchekon, L. 2020. Can information improve rural governance and service delivery? World Development, 125: 104376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.017
106. Malapit, H., Heckert, J., Scott, J., Padmaja, R. & Quisumbing, A. 2021. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture for gender equality. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 189–218. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
107. Ingutia, R. & Sumelius, J. 2022. Determinants of food security status with reference to women farmers in rural Kenya. Scientific African, 15: e01114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01114
108. Magnan, N., Spielman, D.J., Lybbert, T.J. & Gulati, K. 2015. Leveling with friends: Social networks and Indian farmers’ demand for a technology with heterogeneous benefits. Journal of Development Economics, 116: 223–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.05.003
109. Po, J.Y.T. & Hickey, G.M. 2020. Cross-scale relationships between social capital and women’s participation in decision-making on the farm: A multilevel study in semi-arid Kenya. Journal of Rural Studies, 78: 333–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.04.024
110. Raghunathan, K., Kannan, S. & Quisumbing, A.R. 2019. Can women’s self-help groups improve access to information, decision-making, and agricultural practices? The Indian case. Agricultural Economics, 50(5): 567–580. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12510
111. Coleman, E.A. & Mwangi. E. 2013. Women’s participation in forest management: A cross-country analysis. Global Environmental Change, 23: 193–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.10.005
112. Beaman, L. & Dillon, A. 2018. Diffusion of agricultural information within social networks: Evidence on gender inequalities from Mali. Journal of Development Economics, 133: 147–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.01.009
113. Meinzen-Dick, R., Behrman, J.A., Pandolfelli, L., Peterman, A. & Quisumbing, A.R. 2014. Gender and social capital for agricultural development. In: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman & A. Peterman, eds. Gender in agriculture: Closing the knowledge gap, pp. 235–266. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_10
114. Brulé, R. & Gaikwad, N. 2021. Culture, capital, and the political economy gender gap: Evidence from Meghalaya’s matrilineal tribes. The Journal of Politics, 83(3): 834–850. https://doi.org/10.1086/711176
115. Cheema, A., Khan, S., Liaqat, A. & Mohmand, S.K. 2022. Canvassing the gatekeepers: A field experiment to increase women voters’ turnout in Pakistan. American Political Science Review, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422000375
116. Robinson, A.L. & Gottlieb, J. 2021. How to close the gender gap in political participation: Lessons from matrilineal societies in Africa. British Journal of Political Science, 51(1): 68–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123418000650
117. Preece, J.R. 2016. Mind the gender gap: An experiment on the influence of self-efficacy on political interest. Politics & Gender, 12(1): 198–217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X15000628
118. Kaaria, S., Osorio, M., Wagner, S., Gallina, A., Kaaria, S., Osorio, M., Wagner, S. & Gallina, A. 2016. Rural women’s participation in producer organizations: An analysis of the barriers that women face and strategies to foster equitable and effective participation. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 1(2): 148–167.
119. Kosec, K., Bleck, J. & Gottlieb, J. 2022. FR2.3: Women’s voices in civil society organizations: Evidence from a civil society mapping project in Mali. Presented at the CGIAR GENDER Science Exchange, Nairobi, 12–14 October 2022. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/125611
120. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2014. Science, Technology and Industry Outlook. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/sti_outlook-2014-en
121. Winther, T., Matinga, M.N, Ulsrud, K. & Standal, K. 2017. Women’s empowerment through electricity access: scoping study and proposal for a framework of analysis. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 9(3): 389–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2017.1343368
122. Pueyo, A. & Maestre, M. 2019. Linking energy access, gender and poverty: A review of the literature on productive uses of energy. Energy Research & Social Science, 53: 170–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.02.019
123. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). 2022. Measuring Digital Development: Facts and figures 2022. Geneva, Switzerland. https://tinyurl.com/2yexx6wy
124. ITU. 2011. The world in 2011: ICT facts and figures. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/facts/2011/material/ICTFactsFigures2011.pdf
125. ITU estimates are based on the number of individuals using the internet in the last 3 months. This includes people using the internet on a non-mobile device (e.g. fixed connection) or on a shared device that they do not own. It also includes people using the internet on a friend’s or relative’s devices.
126. International Telecommunication Union. 2023. Measuring digital development: Facts and figures: Focus on Least Developed Countries. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/facts-figures-for-LDC/
127. Defined as a person having sole or main use of a SIM card (or a mobile phone that does not require a SIM), and using it at least once a month.
128. Global System for Mobile Communications Association. 2022. The Mobile Gender Gap Report 2022. London. https://tinyurl.com/3vc6jn3e
129. Global System for Mobile Communications Association has kindly shared the data with FAO. A nationally representative sample of the adult population aged 18 and over was surveyed. A minimum of 1 000 interviews were conducted in each country, with 2 000 interviews undertaken in India.
130. Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Singer, D. & Ansar, S. 2021. Global Findex Database 2021: Financial inclusion, digital payments, and resilience in the age of COVID-19. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex
131. Gammage, S., Kes, A., Winograd, L., Sultana, N., Hiller, S. & Bourgault, S. 2017. Gender and digital financial inclusion: What do we know and what do we need to know? Washington, DC, International Center for Research on Women.
132. Ambler, K., De Brauw, A. & Godlonton, S. 2018. Agriculture support services in Malawi: Direct effects, complementarities, and time dynamics. IFPRI Discussion Paper No. 1725. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
133. Villasenor, J.D., West, D.M. & Lewis, R.J. 2016. The 2016 Brookings Financial and Digital Inclusion Project Report. Advancing Equitable Financial Ecosystems. Wasington, DC, Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings.
134. Akter, S., Krupnik, T.J., Rossi, F. & Khanam, F. 2016. The influence of gender and product design on farmers’ preferences for weather-indexed crop insurance. Global Environmental Change, 38: 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.03.010
135. Bageant, E.R. & Barrett, C.B. 2017. Are There gender differences in demand for index-based livestock insurance? The Journal of Development Studies, 53(6): 932–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1214717
136. Delavallade, C., Dizon, F., Hill, R.V. & Petraud, J.P. 2015. Managing risk with insurance and savings: Experimental evidence for male and female farm managers in West Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1426. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/129071
137. Arnold, J., El-Zoghbi, M. & Kessler, A. 2019. Normative constraints to women’s financial inclusion: What we know and what we need to know. Center for Financial Inclusion. https://tinyurl.com/2c4goywt
138. Kim, K. 2022. Assessing the impact of mobile money on improving the financial inclusion of Nairobi women. Journal of Gender Studies, 31(3): 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2021.1884536
139. Suri, T. & Jack, W. 2016. The long-run poverty and gender impacts of mobile money. Science, 354(6317): 1288–1292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah5309
140. Wandibba, S., Nangendo, S.M. & Mulemi, B.A. 2014. Gender empowerment and access to financial services in Machakos county, eastern Kenya. Irvine, CA, USA, Institute for Money, Technology and Financial Inclusion.
141. Dorfleitner, G. & Nguyen, Q.A. 2022. Mobile money for women’s economic empowerment: The mediating role of financial management practices. Review of Managerial Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-022-00564-2
142. Holmes, R. & Jones, N. 2013. Gender and social protection in the developing world: Beyond mothers and safety nets. London, the United Kingdom, Bloomsbury Publishing.
143. Beegle, K., Coudouel, A. & Monsalve, E. 2018. Realizing the full potential of social safety nets in Africa. Africa Development Forum series. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1164-7
144. Davis, B., Handa, S., Hypher, N., Rossi, N.W., Winters, P. & Yablonski, J. 2016. From evidence to action: The story of cash transfers and impact evaluation in sub Saharan Africa. Oxford University Press.
145. Jones, N. 2021. Gender and social protection. In: E. Schüring & M. Loewe, eds. Handbook on social protection systems. Elgar Handbooks in Social Policy and Welfare. Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839109119
146. International Labour Organization. 2021. World Social Protection Report 2020–22: Social protection at the crossroads – in pursuit of a better future. Geneva, Switzerland.
147. FAO. 2022. Improving social protection for rural populations in Europe and Central Asia – Priorities for FAO. Budapest, Hungary. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1925en
148. FAO. 2018. FAO Technical Guide 1 – Introduction to gender-sensitive social protection programming to combat rural poverty: Why is it important and what does it mean? Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/CA2026EN/ca2026en.pdf
149. Peterman, A., Kumar, N., Pereira, A. & Gilligan, D.O. 2019. Towards gender equality: A review of evidence on social safety nets in Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1903. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133551
150. Bonilla, J., Zarzur, R.C., Handa, S., Nowlin, C., Peterman, A., Ring, H., Seidenfeld, D. & Zambia Child Grant Program Evaluation Team. 2017. Cash for women’s empowerment? A mixed-methods evaluation of the Government of Zambia’s child grant program. World Development, 95: 55–72.
151. de la O Campos, A.P. 2015. Empowering rural women through social protection. Rural Transformations – Technical Papers Series #2. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i4696e/i4696e.pdf
152. FAO. 2018. FAO Technical Guide 2 – Integrating gender into the design of cash transfer and public works programme. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/ca2038en/CA2038EN.pdf
153. Akresh, R., De Walque, D. & Kazianga, H. 2016. Evidence from a randomized evaluation of the household welfare impacts of conditional and unconditional cash transfers given to mothers or fathers. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 7730. Washington, DC, World Bank.
154. Banerjee, A., Hanna, R., Olken, B.A. & Sverdlin-Lisker, D. 2022. Social protection in the developing world. Working paper. https://tinyurl.com/2cz424hf
155. Benhassine, N., Devoto, F., Duflo, E., Dupas, P. & Pouliquen, V. 2015. Turning a shove into a nudge? A” labeled cash transfer” for education. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7(3): 86–125.
156. Haushofer, J. & Shapiro, J. 2016. The short-term impact of unconditional cash transfers to the poor: Experimental evidence from Kenya. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(4): 1973–2042. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjw025
157. Handa, S., Peterman, A., Davis, B. & Stampini, M. 2009. Opening up Pandora’s box: The effect of gender targeting and conditionality on household spending behavior in Mexico’s Progresa program. World Development, 37(6): 1129–1142.
158. Camilletti, E. 2021. Social protection and its effects on gender equality: A literature review. Innocenti Working Papers. Florence, Italy, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. https://www.un-ilibrary.org/content/papers/10.18356/25206796-2020-16
159. Yoong, J., Rabinovich, L. & Diepeveen, S. 2012. The impact of economic resource transfers to women versus men: A systematic review. Technical Report. London, the United Kingdom, EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.
160. Jenson, J. 2009. Lost in translation: The social investment perspective and gender equality. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 16(4): 446–483. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxp019
161. Peterman, A., Kumar, N., Pereira, A. & Gilligan, D.O. 2019. Towards gender equality: A review of evidence on social safety nets in Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1903. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133551
162. Soares, F.V. & Silva, E. 2010. Conditional cash transfer programmes and gender vulnerabilities in Latin America: Case studies from Brazil, Chile and Colombia. London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute.
163. Klugman, J., Kellison, E. & Ortiz, E. 2021. Mobile phone technologies as an opportunity for women’s financial inclusion: What does the evidence say? In: E. Lechman, ed. Technology and women’s empowerment. Abingdon, UK, Taylor & Francis.
164. Andrews, C., de Montesquiou, A., Sánchez, I.A., Dutta, P.V., Samaranayake, S., Heisey, J., Clay, T. & Chaudhary, S. 2021. The State of Economic Inclusion Report 2021: The potential to scale. Washington, DC, World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/34917
165. Carter, B., Roelen, K., Enfield, S. & Avis, W. 2019. Social protection topic guide, revised edition. K4D Emerging Issues Report. Brighton, the United Kingdom, Institute of Development Studies.
