Figures, tables and boxes

FIGURES

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Conceptual framework for agrifood systems

1.2 Proportion of men and women employed in agrifood systems, with countries ordered by log of GDP

1.3 Framework for gendered agrifood systems

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Employment in agrifood systems remains important for women, despite decrease in agricultural employment since 2005

2.2 Almost 40 percent of all workers in agrifood systems are women

2.3 The share of women in agriculture has been slowly declining in most parts of the world in the past 20 years

2.4 Women make up a large share of off-farm agrifood systems workers at all levels of development

2.5 Women retailers are more likely to trade in less lucrative agrifood products and achieve lower profits

2.6 Women are more likely than men to be in vulnerable forms of employment

2.7 Men work more hours than women in agriculture and agrifood systems

2.8 Gender inequalities in unpaid care work are observed all around the world with significant variations across countries within regions

2.9 Gender differences in farm size are associated with a smaller gender yield gap, while gender differences in education, age and access to inputs and technology are associated with a larger gender gap

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Good examples of legal and policy reforms for advancing women’s land rights exist in all regions

3.2 A majority of reporting countries score well in the areas of marital property and inheritance

3.3 Men are more likely to have landownership rights than women

3.4 Share of women among all agricultural landowners or holders of secure tenure rights over agricultural land

3.5 The share of women among landowners increased in more than half of reporting countries over the last decade

3.6 Only 22 percent of countries report high levels of women’s participation in integrated water resources management

3.7 Gender gaps in access to irrigation have not changed in recent years

3.8 Gender gaps in livestock ownership persist

3.9 Gender gaps in ownership of large ruminants are more consistent, while the trends in the ownership of poultryand small ruminants are more mixed

3.10 Changes in individual livestock ownership vary by type of animal and by sex

3.11 Female farmers continue to trail behind men in access to improved seeds and fertilizer

3.12 Gender inequalities in ownership of mechanized equipment are not improving

3.13 Female farmers continue to have less access to extension services than do men

3.14 Internet access has continued to increase for both men and women while the gender gap has reduced

3.15 Gender gaps in internet usage have reduced in all regions but remain particularly high in Africa

3.16 Rural women are less likely than rural men to own a mobile phone

3.17 Access to mobile internet has increased substantially for both women and men in the last few years, but the gender gap has started to widen again

3.18 The gender gap in mobile internet use in the rural population is higher than that in mobile ownership

CHAPTER 4

4.1 One-third of agrifood-system interventions in projects in Africa and South Asia increased household gender parity

4.2 Women’s and men’s empowerment increased in projects in Africa and South Asia, but most projects had no impact

4.3 Women’s control over income, asset ownership and group membership increased in projects in Africa and South Asia

4.4 Livestock interventions positively impact women's assets and income but may increase time burdens

4.5 Gender discrimination varies by region and country

4.6 Wife-beating remains acceptable in many countries

4.7 In the majority of countries, most people believe young children suffer when mothers work

4.8 A majority of people support women’s ownership of land in North and sub-Saharan Africa

4.9 Laws on women’s participation in business are improving globally

4.10 Most agricultural policy documents include very few measures to promote gender equality; sub-Saharan Africa performs best

4.11 Agricultural policies recognize women’s contribution and gender inequalities in the sector, but gender-responsive policy formulation remains weak

CHAPTER 5

5.1 The 2007–2008 economic crisis led to a small decline in employment in agrifood systems globally for both women and men, but with large differences across regions and sexes

5.2 Women’s employment in agrifood systems was hit harder by the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in southeastern Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean

5.3 Conflict reduces work intensity for both women and men, but more for men

CHAPTER 6

6.1 A high percentage of bilateral development finance focused on agricultural and rural development mainstreams or focuses exclusively on gender

TABLES

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Fewer women globally are engaged in the more profitable transporting and wholesale trading in agrifood systems

2.2 The gender gap in land productivity between female- and male-managed farms of the same size is 24 percent

2.3 The gender gap in labour productivity between male and female plot managers is 35 percent

2.4 The structural effect, associated with discrimination, explains the largest share of the gender gap in agricultural wage employment

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Level of protection for women’s land rights in national laws

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Mixed results on empowerment are seen in many projects

4.2 The strength of evidence on women’s empowerment varies by outcome

CHAPTER 5

5.1 The effects of armed conflicts on labour outcomes in 29 sub-Saharan African countries

CHAPTER 6

6.1 Evidence on the link between women’s land rights and selected agrifood systems outcomes

BOXES

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Gender gaps in food insecurity: exploring differences across countries and demographic categories

1.2 Intersectionality: beyond gender considerations in agrifood systems

1.3 SPOTLIGHT: Gender-based violence

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Work versus employment in agrifood systems:24 a methodological note

2.2 Gender and age patterns of employment in agrifood systems

2.3 Male outmigration, the feminization of agriculture and implications for women’s empowerment

2.4 Gender roles, relations and vulnerabilities in the Omena value chain around lake Victoria

2.5 Gender and intersectionality: stories from livestock, fisheries and forestry

2.6 Gender-based violence and work in agrifood systems

2.7 Many wage workers in companies linked to global agrifood value chains are women, young and migrant

2.8 Time use versus time-use agency

2.9 The Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition approach

2.10 Gender productivity gaps reported in the state of food and agriculture 2010-2011 and the limitations of comparing male- and female-headed farms

2.11 SPOTLIGHT: Indigenous Peoples and gender in agrifood systems

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Land, water and gender-based violence

3.2 Women’s rights to land in the law

3.3 The collection of sex-disaggregated survey data on land rights

3.4 SPOTLIGHT: Social Protection

3.5 Cash transfers and intimate partner violence

CHAPTER 4

4.1 Measuring women’s empowerment and agency and the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index

4.2 Aspirations and role models

CHAPTER 5

5.1 The COVID-19 pandemic and rural women in Africa

5.2 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on rural women in Central Asia

5.3 Climate change and child labour in agriculture in Côte D’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Nepal, and Peru

5.4 Gender differences in food insecurity in Ukraine

5.5 Definition of conflict

5.6 Gender-based violence in conflict and humanitarian settings

CHAPTER 6

6.1 What are gender-transformative approaches?

6.2 Engaging men and boys in normative change

6.3 Involving both spouses for gender equality

6.4 Legal aid can strengthen women’s awareness of their land rights

6.5 The costs and benefits of gender-transformative approaches