Aquatic foods can be an integral part of a healthy diet that is environmentally, socially and economically sustainable. Unfortunately, their role in sustainable food systems is often under-recognized. This section highlights this role and how simple solutions can improve the contribution of aquatic foods to healthy diets and to the four betters (better production, better nutrition, a better environment and a better life) through the Blue Transformation Roadmap.
Why aquatic foods
Aquatic food systems are unique in many ways. Compared to other animal food systems, they on average have a lower carbon footprint and fewer environmental impacts. Almost half of aquatic animals are harvested from wild fisheries, while the remainder are farmed. Well-managed fisheries can ensure a sustainable supply of healthy aquatic foods. However, fishery resources are limited and the increasing global demand for aquatic foods requires a well-managed aquaculture sector to fill the gap. The growth rate of aquaculture production exceeds that of most other food production systems and still has great potential for expansion. Yet, most food production is still terrestrial. Annual growth of supply of aquatic animal foods has increased globally faster than annual population growth, boosting global per capita annual consumption from 9.1 kg in 1961 to 20.6 kg in 2021. It varies greatly between countries, and depends on many factors such as availability, accessibility, seasonality, and cultural and individual preferences. Likewise, expansion of aquatic food production and consumption requires upgraded value chains that ensure the social, economic and environmental viability of aquatic food systems.
Aquatic foods for better nutrition, a better environment and a better life
Recognized as an excellent source of protein, aquatic foods are an even more important source of other nutrients, in particular long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and various micronutrients difficult to find in many other foods, such as iodine, selenium, calcium, iron and zinc. Aquatic foods are considered among the healthiest foods and their consumption is linked to improved public health outcomes (UN Nutrition, 2021). Both iodine and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids are important for a child’s brain development. Moreover, omega-3 fatty acids play an important role in protecting against coronary heart diseases (FAO and WHO, 2010), and aquatic foods are low in saturated fats known to contribute to several non-communicable diseases (see Nutritional benefits of aquatic animal foods, p. 78).
It is increasingly recognized that consumption of whole fish (not only the fillet) provides important essential nutrients in local diets, in particular minerals and vitamins, as well as being relatively affordable for low-income populations, ensuring access to nutritious foods for some nutritionally vulnerable populations (Robinson et al., 2022) (Box 44). Studies on the nutrient density of aquatic foods and their greenhouse gas emissions have demonstrated their exceptional nutritional value and low climate impact (Bianchi et al., 2022; Hallstrom et al., 2019; Hillborn et al., 2018). Small pelagic fish such as anchovies, sardines and low trophic level species (known for their nutritional richness) generate fewer greenhouse gases than, for example, fed aquaculture. Non-fed farmed species like bivalves and seaweeds have an even lower carbon footprint and can have positive environmental impacts. Overall, aquaculture remains a good nutritional and environmental alternative compared to production of meats such as beef, pork and chicken.
BOX 44Small fish for food security and nutrition
In the struggle to reduce food insecurity and malnutrition, the role of small-scale producers is crucial, as is the importance of diversifying foods. The Illuminating Hidden Harvests study showed that small fish (less than 25 cm in length) constitute the bulk of the small-scale fisheries catch globally and could provide 20 percent of the recommended nutrient intake of calcium, selenium and zinc to 137 million women in Africa and 271 million women in Asia (FAO, Duke University and WorldFish, 2023). Small fish are nutrient dense and a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, micronutrients and protein, particularly when consumed whole. The diversity of small fish species and the fact that consumers can purchase them in small quantities make them often an affordable food in many low-income communities in the developing world. Consuming adequate quantities of small fish together with other foods contributes to a diverse, healthy diet for addressing malnutrition. In addition, small fish are often easier to process and preserve using low-cost technologies such as drying, salting and smoking, because of their size and lipid composition, allowing for quicker moisture reduction to increase shelf-life (Fitri et al., 2022). Informal marketing, together with appropriate and affordable technologies for processing, preservation and storage of small fish, ensures year-round availability, accessibility and affordability of small fish for low-income consumers (Bavinck et al., 2023).
It is therefore vital to value small fish beyond economic terms and recognize their contribution to food systems and to healthy and resilient communities, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. However, it is fundamental to support those working in small fish supply chains and aquatic food systems and to foster collaboration among governing actors across sectors if aquatic food systems are to be developed for the benefit of food security and nutrition (Bavinck et al., 2023). Governance plays a central role in improving aquatic food systems and supply chains of small fish, not only managing fishery stocks to ensure food security and nutrition now and in the future, but also supporting small-scale producers to meet food safety standards while maintaining the affordability of products to ensure equitable food systems which deliver nutrients to all.