166. Chang, W., Diaz-Martin, L., Gopalan, A., Guarnieri, E., Jayachandran, S. & Walsh, C. 2020. What works to enhance women’s agency: Cross-cutting lessons from experimental and quasi-experimental studies. J-PAL Working Paper
167. Bossuroy, T., Goldstein, M., Karimou, B., Karlan, D., Kazianga, H., Parienté, W., Premand, P. et al. 2022. Tackling psychosocial and capital constraints to alleviate poverty. Nature, 605: 291–297. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04647-8
168. Karimli, L., Bose, B. & Kagotho, N. 2020. Integrated graduation program and its effect on women and household economic well-being: Findings from a randomised controlled trial in Burkina Faso. The Journal of Development Studies, 56(7): 1277–1294. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1677887
169. Bedoya, G., Coville, A., Haushofer, J., Isaqzadeh, M. & Shapiro, J.P. 2019. No household left behind: Afghanistan targeting the ultra poor impact evaluation. Policy Research Working Paper No. WPS 8877. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/2xzglljn
Chapter 4
1. McDougall, C., Badstue, L., Mulema, A., Fischer, G., Najjar, D., Pyburn, R., Elias, M., Joshi, D. & Vos, A. 2021. Toward structural change: Gender transformative approaches. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 365–401. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_10
2. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
3. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Myers, E., Seymour, G. & Twyman, J. 2023. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
4. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
5. Elias, M., Cole, S., Quisumbing, A., Paez Valencia, A.M., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Twyman, J. 2021. Assessing women’s empowerment in agricultural research. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 329–364. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
6. Doss, C. 2013. Intrahousehold bargaining and resource allocation in developing countries. The World Bank Research Observer, 28(1): 52–78.
7. Peterman, A., Schwab, B., Roy, S., Hidrobo, M. & Gilligan, D.O. 2021. Measuring women’s decisionmaking: Indicator choice and survey design experiments from cash and food transfer evaluations in Ecuador, Uganda and Yemen. World Development, 141: 105387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105387
8. Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. & Vaz, A. 2013. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. World Development, 52: 71–91.
9. Quisumbing, A., Meinzen-Dick, R., Malapit, H., Seymour, G., Heckert, J., Doss, C., Johnson, N. et al. 2022. Can agricultural development projects empower women? A synthesis of mixed methods evaluations using pro-WEAI in the gender, agriculture, and assets project (phase 2) portfolio. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2137. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136405
10. Quisumbing, A., Gerli, B., Faas, S., Heckert, J., Malapit, H.J., McCarron, C., Meinzen-Dick, R.S. & Paz, F. 2022. Does the UN Joint Program for Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment (JP RWEE) deliver on its empowerment objectives? IFPRI Discussion Paper 2131. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136302
11. Baltenweck, I., Achandi, E., Bullock, R., Campbell, Z., Crane, T., Eldermire, E., Gichuki, L. et al. 2021. What can we learn from the literature about livestock interventions and women’s empowerment? ILRI Research Brief 105. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/117227
12. Galiè, A. & Kantor, P. 2016. From gender analysis to transforming gender norms: Using empowerment pathways to enhance gender equity and food security in Tanzania. In: J. Njuki, J. Parkins & A. Kaler, eds. Transforming gender and food security in the global south, pp. 213–240. Abingdon, UK Routledge.
13. Jumba, H., Kiara, H., Owuor, G. & Teufel, N. 2020. Are there gender differences in access to and demand for East Coast fever vaccine? Empirical evidence from rural smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, 121(2): 219–231. https://doi.org/10.17170/KOBRA-202010191970
14. Myers, E., Heckert, J., Faas, S., Quisumbing, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Raghunathan, K. 2022. Is women’s empowerment bearing fruit? Mapping Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) results to the Gender and Food Systems Framework. Presented at the CGIAR GENDER Science Exchange, Nairobi, 12-14 October 2022. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
15. Malapit, H. & Quisumbing, A. 2015. What dimensions of women’s empowerment in agriculture matter for nutrition in Ghana? Food Policy, 52: 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.02.003
16. The only exception was for girls aged 6-23 months in Ghana, where increased empowerment score, number of agricultural productive decisions and household gender parity were associated with less diverse diets.
17. Malapit, H., Kadiyala, S., Quisumbing, A., Cunningham, K. & Tyagi, P. 2015. Women’s empowerment mitigates the negative effects of low production diversity on maternal and child nutrition in Nepal. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(8): 1097–1123. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1018904
18. Sraboni, E. & Quisumbing, A. 2018. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and dietary quality across the life course: Evidence from Bangladesh. Food Policy, 81: 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.09.001
19. We do not include estimates of micronutrient or calorie intake in the annex tables although these are assessed in Sraboni & Quisumbing (2018).
20. Quisumbing, A., Sproule, K., Martinez, E.M. & Malapit, H. 2021. Do tradeoffs among dimensions of women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes exist? Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia. Food Policy, 100: 102001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.102001
21. Quisumbing, A., Sproule, K., Martinez, E.M. & Malapit, H. 2021. Do tradeoffs among dimensions of women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes exist? Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia. Food Policy, 100: 102001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.102001
22. These results should be interpreted with caution as a higher body mass index does not always indicate better nutrition.
23. Bonis-Profumo, G., Stacey, N. & Brimblecombe, J. 2021. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture, food production, and child and maternal dietary diversity in Timor-Leste. Food Policy, 102: 102102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102102
24. Kassie, M., Fisher, M., Muricho, G. & Diiro, G. 2020. Women’s empowerment boosts the gains in dietary diversity from agricultural technology adoption in rural Kenya. Food Policy, 95: 101957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101957
25. Onah, M.N., Horton, S. & Hoddinott, J. 2021. What empowerment indicators are important for food consumption for women? Evidence from 5 sub-Sahara African countries. PLOS ONE, 16(4): e0250014. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250014
26. Harris-Fry, H., Nur, H., Shankar, B., Zanello, G., Srinivasan, C. & Kadiyala, S. 2020. The impact of gender equity in agriculture on nutritional status, diets, and household food security: A mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 5(3): e002173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002173
27. Sraboni, E., Malapit, H., Quisumbing, A. & Ahmed, A.U. 2014. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: What role for food security in Bangladesh? World Development, 61: 11–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.025
28. Holland, C. & Rammohan, A. 2019. Rural women’s empowerment and children’s food and nutrition security in Bangladesh. World Development, 124: 104648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104648
29. Murugani, V.G. & Thamaga-Chitja, J.M. 2019. How does women’s empowerment in agriculture affect household food security and dietary diversity? The case of rural irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Agrekon, 58(3): 308–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.1610976
30. Clement, F., Buisson, M.-C., Leder, S., Balasubramanya, S., Saikia, P., Bastakoti, R., Karki, E. & van Koppen, B. 2019. From women’s empowerment to food security: Revisiting global discourses through a cross-country analysis. Global Food Security, 23: 160–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.05.003
31. Seymour, G., Masuda, Y.J., Williams, J. & Schneider, K. 2019. Household and child nutrition outcomes among the time and income poor in rural Bangladesh. Global Food Security, 20: 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.004
32. Anik, A.R. & Rahman, S. 2021. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: Level, inequality, progress, and impact on productivity and efficiency. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(6): 930–948. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1817393
33. Diiro, G.M., Seymour, G., Kassie, M., Muricho, G. & Muriithi, B.W. 2018. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural maize farmer households in western Kenya. PLOS ONE, 13(5): e0197995. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197995
34. Wouterse, F. 2019. The role of empowerment in agricultural production: Evidence from rural households in Niger. The Journal of Development Studies, 55(4): 565–580. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2017.1408797
35. De Pinto, A., Seymour, G., Bryan, E. & Bhandari, P. 2020. Women’s empowerment and farmland allocations in Bangladesh: Evidence of a possible pathway to crop diversification. Climatic Change, 163(2): 1025–1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02925-w
36. Seymour, G. 2017. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: Implications for technical efficiency in rural Bangladesh. Agricultural Economics, 48(4): 513–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12352
37. Hossain, M., Asadullah, M.N. & Kambhampati, U. 2019. Empowerment and life satisfaction: Evidence from Bangladesh. World Development, 122: 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.013
38. Malapit, H., Sraboni, E., Quisumbing, A.R. & Ahmed, A.U. 2019. Intrahousehold empowerment gaps in agriculture and children’s well-being in Bangladesh. Development Policy Review, 37(2): 176–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12374
39. Leight, J., Pedehombga, A., Ganaba, R. & Gelli, A. 2022. Women’s empowerment, maternal depression, and stress: Evidence from rural Burkina Faso. SSM – Mental Health, 2: 100160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100160
40. Scott, S., Arrieta, A., Kumar, N., Menon, P. & Quisumbing, A. 2020. Multidimensional predictors of common mental disorders among Indian mothers of 6- to 24-month-old children living in disadvantaged rural villages with women’s self-help groups: A cross-sectional analysis. PLOS ONE, 15(6), e0233418. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233418
41. Fielding, D. & Lepine, A. 2017. Women’s empowerment and wellbeing: Evidence from Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 53(6): 826–840. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1219345
42. Pyburn, R. & van Eerdewijk, A. 2021. CGIAR research through an equality and empowerment lens. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 1–75. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_01
43. Doss, C. & Meinzen-Dick, R. 2020. Land tenure security for women: A conceptual framework. Land Use Policy, 99: 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105080
44. Lecoutere, E., Achandi, E.L., Ampaire, E., Fischer, G., Gumucio, T., Najjar, D. & Singaraju, N. 2022. Fostering an enabling environment for equality and empowerment in agri-food systems. Presented at the CGIAR GENDER Science Exchange, Nairobi, 12–14 October 2022. Nairobi, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/125615
45. Farnworth, C.R., Badstue, L., Williams, G.J., Tegbaru, A. & Gaya, H.I.M. 2020. Unequal partners: Associations between power, agency and benefits among women and men maize farmers in Nigeria. Gender, Technology and Development, 24(3): 271–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2020.1794607
46. Leon-Himmelstine, C., Phiona, S., Löwe, A., Plank, G. & Vu, N. 2021. Young women in the agricultural sector in Uganda. Lessons from the Youth Forward Initiative. Report. London, the United Kingdom, ODI.
47. Petesch, P. & Badstue, L. 2020. Gender norms and poverty dynamics in 32 villages of South Asia. International Journal of Community Well-Being, 3(3): 289–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-019-00047-5
48. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2019. SIGI 2019 Global Report: Transforming challenges into opportunities. Social Institutions and Gender Index. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/bc56d212-en
49. Girls Not Brides & ICRW (International Centre for Research on Women). 2016. Taking action to address child marriage: the role of different sectors - Food Security and Nutrition. Girls Not Brides Briefing Series, Brief #6.
50. Bryant, L. & Garnham, B. 2015. The fallen hero: Masculinity, shame and farmer suicide in Australia. Gender, Place & Culture, 22(1): 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2013.855628
51. Khan, A.R., Ratele, K., Helman, R., Dlamini, S. & Makama, R. 2022. Masculinity and suicide in Bangladesh. OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying, 86(1): 218–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222820966239
52. Ragonese, C., Shand, T. & Barker, G. 2019. Masculine norms and men’s health: Making the connections. Washington, DC, USA, Promundo-US.
53. WHO (World Health Organization). 2014. Gender, climate change and health. Geneva, Switzerland. https://tinyurl.com/2dao9je9
54. Bergman Lodin, J., Tegbaru, A., Bullock, R., Degrande, A., Nkengla, L.W. & Gaya, H.I. 2019. Gendered mobilities and immobilities: Women’s and men’s capacities for agricultural innovation in Kenya and Nigeria. Gender, Place & Culture, 26(12): 1759–1783. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1618794
55. Locke, C., Muljono, P., McDougall, C. & Morgan, M. 2017. Innovation and gendered negotiations: Insights from six small–scale fishing communities. Fish and Fisheries, 18(5): 943–957.
