3. Changing consumer preferences and food consumption patterns
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Consumer preferences are constantly evolving in response to a multitude of different factors. Today considerations such as lowering environmental impacts of food production, climate change, improving health especially amid the pandemic, awareness about food waste, concerns about animal welfare, rising incomes, urbanization, and others (Griffen, 2020; Nunes, Ordanini and Giambastiani, 2021) are driving changes in consumer behaviour and their food preferences.
There is also an increased emphasis for trustworthiness and authenticity from the food industry with consumers expecting greater transparency regarding the carbon footprint of their food products as well as a growing attention to responsible sourcing of food ingredients, simplifying food labelling and addressing concerns about the safety of food (Labelinsight, 2016; Macready et al., 2020; Siegner, 2019; Shelke, 2020). Even though COVID-19 is not a food safety issue, it has significantly heightened the sensitivity of consumers to the concepts of hygiene and food safety (Borsellino, Kaliji and Schimmenti, 2020; Locas et al., 2021), as many fundamental behaviours behind buying, preparing and consuming foods have changed (Clayton, Sims and Webster, 2021). Moreover, surveys report that the pandemic may have also influenced public trust towards the food sector (EIT Food, 2020; Edelman Trust Barometer, 2021).
How are changing consumer preferences impacting the food sector?
Food purchasing habits and consumption patterns of consumers are changing across the world in response to their shifting preferences and lifestyles. While this brief is not meant to provide an exhaustive review of all the trends, some of the more pertinent ones, from a food safety perspective, are discussed. Increased concerns about healthier diet choices and environmental sustainability are driving a growing interest in plant-based foods, a sector that is rapidly expanding to include plant-based alternatives for meat, dairy products, eggs and seafood (Chapter 4.3). Other alternative food sources are also gaining attention, such as seaweeds or macroalgae (Chapter 4.4), and edible insects (Chapter 4.1). Rapid urbanization together with demand for local and sustainable food production has also led to the development and expansion of urban agriculture (Chapter 5).
Along with consumer demands for healthy living, increased expectation for personalization as well as the rapid integration of technological innovations are contributing to the growth of the customized nutrition sector. An area in the spotlight is nutrigenomics,4 with various companies attempting to leverage individual genomic data into developing tailor-made diet plans. Genetic information can help guide diet choices; for instance, people with LCT genetic mutation should avoid dairy as they have trouble digesting lactose. However, published research on personalized diets formulated solely based on genetic information, as made available through various direct-to-consumer programs, show that this approach may distract consumers from other considerations behind chronic health issues (obesity, cancer, diabetes), such as environmental risk factors and lifestyle (Camp and Trujillo, 2014; Dendup et al., 2018; Gardner et al., 2018; Lindsey, 2005; Magkos et al., 2020).
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Additionally, greater emphasis on healthier living and rising health care costs are contributing to the growth of functional foods or nutraceuticals sector (Hasler, 2002; Mohanty and Singhal, 2018; Uthpala et al., 2020). While there is ambiguity regarding the definition of functional foods, it is generally agreed that they encompass foods or food components that, consumers believe, may impart additional health benefits, such as assisting in preventing diseases, which goes beyond “basic” nutrition that maintains overall health (Berhaupt-Glickstein and Hallman, 2015; Clydesdale, 2004; Hasler, 2002; Marcum, 2020). Examples of such foods include enriched or fortified foods, dietary supplements and even conventional foods with known bioactive compounds. While the perceived healthfulness and quality of such foods is driving market growth, the claims of the health benefits of functional foods can often be hard to substantiate due to insufficient rigorous scientific evaluations (Aggett, 2012; Scrinis, 2008). This complicates the development of strong regulatory oversight for this food sector, which is necessary as functional foods are often designed to be consumed by people of all ages, sometimes over extended periods of time.
What are the food safety implications to be considered?
With dietary patterns shifting to those that are rich in plant-based foods, caution should be taken to prevent inadvertent introduction of allergens into diets, for instance, by replacing cow’s milk with almond milk. This can be particularly challenging for certain age groups, infants and children, who need to consume a variety of foods to achieve the intake of sufficient amounts of nutrients required for optimum growth and development (Protudjer and Mikkelsen, 2020).
Other common components of plant-based alternatives that can cause allergic reactions are legumes (soy, peanut, lupine, chickpea etc.), and cereals (wheat, rye, barley etc.). Individuals allergic to peas can also be sensitive to peanuts due to cross-reactivity among homologous proteins within the legume family, such as the vicilin homologues present in both pea and peanuts (Taylor et al., 2021; Wensing et al., 2003). While peanuts are known allergens, products containing peas can be found marketed as hypoallergenic, with pea protein concentrates and pea protein isolates often added to various foods as a plant-based high-protein source. This can be worrisome for those individuals who simultaneously suffer from significant peanut allergy and also from cross reactivity to pea allergens. The various potential food safety risks associated with plant-based alternatives are explored in detail in Chapter 4.3.
The popularity of Goji berries (Lycium barbarum) as functional food (both raw and dried forms) is on the rise in North American and European countries, propelled by various potential health-promoting benefits. Goji berries have been historically consumed in Asia (Ma et al., 2019; Potterat, 2010; Ye and Jiang, 2020). Allergic reactions to Goji berries have been reported in literature, with lipid transfer protein (LTP), a panallergen, described as being responsible for cross reactivity as well as sensitization to Goji berries (Carnés et al., 2013; Larramendi et al., 2012; Salcedo et al., 2004; Uasuf et al., 2020).