FAO, Duke University & WorldFish. 2023. Illuminating Hidden Harvests – The contributions of small-scale fisheries to sustainable development. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4576en
Fitri, N., Chan, S.X.Y., Che Lah, N.H., Jam, F.A., Misnan, N.M., Kamal, N., Sarian, M.N. et al. 2022. A Comprehensive Review on the Processing of Dried Fish and the Associated Chemical and Nutritional Changes. Foods, 11(19): 2938. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11192938
Improving food security, nutrition and livelihoods through processing
When aquatic foods are processed, parts not considered edible are often removed – for example, the head, bones, skin, scales and trimmings, which represent 30–70 percent of the whole fish weight. They are rich in micronutrients, but some need further processing to become edible. Simple low-cost technologies such as drying, smoking, fermentation and milling can transform these parts into affordable and nutritious products, with even higher nutritional value than the fillet (Glover-Amengor et al., 2012; Toppe et al., 2007). These aquatic foods are high in omega-3 fatty acids, minerals such as iron, zinc and calcium, and vitamins such as A, D and B12 (UN Nutrition, 2021).
Improved utilization of fish by-products can reduce negative impacts on the environment and create additional economic activities among coastal populations (see Multidimensional solutions to food loss and waste, p. 183, Products: fishmeal and fish oil, p. 68 and By-product utilization, p. 71). FAO has supported home-grown school feeding (HGSF) programmes to encourage local production of fish and fish products such as underutilized locally produced small fish and fish powders produced from fisheries by-products. This promotes inclusive economic growth and better livelihoods for small-scale producers, as well as better nutrition in pilot schools where fish is served as part of a healthy school meal (Ahern et al., 2021; Toppe et al., 2021) (Box 45). An FAO study in Ghana (Glover-Amengor et al., 2012) promoted the use of dried fish powder produced from tuna frames. The product showed a high level of acceptability when included in traditional dishes in a school meal programme. In Guatemala, tilapia was included in school meals; in addition to fillets, other products like fish cakes were produced and had a high level of acceptability. Rather than contributing to just one meal, a single fish could provide two or three meals – improving the level of micronutrients in meals and reducing both cost and environmental impact.
BOX 45Home-grown school feeding
Home-grown school feeding (HGSF) aims to provide schoolchildren with safe, diverse and locally sourced nutritious foods. Simultaneously, it yields benefits for smallholder farmers and the broader community. What distinguishes HGSF from traditional school feeding initiatives is its focus on sourcing foods locally from smallholder farmers, thereby fostering a mutually beneficial relationship. In essence, HGSF programmes aim to fortify local agricultural and food markets through direct procurement from small-scale farmers. In order to retain HGSF’s “home-grown” identity, at least some of the foods must be locally sourced to highlight the additional objective of supporting local communities.
By procuring a diverse range of nutritious foods from local small farmers and producers, schools become catalysts for growth within their community’s agriculture sectors, encouraging diversity in food production that benefits the entire region. These programmes transcend the nourishment of children to forge sustainable agrifood systems.
Moreover, HGSF adopts a multifaceted approach, addressing various aspects of community well-being, including production, processing, distribution, nutrition, and waste management. This multifunctional approach makes it a versatile tool for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. It also contributes to sustainability by actively endorsing practices that help preserve the local environment, as well as curtailing pollution associated with handling, transportation and storage by streamlining the supply chain and ultimately reducing its carbon footprint. Sustainable production of aquatic foods actively contributes to the preservation of aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity. This approach inspires communities to protect their water resources and adopt eco-friendly practices in food production.
The incorporation of aquatic foods into HGSF programmes improves their nutritional value and their sustainability. Aquatic foods are a rich source of high-quality protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals, making them invaluable for the improvement of children’s diets, nutrition and health. Proper nutrition plays a pivotal role in cognitive development and school performance. By sourcing locally produced, nutritious foods, schools ensure that children receive balanced meals that not only support their physical growth but also enhance their ability to focus and learn effectively.