56. Boudet, A.M.M., Petesch, P. & Turk, C. 2013. On norms and agency: Conversations about gender equality with women and men in 20 countries. Directions in Development: Human Development. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-9862-3
57. Badstue, L., Elias, M., Kommerell, V., Petesch, P., Prain, G., Pyburn, R. & Umantseva, A. 2020. Making room for manoeuvre: Addressing gender norms to strengthen the enabling environment for agricultural innovation. Development in Practice, 30(4): 541–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2020.1757624
58. Fischer, G., Wittich, S., Malima, G., Sikumba, G., Lukuyu, B., Ngunga, D. & Rugalabam, J. 2018. Gender and mechanization: Exploring the sustainability of mechanized forage chopping in Tanzania. Journal of Rural Studies, 64: 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.09.012
59. Inglehart, R., C. Haerpfer, A. Moreno, C. Welzel, K. Kizilova, J. Diez-Medrano, M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin & B. Puranen et al. (eds.). 2018. World Values Survey: Round Six - Country-Pooled Datafile. Madrid, Spain & Vienna, Austria: JD Systems Institute & WVSA Secretariat. doi.org/10.14281/18241.8
60. Haerpfer, C., Inglehart, R., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano J., M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin & B. Puranen et al. (eds.). 2020. World Values Survey: Round Seven – Country-Pooled Datafile. Madrid, Spain & Vienna, Austria: JD Systems Institute & WVSA Secretariat. doi.org/10.14281/18241.1
61. Lecoutere, E., Achandi, E.L., Ampaire, E., Fischer, G., Gumucio, T., Najjar, D. & Singaraju, N. 2022. Fostering an enabling environment for equality and empowerment in agri-food systems. Background paper for the Report on the Status of Rural Women in Agri-Food Systems: 10 Years after the SOFA 2010-11 of FAO. Nairobi, Kenya: CGIAR GENDER Platform.
62. Afrobarometer Data. 2016-17. [Multiple countries; 2016-17] available at http://www.afrobarometer.org.
63. Mkandawire, E., Mentz-Coetzee, M., Mangheni, M.N. & Barusi, E. 2021. Enhancing the Glopan food systems framework by integrating gender: Relevance for women in African agriculture. Sustainability, 13(15): 8564. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158564
64. Wang, J., Ding, X., Gao, H. & Fan, S. 2022. Reshaping food policy and governance to incentivize and empower disadvantaged groups for improving nutrition. Nutrients, 14(3): 648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030648
65. Ampaire, E., Acosta, M., Kigonya, R., Kyomugisha, S., Muchunguzi, P. & Jassogne, L.T. 2016. Gender responsive policy formulation and budgeting in Tanzania: Do plans and budgets match? CCAFS Info Note. Copenhagen, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/78606
66. Aura, R., Nyasimi, M., Cramer, L. & Thornton, P.K. 2017. Gender review of climate change legislative and policy frameworks and strategies in East Africa. CCAFS Working Paper No. 209. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
67. Gumucio, T. & Tafur Rueda, M. 2015. Influencing gender-inclusive climate change policies in Latin America. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 1(2): 41–60. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.246049
68. World Bank. 2022. Women, Business and the Law Panel Data [2012-2022]. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. https://wbl.worldbank.org
69. The index covers mobility, workplace, pay, marriage, parenthood, entrepreneurship, assets and pensions.
70. In addition to legislation forbidding gender discrimination, temporary special measures give preference to women until de facto gender equality has been achieved. (Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Rome, FAO). Assessing the impact of such temporary special measures on gender equality has not been done systematically, but such measures are a promising tool for redressing long-standing discrimination and exclusion of women. Repositories such as GenderLex, a soon-to-be-launched subset of FAO’s FAOLEX (https://www.fao.org/faolex/en/), can facilitate such systematic assessments. GenderLex contains close to 500 measures extracted from 1 500 legal and documents that provide for temporary special measures in the field of food, agriculture and natural resource management, covering all countries and regions in the world.
71. Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Rome, FAO.
72. FAO. 2016. The Gender in Agricultural Policies Analysis Tool (GAPo). Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i6274en/i6274en.pdf
73. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2021. Gender and national climate planning: Gender integration in the revised Nationally Determined Contributions. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49860
74. Ampaire, E., Acosta, M., Huyer, S., Kigonya, R., Muchunguzi, P., Muna, R. & Jassogne, L. 2020. Gender in climate change, agriculture, and natural resource policies: Insights from East Africa. Climatic Change, 158: 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02447-0
75. Howland, F., Acosta, M., Muriel, J. & Le Coq, J.-F. 2021. Examining the barriers to gender integration in agriculture, climate change, food security, and nutrition policies: Guatemalan and Honduran perspectives. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.664253
76. Paudyal, B.R., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Sherpa, L., Kadariya, I. & Aggarwal, P. 2019. Gender integration in climate change and agricultural policies: The case of Nepal. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00066
77. Alston, M. 2021. Gender and disasters. In: T. Väyrynen, S. Parashar, É. Féron & C.C. Confortini, eds. Routledge handbook of feminist peace research, pp. 343–353. Abingdon, UK, Routledge.
78. Huyer, S., Acosta, M., Gumucio, T. & Ilham, J.I.J. 2020. Can we turn the tide? Confronting gender inequality in climate policy. Gender & Development, 28(3): 571–591. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2020.1836817
79. Huyer, S., Gumucio, T., Tavenner, K., Acosta, M., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Mungai, C. et al. 2021. From vulnerability to agency in climate adaptation and mitigation. In R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 261–294. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
80. Huyer, S. & Partey, S. 2020. Weathering the storm or storming the norms? Moving gender equality forward in climate-resilient agriculture: Introduction to the Special Issue on Gender Equality in Climate-Smart Agriculture: Approaches and Opportunities. Climatic Change, 158(1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02612-5
81. Acosta, M., van Bommel, S., van Wessel, M., Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. & Feindt, P.H. 2019. Discursive translations of gender mainstreaming norms: The case of agricultural and climate change policies in Uganda. Women’s Studies International Forum, 74: 9–19.
82. Dlamini, C. & Samboko, P. 2016. Towards gender mainstreaming in agricuture, natural resources management and climate change programmes in Zambia. Working Paper No. 108. Lusaka, Zambia, Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute. http://www.iapri.org.zm/images/WorkingPapers/wp108_rev.pdf
83. Bryan, E., Bernier, Q., Espinal, M. & Ringler, C. 2018. Making climate change adaptation programmes in sub-Saharan Africa more gender responsive: Insights from implementing organizations on the barriers and opportunities. Climate and Development, 10(5): 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2017.1301870
84. Ragasa, C., Sun, Y., Bryan, E., Abate, C., Atlaw, A. & Keita, M.N. 2013. Organizational and institutional issues in climate change adaptation and risk management: Insights from practitioners’ survey in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Mali. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1279. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/127758
85. Acosta, M., Wessel, M. van, Bommel, S. van, Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. & Feindt, P.H. 2020. The power of narratives: Explaining inaction on gender mainstreaming in Uganda’s climate change policy. Development Policy Review, 38(5): 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12458
86. Mersha, A.A. & van Laerhoven, F. 2019. Gender and climate policy: A discursive institutional analysis of Ethiopia’s climate resilient strategy. Regional Environmental Change, 19(2): 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1413-8
87. Mavisakalyan, A. & Tarverdi, Y. 2019. Gender and climate change: Do female parliamentarians make difference? European Journal of Political Economy, 56: 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.001
88. EIGE (European Institute for Gender Equality). 2021. Decision-making in environment and climate change: Women woefully under-represented in the EU Member States. In: Gender Statistics Database. Vilnius, EIGE. Cited 7 February 2023. https://tinyurl.com/22wdmugf
89. Pearse, R. 2017. Gender and climate change. WIREs Climate Change, 8(2): e451. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.451
90. Picard, M. 2021. Empowering women in climate, environment and disaster risk governance: From national policy to local action. EGM/ENV/BP.1. Background paper prepared for the UN Women Expert Group Meeting “Achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls in the context of climate change, environmental and disaster risk reduction policies and programmes,” 11 – 14 October 2021. New York, NY, USA, UN Women. https://tinyurl.com/24gkse79
91. WEDO (Women’s Environment & Development Organization). 2022. Women’s participation in the UNFCCC: 2022 report. Brooklyn, NY, USA, WEDO. https://tinyurl.com/2799vgn3
92. Resurrección, B.P. 2013. Persistent women and environment linkages in climate change and sustainable development agendas. Women’s Studies International Forum, 40: 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.03.011
Chapter 5
1. Quisumbing, A., Meinzen-Dick, R., Behrman, J. & Basset, L. 2011. Gender and the global food-price crisis. Development in Practice, 21(4–5): 488–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2011.561283
2. FAO. 2021. The State of Food and Agriculture 2021: Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4476en
3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2022. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844
4. Sultana, F. 2021. Climate change, COVID-19, and the co-production of injustices: A feminist reading of overlapping crises. Social & Cultural Geography, 22(4): 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2021.1910994
5. Koo, J., Azzarri, C., Mishra, A., Lecoutere, E., Puskur, R., Chanana, N., Singaraju, N., Nico, G. & Khatri-Chhetri, A. 2022. Effectively targeting climate investments: A methodology for mapping climate–agriculture–gender inequality hotspots. Working Paper. CGIAR GENDER Platform. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/119602
6. Hallegatte, S., Fay, M. & Barbier. E.M. 2018. Poverty and climate change: Introduction. Environment and Development Economics, 23(3): 217–233.
7. Dennig F., Budolfson, M.B., Fleurbaey, M., Siebert, A. & Socolow, R.H. 2015. Inequality, climate impacts on the future poor, and carbon prices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112: 15827–15832.
8. Olsson, L., Opondo, M., Tschakert, P., Agrawal, A., Eriksen, S.H., Ma, S., Perch, L.N. & Zakieldeen, S.A. 2014. Livelihoods and poverty. In: C.B. Field, V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee et al., eds. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 793–832. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
9. Koubi, V. 2019. Climate change and conflict. Annual Review of Political Science, 22: 343–360.
10. Sharifi, A., Simangan, D., Lee, C.Y., Reyes, S.R., Katramiz, T., Josol, J.C., Dos Muchangos, L. et al. 2021. Climate-induced stressors to peace: A review of recent literature. Environmental Research Letters, 16 (7): 073006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfc08
11. Thomas, D., Beegle, K. & Frankenberg, E. 2000. Labor market transitions of men and women during an economic crisis: Evidence from Indonesia. Santa Monica, CA, USA, RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/drafts/DRU2344.html
12. The study analyses data on Argentina, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Türkiye. Agriculture employment increased in all countries except Malaysia and Mexico.
13. Sabarwal, S., Sinha, N. & Buvinic, M. 2013. How do women weather economic shocks? A review of the evidence. Policy Research Working Papers. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5496
14. Fallon, P.R. & Lucas, R.E. 2002. The impact of financial crises on labor markets, household incomes, and poverty: A review of evidence. Washington, DC, World Bank.
15. The estimates are based on the same data on women’s and men’s employment in agrifood systems as presented in Chapter 2.
16. McDermott, J. & Swinnen, J. 2022. COVID-19 and global food security: Two years later. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896294226
17. Ceballos, F., Kannan, S. & Kramer, B. 2020. Impacts of a national lockdown on smallholder farmers’ income and food security: Empirical evidence from two states in India. World Development, 136: 105069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105069
18. Data for 2021 was not available for all countries when this report was written, hence data up to 2020 are used.
19. Flor, L.S., Friedman, J., Spencer, C.N., Cagney, J., Arrieta, A., Herbert, M.E., Stein, C. et al. 2022. Quantifying the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender equality on health, social, and economic indicators: A comprehensive review of data from March, 2020, to September, 2021. The Lancet, 399 (10344): 2381–2397. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00008-3
20. International Labour Organization. 2021. Building forward fairer: Women’s rights to work and at work at the core of the COVID-19 recovery. ILO Policy Brief. Geneva, Switzerland.