With legalization of Cannabis sativa increasing in some regions of the world, there is greater commercial availability of food made from C. sativa or hemp (Bakowska-Barczak, de Larminat and Kolodziejczyk, 2020). There is evidence of contamination by toxigenic fungi (Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp.), pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli), as well as chemical hazards (heavy metals and pesticides) in Cannabis raising concerns about the safety of products meant for consumption (Montoya et al., 2020).
Turmeric is a widely used spice, that is also increasingly being consumed as a supplement as it can be associated with anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and even hepato- and nephro-protective properties (Shome et al., 2016). However, highly bioavailable forms of curcumin, active compound in turmeric, have been linked to several cases of hepatotoxicity (Lombardi et al., 2020; Luber et al., 2019). Different methods can be used to increase the absorption of curcumin, such as by addition of piperine (black pepper) or using a nanoparticle-based delivery system (Donelli, Antonelli and Firenzuolo, 219; Lombardi et al., 2020; Luber et al., 2019; Shome et al., 2016). In addition, adulterants added to turmeric can also result in exposure to heavy metals such as lead and chromium (Forsyth et al., 2019a; Forsyth et al., 2019b).
Demand for vitamin C (or ascorbic acid) supplements have risen dramatically, recently as a reaction to the pandemic (Grebow, 2021). This is due to claims that do not currently hold merit, such as associating prolonged, high vitamin C doses to detoxification of the body, charging of the immune system, cold and flu prevention, among others (Cerullo et al., 2020). High intake of vitamin C, in excess of daily dietary reference values, has been associated with increased risk of developing kidney stones, mainly in men (Ferraro et al., 2016; Thomas et al., 2013).
More consumers are turning to purchasing their food through online portals that link them to restaurants, grocery stores or other retail establishments, with the pandemic cited as one of the major factors influencing this behaviour (Rodriques et al., 2021). The high volume of online orders not only adds pressure on the e-order fulfilment infrastructure but also requires renewed adherence to food safety best practices. There is a rising popularity of mail-order food and meal-kits where different components of a dish – fresh produce, condiments, animal products, and cereals and grains – are packed in separate plastic packaging and shipped together in a box to the consumer who then prepares the meal according to instructions, which are also included in the box. A study that looked into the integrity of such home-delivered meal kits found a number of issues that raise food safety concerns, for instance insufficient cold-packaging, packages left outside for eight hours or more, crushed packages allowing cross-contamination issues between meat and ready-to-eat produce, among others. The authors also found insufficient and often inaccurate food safety information displayed on purveyors’ websites suggesting that consumers may have difficulties having access to relevant food safety information (Hallman, Senger-Mersich and Godwin, 2015). The addition of third-party delivery-services may further complicate such home-delivery systems as traditional shipping companies may not have an adequate cold-chain system in place, which can exacerbate food safety risks in case of missed or late deliveries. Prioritizing temperature considerations for storage, staging and delivery, using tamper-proof packaging, maintaining safe handling practices and taking steps to reduce cross-contamination, providing proper cooking directions in the packaging as well as leveraging technology to implement good traceability systems are key to ensuring food safety in this era of ecommerce.
Another interesting issue connected to the online purchase of food relates to the responsibility of intermediate platforms and their role in the food chain. Countries have adopted different regulatory solutions that go from recognizing a special role and responsibilities to considering platforms as another actor in the food chain.
What is the way forward?
Various considerations from environmental sustainability to health concerns, socioeconomic factors, and others are influencing consumer behaviours. Shifting consumer preferences and consumption patterns can trigger changes in dietary risks, not just from a nutritional point of view, but also from potential contaminants and additives. Since food safety risk assessments quantify risks based on hazards and the amount of exposure, such evaluation processes will need to keep up with changes in consumption patterns to stay relevant and protect consumers.
The Internet has revolutionized how consumers can search for and share information, and form opinions about a variety of areas that influence their lives, thereby shaping consumers’ perceptions and preferences. Consumers’ food safety awareness is affected by the availability and accessibility to food safety information, through a number of different sources of information including social media and other online sources, television, radio and so on (Rutsaert et al., 2013; Liu and Ma, 2016; Zhang et al., 2019).
Online sources can be important tools to engage and educate consumers on food safety and good practices, for instance, to understand how to properly read labels, to find facts on food processing, and to reduce foodborne illness risks and so on. However, the online space can also expose consumers to a lot of inaccurate or “fake” information and facilitate confirmation bias. This coupled with rising inequalities and a waning trust in decision-making bodies can fuel panic and cause unnecessary food waste, loss of revenue for food businesses as well as further undermine consumer trust in food supply. A lack of correct information can also generate an information vacuum allowing misinformation to proliferate. With both correct and incorrect information merely a click away from each other, consumers may find it difficult to parse out what is authentic. However, monitoring and countering misinformation in the public sphere is not straightforward as susceptibility to misinformation varies widely (Baptista and Gradim, 2020; Pennycook and Rand, 2020). It requires broad resources, timely engagement and effective communication strategies – promoting media literacy early, providing evidence-based knowledge appropriately, guiding viewers towards trusted sources, among others – from relevant agencies, private technology companies and non-profit organizations on both traditional and social media platforms.
Technological innovations will continue to provide tremendous utility in keeping pace with changes in the food sector driven by shifts in consumer preferences and demands, for instance, by identifying emerging allergens and contaminants in new food sources, establishing appropriate standards and creating adequate risk management methods. This is especially true for emerging sectors like functional foods or neutraceuticals where there is lack of knowledge about their risks and benefits which hampers harmonizing regulatory frameworks to guide the safe application of such foods (Thakkar et al., 2020)