In summary, HGSF programmes can address a broad spectrum of challenges encountered by communities. By sourcing foods locally, bolstering support for local farmers and fishers, and integrating a wide range of nutrient-rich aquatic foods, these initiatives not only nurture the physical and intellectual well-being of children, but also improve economic growth and strengthen communities – reducing their reliance on external food sources. Home-grown school feeding makes meaningful contributions to food security, sustainability, community stability, and the well-being of the ecosystems on which it relies, exemplifying an effective approach for positive change at the intersection of education, food production and nutrition.
Several studies have reported high levels of food loss and waste (FLW) in the fish value chain (see Innovations in sustainable trade and value chains, p. 167). Most of these focus on physical losses of fish, and only a few have estimated the loss of nutrients. This, in part, is due to the limited data on the composition of aquatic foods consumed globally in different forms (i.e. fresh, sun-dried, smoked and fermented fish, as well as fish sauces and pastes) and including all parts (i.e. bones, eyes, muscle tissue). FAO and other partners are currently deploying efforts to expand food composition data on aquatic foods for better understanding of intake and loss (Box 46).
BOX 46Food composition data of aquatic foods
Aquatic foods are a key source of essential omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), micronutrients such as iodine, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamins B12 and D, and protein. Despite recognition of the potential of aquatic foods to nourish people around the world in a sustainable manner, they still tend to be overlooked in efforts to end hunger and malnutrition. More up-to-date and accurate food composition data on aquatic foods are needed to increase awareness on their nutritional benefits and to allow for evidence-based nutrition policies and programmes.
To help address this gap, FAO has developed a global nutrient conversion table (NCT) for application to the FAO Supply Utilization Accounts (SUAs), based on national or regional food composition data. Until 2023, SUA statistics (available through FAOSTAT) included only energy and macronutrients (protein and fats), while the global NCT provides data required to generate statistics for energy, macronutrients, vitamins (vitamins A, B6 and B12, thiamin, riboflavin and vitamin C), minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper and selenium) and fatty acids (total saturated, mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA and DHA) for fish and other aquatic products.
The FAO/INFOODs (International Network of Food Data Systems) global food composition database for fish and shellfish (uFISH) was developed in 2016. Currently, the database includes 78 species of finfish, crustaceans and molluscs. Unfortunately, it is still lacking the much-needed data on whole small fish species, important for food security and nutrition in many low-income countries. The full nutrient profiles for the broader diversity of aquatic foods consumed worldwide are also incomplete, and especially lack reliable statistics on vitamins and minerals. Databases that house this information are valuable for nutritionists, health practitioners, fisheries managers, researchers and policymakers.
To better understand data on the food composition of aquatic foods and recognize the strengths of various available databases, FAO and partners conducted a review of databases containing nutrient composition data on aquatic foods (see figure). Following this work, FAO began leading a three-year project to update uFISH aiming to expand information on the nutrient composition of, in particular, small fish species consumed whole and seaweed species not included in the current uFISH.
SUMMARY OF SELECT DATABASES CONTAINING NUTRIENT COMPOSITION DATA ON AQUATIC FOODS
SERVING UP DATA ON NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF AQUATIC FOODS
The nutrient values of fish and other aquatic foods can alleviate “hidden hunger” or micronutrient deficiencies for many people in a range of geographies. But nutrient measures for many species, food types and geographies are unavailable, and are prohibitively expensive to determine. Therefore, databases that house the data that do exist are incredibly valuable for health practitioners, fisheries managers, researchers and policymakers. There are many databases out there – each useful, overlapping and distinct in different ways. Here is a summary of these powerful databases, with the users they best serve, the types of data they hold and how they compare.
The paradox
There has recently been an increased focus on reducing FLW – estimated at 30–35 percent of production – including from aquatic environments (FAO, 2011b). Fish by-products are usually not considered as food; indeed, they are often utilized for non-food purposes and therefore not regarded as food loss. Reducing FLW while increasing the utilization of by-products for food purposes offers potential for increasing access to and availability of aquatic foods, complementing the expansion of aquaculture production to meet the increasing demand. Most importantly, processing fish by-products for human consumption can address deficiencies in nutrients such as iron, calcium and several other micronutrients. Figure 59 shows the potential for utilizing tilapia by-products to address food security and nutrition needs and the potential for reducing FLW.
FIGURE 59ELIMINATING LOSS AND WASTE FOR TILAPIA AND UTILIZING ITS BY-PRODUCTS FOR FOOD PURPOSES
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.