21. Bundervoet, T., Dávalos, M.E. & Garcia, N. 2022. The short-term impacts of COVID-19 on households in developing countries: An overview based on a harmonized dataset of high-frequency surveys. World Development, 153: 105844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105844
22. Bargain, O. & Aminjonov, U. 2021. Poverty and COVID-19 in Africa and Latin America. World Development, 142: 105422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105422
23. Han, J., Meyer, B.D. & Sullivan, J.X. 2020. Income and poverty in the COVID-19 pandemic. Working Paper No. 27729. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w27729
24. Headey, D.D., Oo, T.Z., Mahrt, K., Diao, X., Goudet, S. & Lambrecht, I. 2020. Poverty, food insecurity, and social protection during COVID-19 in Myanmar: Combined evidence from a household telephone survey and micro-simulations. Strategy Support Program Policy Note 35. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134144
25. UN Women. 2021. Measuring the shadow pandemic: Violence against women during COVID-19. New York, NY, USA.
26. FAO. 2022. The COVID-19 consequences on child labour in agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2136en
27. Dessy, S., Gninafon, H., Tiberti, L. & Tiberti, M. 2021. COVID-19 and children’s school resilience: Evidence from Nigeria. GLO Discussion Paper No. 952. Essen, Germany, Global Labor Organization. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/243100
28. High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition. 2020. Impacts of COVID-19 on food security and nutrition: Developing effective policy responses to address the hunger and malnutrition pandemic. HLPE Issues Paper. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb1000en/cb1000en.pdf
29. Doss, C., Njuki, J. & Mika, H. 2020. The potential intersections of Covid-19, gender and food security in Africa. Agri-Gender – Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 5(1): 41–48. https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.512020.4
30. Kumar, N. & Quisumbing, A.R. 2013. Gendered impacts of the 2007–2008 food price crisis: Evidence using panel data from rural Ethiopia. Food Policy, 38: 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.10.002
31. CARE. 2020. Gender implications of COVID-19 outbreaks in development and humanitarian settings. Geneva, Switzerland, CARE International.
32. Inter Agency Standing Committee. 2020. Interim guidance: Gender alert for COVID-19 outbreak. Geneva, Switzerland.
33. Andrews, S.K., Gabat, J., Jolink, G. & Klugman, J. 2021. Responding to rising intimate partner violence amid COVID-19—A rapid global review. DLA Piper/New Perimeter. Washington, DC, Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.
34. Peterman, A., Potts, A., O’Donnell, M., Thompson, K., Shah, N., Oertelt-Prigione, S. & Van Gelder, N. 2020. Pandemics and violence against women and children. Working Paper. Vol. 528. Washington, DC, Center for Global Development.
35. FAO. 2020. Gendered impacts of COVID-19 and equitable policy responses in agriculture, food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198en
36. Gavrilovic, M., Rubio, M., Bastagli, F., Hinton, R., Staab, S., Goulder, R.G., Bilo, C. et al. 2022. Gender-responsive social protection post–COVID-19. Science, 375(6585): 1111–1113. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abm5922
37. Campbell, B. 2022. Climate change impacts and adaptation options in the agrifood system: A summary of the recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change sixth Assesment Report. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0425en
38. Bryan, E., Alvi, M., Huyer, S. & Ringler, C. 2023. Addressing Gender Inequalities and Strengthening Women’s Agency for Climate-resilient and Sustainable Food Systems. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129709
39. Huyer, S., Gumucio, T., Tavenner, K., Acosta, M., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Mungai, C. et al. 2021. From vulnerability to agency in climate adaptation and mitigation. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 261–294. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
40. Djoudi, H., Locatelli, B., Vaast, C., Asher, K., Brockhaus, M. & Basnett Sijapati, B. 2016. Beyond dichotomies: Gender and intersecting inequalities in climate change studies. Ambio, 45(S3): 248–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0825-2
41. Andrijevic, M., Crespo Cuaresma, J., Lissner, T., Thomas, A. & Schleussner, C.-F. 2020. Overcoming gender inequality for climate resilient development. Nature Communications, 11(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19856-w
42. Alston, M. 2021. Gender and disasters. In: T. Väyrynen, S. Parashar, É. Féron & C.C. Confortini, eds. Routledge handbook of feminist peace research, pp. 343–353. Abingdon, UK, Routledge.
43. Chanana-Nag, N. & Aggarwal, P.K. 2020. Woman in agriculture, and climate risks: Hotspots for development. Climatic Change, 158(1): 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2233-z
44. Magassa, M., Partey, S., Houessionon, P., Dembele, S., Ouédraogo, M. & Zougmoré, R.B. 2020. Towards gender-informed adaptation planning in the Sudanian zone of Mali: Analysis of climate change vulnerability. CCAFS Working Paper No. 310. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/108325
45. Twyman, J., Acosta, M. & Irigoyen, M. 2022. Gender relations and inequalities in the Amazon: The potential of geospatial systems to address gender inequalities. A study by the SERVIR-Amazonia Program. Cali, Colombia, SERVIR-Amazonia Hub. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/121882
46. Rao, N., Lawson, E.T., Raditloaneng, W.N., Solomon, D. & Angula, M.N. 2019. Gendered vulnerabilities to climate change: Insights from the semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia. Climate and Development, 11(1): 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2017.1372266
47. Nkengla-Asi, L., Babu, S.C., Kirscht, H., Apfelbacher, S., Hanna, R. & Tegbaru, A. 2017. Gender, climate change, and resilient food systems lessons from strategic adaptation by smallholder farmers in Cameroon. IFPRI Discussion Papers 1658. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
48. Grasham, C.F., Korzenevica, M. & Charles, K.J. 2019. On considering climate resilience in urban water security: A review of the vulnerability of the urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa. WIREs Water, 6(3): e1344. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1344
49. Doocy, S., Daniels, A., Murray, S. & Kirsch, T.D. 2013. The human impact of floods: A historical review of events 1980-2009 and systematic literature review. PLoS Currents, 5: ecurrents.dis.f4deb457904936b07c09daa98ee8171a. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644291/
50. Erman, A., De Vries Robbe, S.A., Thies, S.F., Kabir, K. & Maruo, M. 2021. Gender dimensions of disaster risk and resilience: Existing evidence. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35202
51. Neumayer, E. & Plümper, T. 2007. The gendered nature of natural disasters: The impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981–2002. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 97(3): 551–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2007.00563.x
52. Picard, M. 2021. Empowering women in climate, environment and disaster risk governance: From national policy to local action. Background paper prepared for the Expert Group Meeting “Achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls in the context of climate change, environmental and disaster risk reduction policies and programmes”, 11–14 October 2021. EGM/ENV/BP.1. New York, USA, UN Women.
53. Hunter, L.M., Castro, J., Kleiber, D. & Hutchens, K. 2016. Swimming and gendered vulnerabilities: Evidence from the northern and central Philippines. Society & Natural Resources, 29(3): 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2015.1046097
54. MacDonald, R. 2005. How women were affected by the tsunami: A perspective from Oxfam. PLoS Medicine, 2(6): e178. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020178
55. Ikeda, K. 1995. Gender differences in human loss and vulnerability in natural disasters: A case study from Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 2(2):171–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/097152159500200202
56. Sultana, F. 2014. Gendering climate change: Geographical insights. The Professional Geographer, 66(3): 372–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2013.821730
57. Folkerts, M.A., Bröde, P., Botzen, W.J.W., Martinius, M.L., Gerrett, N., Harmsen, C.N. & Daanen, H.A.M. 2022. Sex differences in temperature-related all-cause mortality in the Netherlands. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 95(1): 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-021-01721-y
58. Ellena, M., Ballester, J., Mercogliano, P., Ferracin, E., Barbato, G., Costa, G. & Ingole, V. 2020. Social inequalities in heat-attributable mortality in the city of Turin, northwest of Italy: A time series analysis from 1982 to 2018. Environmental Health, 19(1): 116. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-020-00667-x
59. van Steen, Y., Ntarladima, A.-M., Grobbee, R., Karssenberg, D. & Vaartjes, I. 2019. Sex differences in mortality after heat waves: Are elderly women at higher risk? International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 92(1): 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-018-1360-1
60. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2020. QuickStats: Number of natural heat-related deaths, by sex and age group—National Vital Statistics System, United States, 2018. In: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Atlanta, GA, USA. Cited 16 February 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6930a6.htm
61. van Daalen, K.R., Kallesøe, S.S., Davey, F., Dada, S., Jung, L., Singh, L., Issa, R. et al. 2022. Extreme events and gender-based violence: A mixed-methods systematic review. The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(6): e504–e523. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00088-2
62. Thurston, A.M., Stöckl, H. & Ranganathan, M. 2021. Natural hazards, disasters and violence against women and girls: A global mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 6(4), e004377. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004377
63. Sanz-Barbero, B., Linares, C., Vives-Cases, C., González, J.L., López-Ossorio, J.J. & Díaz, J. 2018. Heat wave and the risk of intimate partner violence. Science of The Total Environment, 644: 413–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.368
64. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ed.). 2014. Annex II: Glossary. In: Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: Part B: Regional aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, pp. 1757–1776. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415386.011
65. Kristjanson, P., Bryan, E., Bernier, Q., Twyman, J., Meinzen-Dick, R., Kieran, C., Ringler, C., Jost, C. & Doss, C. 2017. Addressing gender in agricultural research for development in the face of a changing climate: Where are we and where should we be going? International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(5): 482–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1336411
66. Bryan, E., Kato, E. & Bernier, Q. 2021. Gender differences in awareness and adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices in Bangladesh. In: J. Eastin & K. Dupuy, eds. Gender, climate change and livelihoods: Vulnerabilities and adaptations, pp. 123–142. Wallingford, UK, CABI. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781789247053.0010
67. Ngigi, M.W., Mueller, U. & Birner, R. 2017. Gender differences in climate change adaptation strategies and participation in group-based approaches: An intra-household analysis from rural Kenya. Ecological Economics, 138: 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.03.019
68. Jost, C., Kyazze, F., Naab, J., Neelormi, S., Kinyangi, J., Zougmore, R., Aggarwal, P. et al. 2016. Understanding gender dimensions of agriculture and climate change in smallholder farming communities. Climate and Development, 8(2): 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2015.1050978
69. Murray, U., Gebremedhin, Z., Brychkova, G. & Spillane, C. 2016. Smallholder farmers and climate smart agriculture: Technology and labor-productivity constraints amongst women smallholders in Malawi. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2): 117–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416640639
70. Perez, C., Jones, E., Kristjanson, P., Cramer, L., Thornton, P.K., Förch, W. & Barahona, C. 2015. How resilient are farming households and communities to a changing climate in Africa? A gender-based perspective. Global Environmental Change, 34: 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.06.003
71. Murage, A.W., Pittchar, J.O., Midega, C.A.O., Onyango, C.O. & Khan, Z.R. 2015. Gender specific perceptions and adoption of the climate-smart push–pull technology in eastern Africa. Crop Protection, 76: 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2015.06.014
72. Mutenje, M.J., Farnworth, C.R., Stirling, C., Thierfelder, C., Mupangwa, W. & Nyagumbo, I. 2019. A cost-benefit analysis of climate-smart agriculture options in southern Africa: Balancing gender and technology. Ecological Economics, 163: 126–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.05.013
73. Grassi, F., Landberg, J. & Huyer, S. 2015. Running out of time: The reduction of women’s work burden in agricultural production. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i4741e/i4741e.pdf
74. FAO. 2022. Climate smart agriculture sourcebook. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Cited 14 March 2023. https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/en/
75. Sumner, D., Christie, M.E. & Boulakia, S. 2017. Conservation agriculture and gendered livelihoods in Northwestern Cambodia: Decision-making, space and access. Agriculture and Human Values, 34(2): 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-016-9718-z
76. Kiptot, E. & Franzel, S. 2012. Gender and agroforestry in Africa: A review of women’s participation. Agroforestry Systems, 84(1): 35–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-011-9419-y
77. Farnworth, C.R., Stirling, C., Sapkota, T.B., Jat, M.L., Misiko, M. & Attwood, S. 2017. Gender and inorganic nitrogen: What are the implications of moving towards a more balanced use of nitrogen fertilizer in the tropics? International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(2): 136–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1295343
78. Otieno, G., Zebrowski, W.M., Recha, J. & Reynolds, T.W. 2021. Gender and social seed networks for climate change adaptation: Evidence from bean, finger millet, and sorghum seed systems in East Africa. Sustainability, 13(4): Article 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042074
79. Hosken, L. 2017. The critical role that African rural women play as custodians of seed diversity and wild relatives in the context of climate change. Biodiversity, 18(2–3): 98–101. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14888386.2017.1351893
80. Gumucio, T., Hansen, J., Huyer, S. & van Huysen, T. 2019. Gender-responsive rural climate services: A review of the literature. Climate and Development, 12(3): 241–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1613216
81. International Fund for Agricultural Development. 2021. Transforming food systems for rural prosperity: Rural Development Report 2021. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/3dcb6fsd
82. Akter, S., Krupnik, T.J., Rossi, F. & Khanam, F. 2016. The influence of gender and product design on farmers’ preferences for weather-indexed crop insurance. Global Environmental Change, 38: 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.03.010
83. Twyman, J., Green, M., Bernier, Q., Kristjanson, P., Russo, S., Tall, A., Ampaire, E. et al. 2014. Adaptation actions in Africa: Evidence that gender matters. CCAFS Working Paper No. 83. Copenhagen, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Program.
