4. New food sources and food production systems

4.1 Edible insects

Insects have been part of the human diet, in different regions of the world, for centuries (Meyer-Rochow, 1975), as insect-eating habits are not only connected to nutrition, but also stem from various socio-cultural practices and religious beliefs (FAO, 2013). Edible insects are classified under “new food sources” in this publication. This is because while they have been consumed in specific regions globally, there is currently a rising interest in incorporating insect-based products into the wider consumer base, including the Western countries where insect consumption is not popular.

Nutritionally, edible insects can be a good source of protein, dietary fibre, beneficial fatty acids, and micronutrients like iron, zinc, manganese and magnesium. However, the nutritional profiles of insects tend to be species dependent (Oibiokpa et al., 2018; Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013). Selling edible insects that are either farmed or collected from the wild can offer economic opportunities to rural communities through livelihood diversification (Doberman, Swift and Field, 2017; FAO, 2013; Imathiu, 2020). While most edible insects are harvested from the wild (Jongema, 2017), large-scale insect farming, for both human food and animal feed, is on the rise due to the ease of cultivation of insects and growing concerns about the environmental impacts of livestock production. While life cycle assessments are available for limited few insect species, insect farming is generally associated with less land and water use, and lower levels of greenhouse gas emissions as opposed to conventional livestock farming, making it attractive from an environmental sustainability standpoint (Doberman, Swift and Field, 2017; Miglietta et al., 2015; Oonincx and de Boer, 2012; Oonincx et al., 2010; van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). Some of the insect species of commercial importance include black soldier flies, yellow mealworms, lesser mealworms, crickets, grasshoppers and house flies.

What are the food safety implications to be considered?

The benefits this developing sector may bring must be weighed against potential challenges, one of which is determining possible food safety aspects that may impact the health of consumers. As with other foods, edible insects can be associated with certain food safety hazards, and a thorough assessment of food safety hazards will help to establish appropriate standards for the sector. Some of the key food safety implications for the production and consumption of edible insects have been covered in detail in a recent FAO publication entitled Looking at edible insects from a food safety perspective. Challenges and opportunities for the sector (2021).

In general, food safety risks associated with edible insects depend on the insect species, substrates (or feed) for insects used, how they are raised, harvested, processed, stored and transported (EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015; EFSA NDA Panel, 2021). Insects gathered from the wild and consumed raw may carry higher food safety risks than those that are raised and processed under controlled hygienic conditions (Garofalo et al., 2019; Grabowski and Klein, 2017; Stoops et al., 2016). The microbiota of insects can harbour foodborne pathogens, for instance spore-forming bacteria like Bacillus cereus sensu stricto (s.s.) and others like Salmonella sp. and Campylobacter sp. (Belluco et al., 2013; Osimani et al., 2017; Vandeweyer, Lievens and van Campenhout, 2020; Wales et al., 2010). More studies on the microbial species that typically make up the microbiota of commercially important insects are needed as insects are often consumed in their entirety. Improper handling and unhygienic storage of edible insects can also lead to contamination issues after processing methods (e.g. blanching, drying or frying) have been used to eliminate foodborne pathogens.

Certain alternatives to conventional substrates are being explored, for instance, food waste, agricultural by-products and even manure from livestock farms, to not only promote a circular economy but also to reduce economic costs associated with insect farming. However, the quality and safety of substrates need to be carefully monitored for any contaminants (biological and chemical) that they may contain as the nutrient content and safety of the produced insects depend on the substrates used for rearing (EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015). Pesticides used on agricultural products and antimicrobial residues in manure may also be found in insects if they are raised on such substrates (Houbraken et al., 2016). The accumulation of heavy metals (cadmium, lead, arsenic, etc.) in edible insects depend on various factors such as environmental contamination, insect species, metal type, as well as the substrates used (Charlton et al., 2015; EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015; Greenfield, Akala and van Der Bank, 2014; van der Fels-Klerx et al., 2016; Vijver et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2009). Some of the other potential chemical hazards that can be found associated with various edible insects are flame retardants, dioxins, heterocyclic aromatic amines, among others. More details on such contaminants can be found in the FAO (2021) publication.

Determination of allergenic potential of edible insects and the effect of processing on the allergenicity need further research. Individuals allergic to crustaceans (shrimp, prawn etc.) may be more vulnerable to allergic reactions to insects and insect-based foods (Broekman et al., 2017a; Reese, Ayuso and Lehrer, 1999; Srinroch et al., 2015). Cross-reactive allergies can be caused by certain pan-allergens, like arginine kinase and tropomyosin, that are common in arthropods⁵ (Belluco et al., 2013; Leni et al., 2020; Phiriyangkul et al., 2015; Ribeiro et al., 2018; Srinroch et al., 2015). In addition, de novo sensitization to yet unknown allergens from insects may occur and therefore require further research (Broekman et al., 2017b; Westerhout et al., 2019).

What is the way forward?

Interest in alternative sources of food (and feed) is rising in response to growing awareness of the environmental impacts of food production, which will need to be ramped up in the face of increasing global population. This is propelling development of the edible insects sector, with mass production of various insect species underway in different regions.

Edible insects may have the potential to provide a number of benefits, namely nutritional, environmental and socioeconomic. However, to successfully integrate edible insects into our food systems, the food safety perspective of this food source will need careful considerations, some of which have been described in the FAO (2021) publication. Characterization of the food safety hazards will enable creating insect species-specific hygienic practices for rearing, processing, and distribution. It will also pave the way for developing international standards and regulatory frameworks , which is also one of the major barriers in the way of establishing markets for insects and insect-based products (FAO, 2021)