84. Duffy, C., Toth, G., Cullinan, J., Murray, U. & Spillane, C. 2021. Climate smart agriculture extension: Gender disparities in agroforestry knowledge acquisition. Climate and Development, 13(1): 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1715912
85. Partey, S.T., Dakorah, A.D., Zougmoré, R.B., Ouédraogo, M., Nyasimi, M., Nikoi, G.K. & Huyer, S. 2020. Gender and climate risk management: Evidence of climate information use in Ghana. Climatic Change, 158(1): 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2239-6
86. Acosta, M., Bonilla-Findji, O., Eitzinger, A., Arora, D., Martinez-Baron, D., Bejarano, G. & Suchini, J.G. 2019. Examining gender differences in the access to and implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices in Central America. CCAFS Info Note. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/103471
87. Timu, A. & Kramer, B. 2021. Gender-inclusive, -responsive and -transformative agricultural insurance: A literature review. CCAFS Working Paper No. 417. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/117797
88. Aheeyar, M., de Silva, S., Senaratna-Sellamuttu, S. & Arulingam, I. 2019. Unpacking barriers to socially inclusive weather index insurance: Towards a framework for inclusion. Water, 11(11): 2235. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112235
89. Birir, A.K. 2020. Effect of social capital on adoption of climate-smart agriculture in Nyando Basin, Kenya. CCAFS Info Note. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Program.
90. Muttarak, R. & Lutz, W. 2014. Is education a key to reducing vulnerability to natural disasters and hence unavoidable climate change? Ecology and Society, 19(1): 42. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-06476-190142
91. Kwauk, C. & Braga, A. 2017. Three platforms for girls’ education in climate strategies. Brooke Shearer Series, No. 6. Washington, DC, Brookings.
92. Sims, K. 2021. Education, girls’ education and climate change. K4D Emerging Issues Report 29. London,UK, Institute of Development Studies. https://doi.org/10.19088/K4D.2021.044
93. Staffieri, I., Sitko, N. & Maluccio, J. 2022. Sustaining school enrolment when rains fail: A gender disaggregated analysis of the impacts of school feeding programmes on school enrolment in the context of dry shocks in Malawi. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9915en
94. Bryan, E., Theis, S., Choufani, J., Meinzen-Dick, R., Ringler, C. & De Pinto, A. 2017. Gender-sensitive, climate-smart agriculture for improved nutrition in Africa south of the Sahara. In: A. De Pinto & J.M. Ulimwengu, eds. A thriving agricultural sector in a changing climate: Meeting Malabo Declaration goals through climate-smart agriculture, pp. 114–135. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896292949_09
95. Ahmad, D., Afzal, M. & Rauf, A. 2021. Flood hazards adaptation strategies: A gender-based disaggregated analysis of farm-dependent Bait community in Punjab, Pakistan. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(1): 865–886. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00612-5
96. Anugwa, I.Q., Agwu, A.E., Suvedi, M. & Babu, S. 2020. Gender-specific livelihood strategies for coping with climate change-induced food insecurity in southeast Nigeria. Food Security, 12(5): 1065–1084. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01042-x
97. Bastakoti, G.B. & Doneys, P. 2020. Gendered perceptions of climate variability, food insecurity, and adaptation practices in Nepal. Climate and Development, 12(6): 547–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1660604
98. Mersha, A.A. & Van Laerhoven, F. 2016. A gender approach to understanding the differentiated impact of barriers to adaptation: Responses to climate change in rural Ethiopia. Regional Environmental Change, 16(6): 1701–1713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0921-z
99. Algur, K.D., Patel, S.K. & Chauhan, S. 2021. The impact of drought on the health and livelihoods of women and children in India: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 122: 105909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105909
100. Quisumbing, A.R., Kumar, N. & Behrman, J.A. 2018. Do shocks affect men’s and women’s assets differently? Evidence from Bangladesh and Uganda. Development Policy Review, 36(1): 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12235
101. Lei, L. & Desai, S. 2021. Male out-migration and the health of left-behind wives in India: The roles of remittances, household responsibilities, and autonomy. Social Science & Medicine, 280: 113982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113982
102. Agadjanian, V., Hayford, S.R. & Jansen, N.A. 2021. Men’s migration and women’s mortality in rural Mozambique. Social Science & Medicine, 270: 113519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113519
103. Lee, Y., Haile, B., Seymour, G. & Azzarri, C. 2021. The heat never bothered me anyway: Gender-specific response of agricultural labor to climatic shocks in Tanzania. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 43(2): 732–749. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13153
104. Nico, G. & Azzarri, C. 2022. Weather variability and extreme shocks in Africa: Are female or male farmers more affected? IFPRI Discussion Paper 2115. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.135870
105. Agamile, P. & Lawson, D. 2021. Rainfall shocks and children’s school attendance: Evidence from Uganda. Oxford Development Studies, 49(3): 291–309.
106. Björkman-Nyqvist, M. 2013. Income shocks and gender gaps in education: Evidence from Uganda. Journal of Development Economics, 105: 237–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.07.013
107. International Union for Conservation of Nature. 2021. Gender and national climate planning: Gender integration in the revised Nationally Determined Contributions. Gland, Switzerland. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49860
108. Carrico, A.R., Donato, K.M., Best, K.B. & Gilligan, J. 2020. Extreme weather and marriage among girls and women in Bangladesh. Global Environmental Change, 65: 102160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102160
109. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Food Programme & World Health Organization. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/I7695e/I7695e.pdf
110. FAO. 2019. Rural transformation – Key for sustainable development in the Near East and North Africa. Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2018. Cairo. http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca3817en/
111. Food Security Information Network and Global Network Against Food Crises. 2022. Global report on food crises. Joint analysis for better decisions. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb9997en/
112. The Integrated Food Security Phase Classification–Cadre Harmonisé (https://tinyurl.com/2f493e53) is a multi-partner initiative for improving food security and nutrition analysis and decision-making. It classifies acute food insecurity into five levels of severity: (1) Minimal/None, (2) Stressed, (3) Crisis, (4) Emergency and (5) Catastrophe/Famine.
113. Conflicts and insecurity account for about 72 percent of the 193 million people who were facing crisis by various drivers in 53 countries. In comparison, 30.2 million people were affected by economic shocks and 23.5 million were affected by weather extremes.
114. Corral, P., Irwin, A., Krishnan, N., Gerszon Mahler, D. & Vishwanath, T. 2020. Fragility and conflict: On the front lines of the fight against poverty. Washington, DC, World Bank.
115. Mane, E., Macchioni, G.A., Cafiero, C. & Viviani, S. (forthcoming). Why women are more food insecure than men? Exploring socio-economic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023.
116. FAO. 2017. Food security, sustaining peace and gender equality: conceptual framework and future directions. SP5 Discussion Paper. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7610e.pdf
117. Justino, P., Cadorna, I., Mitchell, B. & Müller, C. 2012. Women working for recovery: The impact of female employment on family and community welfare after conflict. New York, USA, UN Women.
118. Strachan, A.L. & Haider, H. 2015. Gender and conflict: Topic guide. Birmingham, UK, Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, University of Birmingham.
119. Kool, T. 2015. Moving beyond the UNSCR 1325 framework: Women as economic participants during and after conflict. MERIT Working Papers 2015-034. Maastricht, the Netherlands, United Nations University – Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology. https://tinyurl.com/ytxm98e2
120. UN Women & United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division. 2022. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The gender snapshot, 2022. New York, NY, USA. https://tinyurl.com/2p8m8kcj
121. Nedal, D., Stewart, M. & Weintraub, M. 2020. Urban concentration and civil war. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(6): 1146–1171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002719892054
122. Radil, S., Walther, O., Dorward, N. & Pflaum, M. 2022. Urban-rural geographies of political violence in North and West Africa. Rochester, NY, USA, SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4171240
123. FAO. 2022. The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict. Information Note. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb9013en/cb9013en.pdf
124. Bryan, E., Ringler, C. & Lefore, N. 2022. To ease the world food crisis, focus resources on women and girls. Nature, 609(7925): 28–31. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-02312-8
125. Brück, T. & Vothknecht, M. 2011. Impact of violent conflicts on women‘s economic opportunities. In: K. Kuehnast, C. de Jonge Oudraat & H. Hernes, eds. Women and war – Power and protection in the 21st century, pp. 86–114. Washington, DC, USA, United States Institute of Peace Process.
126. Buvinic, M., Das Gupta, M., Casabonne, U. & Verwimp, P. 2013. Violent conflict and gender inequality: An overview. The World Bank Research Observer, 28(1): 110–138. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lks011
127. FAO. 2018. How can we protect men, women and children from gender-based violence? Addressing GBV in the food security and agriculture sector. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i7928en/I7928EN.pdf
128. Brück, T., Ronzani, P. & Stojetz, W. (forthcoming). Armed conflict and gendered participation in agrifood systems: Survey evidence from 1.8 million individuals in 29 countries. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO, and Berlin, International Security and Development Center.
129. Pulido-Velasquez, M.A., Alegría Castellanos, A. & Cruz, C.J. 2022. Armed conflict and unemployment in Colombia: The role of US interdiction policy. Rochester, NY, USA, SSRN. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4231684
130. Lewis, D., Kebede, G., Brown, A. & Mackie, P. 2019. Surviving, managing, thriving: The informal economy in post-conflict cities. Nairobi,Kenya, UN-Habitat. https://tinyurl.com/5c5dv2w2
Chapter 6
1. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. Lecoutere, E., Achandi, E.L., Ampaire, E.L., Fischer, G., Gumucio, T., Najjar, D. & Singaraju, N. 2023. Fostering an enabling environment for equality and empowerment in agri-food systems. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129705
3. Galiè, A. & Kantor, P. 2016. From gender analysis to transforming gender norms: Using empowerment pathways to enhance gender equity and food security in Tanzania. In: J. Njuki, J.R. Parkins & A. Kaler, eds. Transforming gender and food security in the Global South. Abingdon, the United Kingdom, Routledge.
4. Cole, S.M., Kantor, P., Sarapura, S. & Rajaratnam, S. 2014. Gender-transformative approaches to address inequalities in food, nutrition and economic outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems. Working Paper: AAS-2014-42. Penang, Malaysia, CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.
5. Farnworth, C., Kantor, P., Choudhury, A., McGuire, S. & Sultana, N. 2016. Gender relations and improved technologies in small household ponds in Bangladesh: Rolling out novel learning approaches. Asian Fisheries Science. Special Issue: Gender in Aquaculture and Fisheries: The Long Journey to Equality, 29S: 161–178.
6. Lecoutere, E. & Chu, L. 2021. Changing intrahousehold decision making to empower women in their households: A mixed methods analysis of a field experiment in rural south-west Tanzania. IOB Discussion Papers 2021.06. Antwerp, Belgium, Universiteit Antwerpen, Institute of Development Policy. https://ideas.repec.org//p/iob/dpaper/202106.html
7. Lecoutere, E. & Wuyts, E. 2021. Confronting the wall of patriarchy: Does participatory intrahousehold decision making empower women in agricultural households? The Journal of Development Studies, 57(6): 882–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1849620
8. Cole, S.M., Kaminski, A.M., McDougall, C., Kefi, A.S., Marinda, P.A., Maliko, M. & Mtonga, J. 2020. Gender accommodative versus transformative approaches: A comparative assessment within a post-harvest fish loss reduction intervention. Gender, Technology and Development, 24(1): 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2020.1729480
9. Mulema, A.A., Kinati, W., Lemma, M., Mekonnen, M., Alemu, B.G., Elias, B., Demeke, Y., Desta, H. & Wieland, B. 2020. Clapping with two hands: Transforming gender relations and zoonotic disease risks through community conversations in rural Ethiopia. Human Ecology, 48(6): 651–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-020-00184-y
10. McDougall, C. & Banjade, M.R. 2015. Social capital, conflict, and adaptive collaborative governance: Exploring the dialectic. Ecology and Society, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07071-200144
11. Mukasa, C., Tibazalika, A., Mwangi, E., Banana, A.Y., Bomuhangi, A. & Bushoborozi, J. 2016. Strengthening women’s tenure rights and participation in community forestry. info brief No. 155. Bogor, Indonesia, Center for International Forestry Research. https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor/006249
12. FAO, IFAD & WFP. 2020. Gender transformative approaches for food security, improved nutrition and sustainable agriculture—A compendium of fifteen good practices. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1331en
13. Leon-Himmelstine, C., Phiona, S., Löwe, A., Plank, G. & Vu, N. 2021. Young women in the agricultural sector in Uganda. Lessons from the Youth Forward Initiative. London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute.
14. Mercy Corps. 2022. Bhakari’s GESI first approach overview. Portland, OR, USA, Mercy Corps.
15. Osmani, S.R., Ahmed, A., Ahmed, T., Hossain, N., Huq, S. & Shahan, A. 2016. Strategic review of food security and nutrition in Bangladesh. Rome, World Food Programme.
16. Quisumbing, A., Ahmed, A., Hoddinott, J., Pereira, A. & Roy, S. 2021. Designing for empowerment impact in agricultural development projects: Experimental evidence from the Agriculture, Nutrition, and Gender Linkages (ANGeL) project in Bangladesh. World Development, 146: 105622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105622
17. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. 2017. National Nutrition Sensitive Agriculture Strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC174139
18. Malawi Government. 2018. National Agricultural Investment Plan. Prioritised and Coordinated Agricultural Transformation Plan for Malawi: FY 2017/18-2022/23. Lilongwe, Malawi. https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC190532/
19. Halim, D., Ubfal, D. & Wangchuk, R. 2023. Policy lessons on reducing gender-based violence. Gender Innovation Lab Federation Evidence Series No.1. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/39425
20. Drucza, K., Maria del Rodriguez, C. & Bekele Birhanu, B. 2020. The gendering of Ethiopia’s agricultural policies: A critical feminist analysis. Women’s Studies International Forum, 83: 102420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2020.102420
21. Caron, C.M. 2018. Pursuing gender-transformative change in customary tenure systems: Civil society work in Zambia. Development in Practice, 28(7): 872–883. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2018.1480896
22. Barros, R.P.D., Olinto, P., Lunde, T. & Carvalho, M. 2011. The impact of access to free childcare on women’s labor market outcomes: Evidence from a randomized trial in low-income neighborhoods of Rio de Janeiro. Prepared for the 2011 World Bank Economists’ Forum. https://tinyurl.com/5cxn99zb
23. Clark, S., Kabiru, C.W., Laszlo, S. & Muthuri, S. 2019. The impact of childcare on poor urban women’s economic empowerment in Africa. Demography, 56(4): 1247–1272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00793-3
24. Donald, A.A., Campos, F., Vaillant, J. & Cucagna, M.E. 2018. Investing in childcare for women’s economic empowerment. Gender Innovation Lab Policy Brief No. 27. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/30273
25. Halim, D., Johnson, H. & Perova, E. 2017. Could childcare services improve women’s labor market outcomes in Indonesia? East Asia & Pacific Gender Policy Brief Issue 1. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/31484
26. Hojman, A. & Boo, F.L. 2019. Cost-effective public daycare in a low-income economy benefits children and mothers. IDB Working Paper Series No. IDB-WP-1036. Washington, DC, USA, Inter-American Development Bank.
27. Tanwir, M. & Safdar, T. 2013. The rural woman’s constraints to participation in rural organizations. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 14(3): Article 15. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol14/iss3/15
28. Donald, A.A., Cucagna, M.E. & Vaillant, J. 2022. Top policy lessons in agriculture. Washington, DC, USA, Gender Innovation Lab, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/33493
29. Karimli, L., Samman, E., Rost, L. & Kidder, T. 2016. Factors and norms influencing unpaid care work: Household survey evidence from five rural communities in Colombia, Ethiopia, the Philippines, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Oxford, UK, Oxfam UK.
30. Lo Bue, M.C., Le, T.T.N., Santos Silva, M. & Sen, K. 2022. Gender and vulnerable employment in the developing world: Evidence from global microdata. World Development, 159: 106010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106010
31. Gómez-Valle, R. & Holvoet, N. 2022. Incomes, employment and gender roles: Understanding women’s intrahousehold decision-making participation in Nicaragua. Fulbright Review of Economics and Policy, 2(1): 61–91. https://doi.org/10.1108/FREP-11-2021-0073
32. Clarke, T., McNamara, K.E., Clissold, R. & Nunn, P.D. 2019. Community-based adaptation to climate change: Lessons from Tanna Island, Vanuatu. Island Studies Journal, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.24043/isj.80
33. Wambugu, S.K., Karugia, J.T. & Oluoch-Kosura, W. 2018. Technology use, gender, and impact of non-farm income on agricultural investment: An empirical analysis of maize production in two regions of Kenya. In: A.A. Djurfeldt, F.M. Dzanku & A.C. Isinika, eds. Agriculture, diversification, and gender in rural Africa: Longitudinal perspectives from six countries, pp. 216–232. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press.
34. Faridah Aini, M., Elias, M., Lamers, H., Shariah, U., Brooke, P. & Mohd Hafizul, H. 2017. Evaluating the usefulness and ease of use of participatory tools for forestry and livelihoods research in Sarawak, Malaysia. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 26(1): 29–46.
35. Gurung, M.B., Partap, U. & Choudhary, D. 2015. Empowering mountain women through community-based high value product value chain promotion in Nepal. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 11(3/4): 330–345. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJARGE.2015.074101
36. Pyburn, R., Slavchevska, V., Kruijssen, F., Karam, A. & Steijn, C. 2022. Gender dynamics in agri-food value chains: from diagnostics to change. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Amsterdam, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), Royal Tropical Institute.
37. Buehren, N., Goldstein, M., Molina, E. & Vaillant, J. 2019. The impact of strengthening agricultural extension services on women farmers: Evidence from Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 50(4): 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12499
38. Vasilaky, K.N. & Leonard, K.L. 2018. As good as the networks they keep? Improving outcomes through weak ties in rural Uganda. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 66(4): 755–792. https://doi.org/10.1086/697430
39. Ubfal, D. 2023. What works in supporting women-led businesses. World Bank Group Gender Thematic Notes Series. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank Group.
40. Campos, F., Frese, M., Goldstein, M., Iacovone, L., Johnson, H.C., McKenzie, D. & Mensmann, M. 2017. Teaching personal initiative beats traditional training in boosting small business in West Africa. Science, 357(6357): 1287–1290. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan5329
41. Ubfal, D., Arraiz, I., Beuermann, D.W., Frese, M., Maffioli, A. & Verch, D. 2022. The impact of soft-skills training for entrepreneurs in Jamaica. World Development, 152: 105787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105787
42. Bulte, E., Lensink, R. & Vu, N. 2017. Do gender and business trainings affect business outcomes? Experimental evidence from Vietnam. Management Science, 63(9): 2885–2902. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2016.2472
43. McKenzie, D. & Puerto, S. 2021. Growing markets through business training for female entrepreneurs: A market-level randomized experiment in Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 13(2): 297-332.
44. Bezabih, M., Holden, S. & Mannberg, A. 2016. The role of land certification in reducing gaps in productivity between male- and female-owned farms in rural Ethiopia. The Journal of Development Studies, 52(3): 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1081175
45. Goldman, M.J., Davis, A. & Little, J. 2016. Controlling land they call their own: Access and women’s empowerment in northern Tanzania. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 43(4): 777–797. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2015.1130701
46. Grabe, S. 2015. Participation: Structural and relational power and Maasai women’s political subjectivity in Tanzania. Feminism & Psychology, 25(4): 528–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353515591369
47. Meier zu Selhausen, F. 2016. What determines women’s participation in collective action? Evidence from a western Ugandan coffee cooperative. Feminist Economics, 22(1): 130–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1088960
48. Mayanja, S., Mudege, N., Snyder, K. A., Kwikiriza, N., Munda, E., Achora, J. & Grant, F. 2022. Commercialisation of the sweetpotato value chain: Impacts on women producers in Mozambique. Outlook on Agriculture, 51(3): 349-358.
49. Shackleton, S., Paumgarten, F., Kassa, H., Husselman, M. & Zida, M. 2011. Opportunities for enhancing poor women’s socio-economic empowerment in the value chains of three African non-timber forest products (NTFPs). International Forestry Review, 13(2): 136-151.
50. Theis, S., Lefore, N., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Bryan, E. 2018. What happens after technology adoption? Gendered aspects of small-scale irrigation technologies in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9862-8
51. Amare, D. & Endalew, W. 2016. Agricultural mechanization: Assessment of mechanization impact experiences on the rural population and the implications for Ethiopian smallholders. Engineering and Applied Sciences, 1(2): 39–48.
52. Nchanji, E.B., Collins, O.A., Katungi, E., Nduguru, A., Kabungo, C., Njuguna, E.M. & Ojiewo, C.O. 2021. What does gender yield gap tell us about smallholder farming in developing countries? Sustainability, 13(1): Article 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13010077
53. Devkota, R., Khadka, K., Gartaula, H., Shrestha, A., Karki, S., Pate, K. & Chaudhary, P. 2016. Gender and labour efficiency in finger millet production in Nepal. In: J. Njuki, J.R. Parkins & A. Kaler, eds. Transforming gender and food security in the Global South, pp. 100–119. Abingdon, UK, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315564111-12
54. Polar, V., Mohan, R.R., McDougall, C., Teeken, B., Mulema, A.A., Marimo, P. & Yila, J.O. 2021. Examining choice to advance gender equality in breeding research. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 77–112. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_02
55. Galiè, A. 2013. Empowering women farmers: The case of participatory plant breeding in ten Syrian households. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 34(1): 58. https://doi.org/10.5250/fronjwomestud.34.1.0058
56. Galiè, A., Jiggins, J., Struik, P.C., Grando, S. & Ceccarelli, S. 2017. Women’s empowerment through seed improvement and seed governance: Evidence from participatory barley breeding in pre-war Syria. NJAS: Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 81(1): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2017.01.002
57. Djurfeldt, A.A., Djurfeldt, G., Hillbom, E., Isinika, A.C., Joshua, M.D.K., Kaleng’a, W.C., Kalindi, A., Msuya, E., Mulwafu, W. & Wamulume, M. 2019. Is there such a thing as sustainable agricultural intensification in smallholder-based farming in sub-Saharan Africa? Understanding yield differences in relation to gender in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia. Development Studies Research, 6(1): 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/21665095.2019.1593048
58. Deijl, C., Andersson Djurfeldt, A. & Jirström, M. 2017. Agricultural policy in sub-Saharan Africa and its relevance for smallholder farmers, women and youth: A policy baseline report for sub-Saharan Africa at the continental, regional and national level. AgriFoSe2030 Report 1. Uppsala, Sweden, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. https://res.slu.se/id/publ/103560
59. Bryan, E., Alvi, M., Huyer, S. & Ringler, C. 2023. Addressing gender inequalities and strengthening women’s agency to create more climate-resilient and sustainable food systems. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129709
60. Njuki, J., Melesse, M., Ng’weno, A., Rappoldt, A., Phelane, C., d’Anjou, J., Hassan, M., Ketley, R. & Vossenberg, S. 2019. Beyond access: Gender-transformative financial inclusion in agriculture and entrepreneurship. In: A. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, R. Suseela & J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 57–82. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_05
61. Karlan, D., Savonitto, B., Thuysbaert, B. & Udry, C. 2017. Impact of savings groups on the lives of the poor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(12): 3079–3084. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611520114
62. Beaman, L., Karlan, D. & Thuysbaert, B. 2014. Saving for a (not so) rainy day: A randomized evaluation of savings groups in Mali. Working Paper 20600. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research. https://doi.org/10.3386/w20600
63. Carranza, E., Donald, A., Grosset, F. & Kaur, S. 2018. Working under pressure: Improving labor productivity through financial innovation. Gender Innovation Lab Policy Brief No. 31. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/31029
64. Duvendack, M. & Mader, P. 2019. Impact of financial inclusion in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review of reviews. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 15(1–2): e1012. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2019.2
65. Bizikova, L., Nkonya, E., Minah, M., Hanisch, M., Turaga, R.M.R., Speranza, C.I., Karthikeyan, M. et al. 2020. A scoping review of the contributions of farmers’ organizations to smallholder agriculture. Nature Food, 1: 620–630. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-00164-x
66. Brody, C., Hoop, T. de, Vojtkova, M., Warnock, R., Dunbar, M., Murthy, P. & Dworkin, S.L. 2017. Can self-help group programs improve women’s empowerment? A systematic review. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 9(1): 15–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2016.1206607
67. Díaz-Martin, L., Gopalan, A., Guarnieri, E. & Jayachandran, S. 2023. Greater than the sum of the parts? Evidence on mechanisms operating in women’s groups. World Bank Research Observer, 38(1): 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkac001
68. Chen, T. 2017. Impact of the shea nut industry on women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso: A multi-dimensional study focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions. Social Protection and Forestry Working Paper 3. Rome, FAO. http://www.fao.org/3/i8062en/i8062en.pdf
69. Bradford, K. & Katikiro, R.E. 2019. Fighting the tides: A review of gender and fisheries in Tanzania. Fisheries Research, 216: 79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2019.04.003
70. Elias, M. & Arora-Jonsson, S. 2017. Negotiating across difference: Gendered exclusions and cooperation in the shea value chain. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 35(1): 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775816657084
71. ActionAid. 2014. Women’s empowerment and value chains: Experiences of women in Cambodia, Palestine, Uganda. Camperdown, NSW, Australia, ActionAid Australia. https://tinyurl.com/4p4h3njk
72. Said-Allsopp, M. & Tallontire, A. 2015. Pathways to empowerment? Dynamics of women’s participation in Global Value Chains. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107: 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.089
73. For more examples, see also Ihalainen, M., Shaikh, S., Mujawamariya, G., Mayanja, S., Adetonah, S., Tavenner, K. & Elias, M. 2021. Promise and contradiction: Value chain participation and women’s empowerment. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present and future, pp. 147–186. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_04
74. Lo Bue, M.C., Le, T.T.N., Santos Silva, M. & Sen, K. 2022. Gender and vulnerable employment in the developing world: Evidence from global microdata. World Development, 159: 106010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106010/. The estimate comes from a regression which also includes control for individual and family characteristics.
75. Certification systems set and monitor standards to improve the socioeconomic outcomes and sustainability of agricultural production and trade.
76. Oya, C., Schaefer, F. & Skalidou, D. 2018. The effectiveness of agricultural certification in developing countries: A systematic review. World Development, 112: 282–312.
77. Perera, C., Bakrania, S., Ipince, A., Nesbitt-Ahmed, Z., Obasola, O., Richardson, D., Van de Scheur, J. & Yu, R. 2022. Impact of social protection on gender equality in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review of reviews. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 18(2): e1240. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1240
78. Daidone, S., Davis, B., Dewbre, J. & Covarrubias, K. 2014. Lesotho’s Child Grant Programme: 24-month impact report on productive activities and labour allocation. Lesotho Country Case Study Report. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/a-i4186e.pdf
79. Sebastian, A., de la O Campos, A.P., Daidone, S., Pace, N., Davis, B., Niang, O. & Pellerano, L. 2019. Cash transfers and gender differentials in child schooling and labor: Evidence from the Lesotho Child Grants Programme. Population and Development Review, 45(S1): 181–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12269
80. Osei, R.D. & Lambon-Quayefio, M. 2021. Cash transfers and the supply of labor by poor households: Evidence from the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty Program in Ghana. Review of Development Economics, 25(3): 1293–1304. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12784
81. Vera-Cossio, D.A. 2022. Dependence or constraints? Cash transfers and labor supply. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 70(4): 1439–1477.
82. International Fund for Agricultural Development. 2022. IFAD11 impact assessment report. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/5y5px5ak
83. Cavatassi, R., Mabiso, A. & Brueckmann, P. 2019. Impact assessment report: Republic of Indonesia, Coastal Community Development Project. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development. https://tinyurl.com/2p8zn2f
84. Boukaka, S., Azzarri, C., Haile, B., Yasser, R., Garbero, A. & Cavatassi, R. 2022. Impact assessment report: Programme to Reduce Vulnerability in Coastal Fishing Areas (PRAREV), Republic of Djibouti. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development.
85. Boukaka, S., Paolantonio, A., Haile, B., Azzarri, C., Van Biljon, C. & Arslan, A. 2022b. Impact assessment report: Rural Enterprise Program (REP) – Phase III, Republic of Ghana. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development.
86. Castillejo, C. 2022. Women’s participation and influence in post-conflict reform: The case of Kenya. ODI Country Study. London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute. https://tinyurl.com/2p9en86e
87. Sutz, P., Beauchamp, E. & Bolin, A. 2021. Routes to change rural women’s voices in land, climate and market governance in sub-Saharan Africa. Research Report. London, International Institute for Environment and Development.
88. Aladuwaka, S. & Momsen, J. 2010. Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: The Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka. Gender & Development, 18(1): 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600026
89. Scott, K., George, A.S., Harvey, S.A., Mondal, S., Patel, G. & Sheikh, K. 2017. Negotiating power relations, gender equality, and collective agency: Are village health committees’ transformative social spaces in northern India? International Journal for Equity in Health, 16(1): 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0580-4
90. Najjar, D., Baruah, B. & El Garhi, A. 2019. Women, irrigation and social norms in Egypt: ‘The more things change, the more they stay the same?’ Water Policy, 21(2): 291–309. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.154
91. Eaton, J., Krishna, A., Sudi, C., George, J., Magomba, C., Eckman, A., Houck, F. & Taukobong, H. 2021. Gendered social norms change in water governance structures through community facilitation: Evaluation of the UPWARD intervention in Tanzania. Frontiers in Sociology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2021.672989
92. Kaaria, S., Osorio, M., Wagner, S. & Gallina, A. 2016. Rural women’s participation in producer organizations: An analysis of the barriers that women face and strategies to foster equitable and effective participation. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 1(2): 148–167.
93. Quisumbing, A., Gerli, B., Faas, S., Heckert, J., Malapit, H., McCarron, C., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Paz, F. 2022. Does the UN Joint Program for Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment (JP RWEE) deliver on its empowerment objectives? IFPRI Discussion Paper 2131. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136302
94. Bolin, A., ed. 2020. Women’s empowerment through collective action: How can forest and farm producer organisations can make a difference. Rome, FAO, and London, International Institute for Environment and Development. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8713en
95. International Livestock Research Institute. 2021. Empowering women through participatory rangeland management. Nairobi, Kenya. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/117286
96. Malapit, H., Heckert, J., Scott, J., Padmaja, R. & Quisumbing, A.R. 2021. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture for gender equality. In: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 189–220. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_05
97. Billings, L., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Mueller, V. 2014. Implications of community-based legal aid regulation on women’s land rights. IFPRI Research Brief 20. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute.
98. Doss, C. & Mika, H. 2021. This land is her land: A comparative analysis of gender, institutions, and landownership. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2089. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134943
99. Deere, C.D. & Leon, M. 2003. The gender asset gap: Land in Latin America. World Development, 31(6): 925–947. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(03)00046-9
100. BenYishay, A. & Mobarak, A.M. 2019. Social learning and incentives for experimentation and communication. The Review of Economic Studies, 86(3): 976–1009. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdy039
101. Kondylis, F., Mueller, V., Sheriff, G. & Zhu, S. 2016. Do female instructors reduce gender bias in diffusion of sustainable land management techniques? Experimental evidence from Mozambique. World Development, 78: 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.036
102. Lecoutere, E., Spielman, D.J. & Van Campenhout, B. 2019. Women’s empowerment, agricultural extension, and digitalization: Disentangling information and role model effects in rural Uganda. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1889. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133523
103. Pan, Y., Smith, S.C. & Sulaiman, M. 2018. Agricultural Extension and Technology Adoption for Food Security: Evidence from Uganda. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 100(4): 1012–1031. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay012
104. Abay, F., Petros, S., Jarso, M., David, S. & Barale, K. 2022. To fly well, the eagle needs both wings: A case study of TechnoServe’s Coffee Initiative in Ethiopia. In: H. Petrics, K. Barale, S.K. Kaaria & S. David, eds. Good practices for promoting gender equality through rural advisory services – Case studies from Ethiopia, India and Peru, pp. 9–23. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3539en
105. Hernández Asensio, R., Luisa Burneo de la Rocha, M., Loaiza Díaz, P.A., Nova Arismendi, R., Fernández, J., Díaz, V., Cortínez, V. & Petrics, H. 2022. The power of farmer-to-farmer advisors: A case study of Haku Wiñay of Foncodes/ MIDIS in Peru. In: H. Petrics, K. Barale, S.K. Kaaria, & S. David, eds. Good practices for promoting gender equality through rural advisory services – Case studies from Ethiopia, India and Peru, pp. 49–69. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3539en
106. Mittal, N., Sulaiman V., R., Petrics, H. & Barale, K. 2022. Striving to develop women’s identity as farmers: A case study of PRADAN, India. In: H. Petrics, K. Barale, S.K. Kaaria & S. David, eds. Good practices for promoting gender equality through rural advisory services – Case studies from Ethiopia, India and Peru, pp. 25–48. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3539en
107. Petrics, H., Barale, K., Kaaria, S.K. & David, S., eds. 2022. Good practices for promoting gender equality through rural advisory services – Case studies from Ethiopia, India and Peru. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3539en
108. Montalvao Machado, J. 2021. Empowering women farmers: Evidence from a randomized control trial in Mozambique. Presentation at Gender Learning Week 2021. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/bdcwxrtx
109. Bryan, E. & Garner, E. 2022. Understanding the pathways to women’s empowerment in northern Ghana and the relationship with small-scale irrigation. Agriculture and Human Values, 39(3): 905–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-021-10291-1
110. Willetts, J., Halcrow, G., Carrard, N., Rowland, C. & Crawford, J. 2010. Addressing two critical MDGs together: Gender in water, sanitation and hygiene initiatives. Pacific Economic Bulletin, 25(1): 162–176.
111. Deininger, K., Selod, H. & Burns, A. 2012. The Land Governance Assessment Framework: Identifying and monitoring good practice in the land sector. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8758-0
112. Holden, S. & Bezu, S. 2014. Joint land certification, gendered preferences, and land-related decisions: Are wives getting more involved? Centre for Land Tenure Studies Working Paper, No. 06/14. Ås, Norway, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Centre for Land Tenure Studies.
113. Hallward-Driemeier, M. & Hasan, T. 2012. Empowering women: Legal rights and economic opportunities in Africa. Africa Development Forum series. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-9533-2
114. Stanley, V. & Vyzaki, M. 2014. Examples from East Asia on strengthening women’s land rights. Agriculture and Environmental Services Department Notes, No. 10. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/2saxhyym
115. World Bank. 2016. Lessons from land administration projects: A review of project performance assessments. IEG Category 1 Learning Product. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank Group.
116. Cherchi, L., Goldstein, M., Habyarimana, J., Montalvao, J., O’Sullivan, M. & Udry, C. 2018. Incentives for joint land titling: Experimental evidence from Uganda. Paper prepared for presentation at the 2018 World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty, Washington, DC, USA, March 19–23, 2018. https://tinyurl.com/mxbv87sn
117. Ali, D.A., Collin, M., Deininger, K., Dercon, S., Sandefur, J. & Zeitlin, A. 2016. Small price incentives increase women’s access to land titles in Tanzania. Journal of Development Economics, 123: 107–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.06.001
118. Wiig, H. 2013. Joint titling in rural Peru: Impact on women’s participation in household decision-making. World Development, 52: 104–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.005
119. Ali, D.A., Deininger, K. & Goldstein, M. 2014. Environmental and gender impacts of land tenure regularization in Africa: Pilot evidence from Rwanda. Journal of Development Economics, 110: 262–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.12.009
120. Abate, G.T., Bernard, T., Makhija, S. & Spielman, D.J. 2019. Accelerating technical change through video-mediated agricultural extension. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1851. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133323
121. Ragetlie, R., Najjar, D. & Oueslati, D. 2022. “Dear brother farmer”: Gender-responsive digital extension in Tunisia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability, 14(7): 4162. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14074162
122. Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies. 2020. Impact of Mobile Financial Services in Bangladesh: The Case of bKash. Dhaka, Bangladesh. https://think-asia.org/handle/11540/12087
123. Dorfleitner, G. & Nguyen, Q.A. 2022. Mobile money for women’s economic empowerment: The mediating role of financial management practices. Review of Managerial Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-022-00564-2
124. Kim, K. 2022. Assessing the impact of mobile money on improving the financial inclusion of Nairobi women. Journal of Gender Studies, 31(3): 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2021.1884536
125. Suri, T. & Jack, W. 2016. The long-run poverty and gender impacts of mobile money. Science, 354(6317): 1288–1292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah5309
126. Wandibba, S., Nangendo, S.M. & Mulemi, B.A. 2014. Gender empowerment and access to financial services in Machakos county, eastern Kenya. Irvine, CA, USA, Institute for Money, Technology and Financial Inclusion. https://tinyurl.com/4f8vmxhp
127. Aker, J.C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A. & Tierney, N. 2016. Payment mechanisms and antipoverty programs: Evidence from a mobile money cash transfer experiment in Niger. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 65(1): 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1086/687578
128. Tsan, M., Totapally, S., Hailu, M. & Addom, B.K. 2019. The Digitalisation of African Agriculture Report 2018-2019. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CTA/Dalberg Advisors. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/101498
129. Krishnan, A., Banga, K., Raga, S., Pettinotti, L. & Mendez-Parra, M. 2020. Ag-platforms as disruptors in value-chains: Evidence from Uganda. ODI AgriTech Report Series. London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute. https://tinyurl.com/58t4sjas
130. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 2021. Inequality in access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) in East and North-East Asia and South-East Asia. Social Development Division Policy Paper. Bangkok, Thailand. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12870/3511
131. International Telecommunications Union. 2018. Digital skills toolkit. Geneva, Switzerland.
132. Alliance for Affordable Internet. 2020. Growing demand with skill-building. In: Alliance for Affordable Internet. Washington, DC, USA. Cited 1 March 2023. https://a4ai.org/research/good-practices/growing-demand-with-skill-building/
133. Digital Opportunity Trust. 2019. Digital Ambassador Program proof of concept. Final evaluation. Ottawa, Canada. https://tinyurl.com/3zdfww6b
134. Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority. 2020. Statistics report for telecom, media and broadcasting sector as of the first quarter of the year 2020. Kigali, Rwanda. https://tinyurl.com/24h7wjju
135. Bahia, K., Sanchez, M. & Taberner, P.A. 2020. Exploring the relationship between mobile money regulation and usage. Working Paper. London, the United Kingdom, GSMA. https://tinyurl.com/3a2n8x6x
136. Alliance for Affordable Internet. 2021. The Affordability Report 2021. Washington, DC, USA, Web Foundation. https://a4ai.org/report/2021-affordability-report/
137. Dey, A., Singh, G. & Gupta, A.K. 2018. Women and climate stress: Role reversal from beneficiaries to expert participants. World Development, 103: 336–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.07.026
138. Farnworth, C.R., Stirling, C., B. Sapkota, T., Jat, M.L., Misiko, M. & Attwood, S. 2017. Gender and inorganic nitrogen: What are the implications of moving towards a more balanced use of nitrogen fertilizer in the tropics? International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(2): 136–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1295343
139. Rengalakshmi, R., Manjula, M. & Devaraj, M. 2018. Making climate information communication gender sensitive: Lessons from Tamil Nadu. Economic & Political Weekly, 53(17): 87–95.
140. CARE. 2021. Solidarity in saving. Geneva, Switzerland. https://tinyurl.com/v4xh5avp
141. Ngigi, M.W., Mueller, U. & Birner, R. 2017. Gender differences in climate change adaptation strategies and participation in group-based approaches: An intra-household analysis from rural Kenya. Ecological Economics, 138: 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.03.019
142. Huyer, S., Gumucio, T., Tavenner, K., Acosta, M., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Mungai, C. et al. 2021. From vulnerability to agency in climate adaptation and mitigation. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 261–294. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute.
143. Simelton, E., Mulia, R., Nguyen, T.T., Duong, T.M., Le, H.X., Tran, L.H. & Halbherr, L. 2021. Women’s involvement in coffee agroforestry value-chains: Financial training, village savings and loans associations, and decision power in northwest Vietnam. CCAFS Working Paper 340. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/111055
144. Caretta, M.A. 2014. “Credit plus” microcredit schemes: A key to women’s adaptive capacity. Climate and Development, 6(2): 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2014.886990
145. Adisa, O. 2020. Rural women’s participation in solar-powered irrigation in Niger: Lessons from Dimitra Clubs. Gender & Development, 28(3): 535–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2020.1833483
146. FAO. 2021. Evaluation of FAO’s contribution to the humanitarian–development–peace nexus 2014–2020. Programme Evaluation Series, 10/2021. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb6239en/cb6239en.pdf
147. FAO. 2022. Évaluation du projet «Promotion de la cohésion sociale entre agriculteurs et éleveurs (hommes et femmes) dans les régions de Dosso et Maradi (Niger) à travers une approche basée sur le genre et la diversité». Série évaluation d e projet. Rome. www.fao.org/3/cb8606fr/cb8606fr.pdf
148. FAO. 2022. Evaluation of five FAO projects funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency in Cameroon, Chad, Mali and the Niger. Programme Evaluation Series, 02/2022. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/cb7928en/cb7928en.pdf
149. FAO & CARE. 2019. Good practices for integrating gender equality and women’s empowerment in climate-smart agriculture programmes. Rome, FAO and Atlanta, GA, USA, CARE International. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CA3883EN/
150. Lwamba, E., Shisler, S., Ridlehoover, W., Kupfer, M., Tshabalala, N., Nduku, P., Langer, L. et al. 2022. Strengthening women’s empowerment and gender equality in fragile contexts towards peaceful and inclusive societies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 18(1): e1214. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1214
151. Schalatek, L. 2022. Gender and climate finance. Climate Finance Fundamentals 10. Washington, DC, USA, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, and London, the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Institute. https://tinyurl.com/35nnz6ej
152. Beuchelt, T.D. & Badstue, L. 2013. Gender, nutrition- and climate-smart food production: Opportunities and trade-offs. Food Security, 5(5): 709–721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0290-8
153. Cabot Venton, C., Prillaman, S.A. & Kim, J. 2021. Building resilience through self help groups: Evidence review. Washington, DC, USA, The Resilience Evaluation, Analysis, and Learning (REAL) Award. https://tinyurl.com/57faubpn
154. Gumucio, T. & Tafur Rueda, M. 2015. Influencing gender-inclusive climate change policies in Latin America. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 1(2): 41–60. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.246049
155. Premand, P. & Stoeffler, Q. 2020. Do cash transfers foster resilience? Evidence from rural Niger. Policy Research Working Papers. Washington, DC, USA, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-9473
156. Tenzing, J.D. 2020. Integrating social protection and climate change adaptation: A review. WIREs Climate Change, 11(2): e626. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.626
157. Godfrey-Wood, R. & Flower, B.C.R. 2018. Does guaranteed employment promote resilience to climate change? The case of India’s Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Development Policy Review, 36: O586–O604. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12309
158. Jasper, P., Nikitin, D., Brockerhoff, S., Jahan, F. & Ahsan, T. 2016. Longitudinal monitoring and independent impact assessment of CLP-2. Final evaluation report – volume 1. Oxford, UK, e_Pact.
159. 50x2030. 2023. 50x2030 Annual Report FY22 JULY 1, 2021 to JUNE 30, 2022. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/4svzne2j
160. FAO. 2023. Joint Programme on Gender Transformative Approaches for Food Security and Nutrition. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Cited 15 March 2023. https://tinyurl.com/3ftety28
161. CGIAR System Organization. 2022. HER+: Harnessing gender and social equality for resilience in agrifood systems. Brochure. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR System Organization. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/119245
162. The description of these programmes can be found at World Bank. 2023. Living Standards Measurement Study – Programs. In: The World Bank. Washington, DC, USA. Cited 17 March 2023. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/lsms/initiatives
163. FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
164. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A. & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
165. FAO & Intake. 2022. Global report on the state of dietary data. Rome, FAO, and Washington, DC, USA, Intake – Center for Dietary Assessment. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb8679en
166. McDougall, C., Badstue, L., Mulema, A., Fischer, G., Najjar, D., Pyburn, R., Elias, M., Joshi, D. & Vos, A. 2021. Toward structural change: Gender transformative approaches. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 365–401. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_10
167. International Fund for Agricultural Development. 2015. IFAD’s operational framework for scaling up results. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/44rxvtmk
168. Berretta, M., Kupfer, M., Lane, C. & Shisler, S. 2022. Rapid evidence assessment on women’s empowerment interventions within the food system. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1754233/v1
169. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Myers, E., Seymour, G. & Twyman, J. 2023. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
170. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Development Assistance Committee offers three markers of gender intention: Principal: Gender equality is the main objective of the project and is fundamental is its design and expected results; Significant: Gender equality is an important and deliberate objective but is not the principal reason for undertaking the project; and Not targeted: The project has been screened but has not been found to target gender equality.
171. Data for multilateral institutions is not disaggregated by sector.
172. Over 80 percent of the estimated 570 million farms worldwide are smallholder farms of less than 2 hectares (Lowder, S.K., Sánchez, M.V. & Bertini, R. 2021. Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142: 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455) and these are the types of households that investments by the International Fund for Agricultural Development target. We assume that half of smallholders are reached by gender mainstreaming interventions and the other half are reached by interventions treating gender as fundamental.
Glossary
1. Definitions were retrieved and/or adapted from FAO, the UN Women Training Centre eLearning Campus Gender Equality Glossary, and the Glossary of Terms from the CGIAR GENDER platform Background Papers prepared for this report (unless otherwise noted).
2. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
3. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) & World Food Programme (WFP). 2022. Guide to formulating gendered social norms indicators in the context of food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0673en
Annex 1
1. International Labour Organization. 2023. ILOSTAT. In: International Labour Organization. Cited 25 January 2023. https://ilostat.ilo.org/
2. Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. FAO Statistics Working Paper Series, No. 23–34. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4337en
Annex 4
1. Cavatassi, R., Mabiso, A. & Brueckmann, P. 2019. Impact assessment report: Republic of Indonesia, Coastal Community Development Project. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development. https://tinyurl.com/2p8zn2f
2. IFAD. 2022. IFAD11 impact assessment report. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/5y5px5ak
3. The mean effect sizes from the meta-analyses are validated by estimating impacts using the pooled household-level data. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) re-runs analyses by combining all individual micro-level impact assessment data together and running a pooled data analysis, which controls for country-/project-level unobserved characteristics that may influence impacts. The data, programmes, and other details of the computations sufficient to permit replication along with their revisions are encrypted and anonymized (Arslan A. & Cavatassi, R. 2022. IFAD’s methods for impact assessments, a summary note, IFAD, Rome).
4. This is done using decision-making power over income and/or resources attributed to women only or jointly with men. Projects whose value of this variable is at least equal to the aggregated mean value are considered to empower women, as opposed to the rest of the projects.