The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2024

This section covers priority actions undertaken to upgrade aquatic food value chains and guarantee their social, economic and environmental sustainability. In addition to the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, the section covers guidance on social sustainability, innovative and technologically inclusive approaches to traceability and certification, reduction of fish loss and waste, and aquatic food safety. These aspects are illustrated in various boxes (Box 31, Box 32, Box 34, Box 35 and Box 37) presenting possibilities for improving trade and economic return from fisheries, reducing fish loss and waste, and strengthening aquatic value chain sustainability.

BOX 31 PREFERENTIAL ACCESS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Preferential access can considerably facilitate market access and trade, and the participation of countries in regional trade agreements (RTAs) is a longstanding and traditional method of granting such access. Preferential access implies lower import duties for products imported from parties to the RTA and, in many cases, the simplification by mutual recognition of import requirements, subject to negotiated conditions. Historically, most of these conditions emerge from economic and trade rules, including rules regarding product origin based on specific criteria.

Several RTAs, however, have recently considered additional preferential access conditions beyond traditional economic and trade requirements. These include environmental and sustainability conditions to grant preferential access, directly impacting fisheries and aquaculture products.

At the request of its Members, FAO is developing a database of RTAs for fisheries and aquaculture products. The database is designed to increase transparency and knowledge about “modern clauses” in RTAs (see figure), considering their complexity; it also aims to facilitate preferential access, with a particular focus on developing countries and small-scale operators. The database thus seeks to mitigate the existing information gap on the topic and promote trade agreement discussions with the benefit of increased international responsible trade flows. The inclusion of these “modern clauses” in RTAs underscores the importance of the adoption of relevant international instruments such as the FAO Port State Measures Agreement (see p. 146), the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies (see p. 168).

NEW PREFERENTIAL CONDITIONS IN REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS

NOTE: The list of conditions is not exhaustive.
SOURCE: Authors' own elaboration.

The WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, the sustainability of fishery stocks and the role of FAO

In June 2022, the World Trade Organization (WTO) adopted an agreement to regulate fisheries subsidies at its 12th Ministerial Conference. Upon its entry into force, the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies will be the first WTO instrument to address environmental issues by establishing a global regulatory framework for the provision of fisheries subsidies, recognizing that certain types of subsidies may have a negative impact on the long-term sustainability of marine ecosystems.

In addition to trade and administrative requirements, the agreement also includes three main prohibitions on the provision of fisheries subsidies granted or maintained by countries for: (i) vessels or operators engaged in IUU fishing or related activities; (ii) fishing of overfished stocks; and (iii) fishing outside the jurisdiction of a coastal country and beyond the authority of a relevant regional fisheries management organization or arrangement, which includes ABNJ.

With the adoption of the agreement, fisheries management and stock monitoring has become even more critical, especially given the emphasis on sustainability and notification obligations. In fisheries management, a complex and comprehensive collection of data allows for assessing the state of living aquatic resources to ensure maximum benefits for individuals, communities and countries from the sustainable exploitation of these resources.

Implementing fisheries management systems is essential for ensuring that countries comply with the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies framework, particularly considering the prohibition of subsidies linked to overfished stocks and IUU fishing operations.

FAO has regularly assessed the world’s marine fishery resources, reporting biennially aggregated data since 1971. However, considering the evolving and changing nature of marine fisheries, evaluation techniques and data accessibility, FAO has regularly revised its stock assessment methodology. The latest revision was launched in 2022 (see Evolving the way we assess the status of marine fishery stocks, p. 159).

The updated methodology seeks to revise the list of assessed fishery stocks to better reflect the dynamics of global fisheries and implement a more transparent, tiered approach, based on the quality of the information available, fostering a more direct relationship with the growing community of assessment and management institutions and experts in many countries.

At the same time, FAO continues to implement capacity-building programmes to assist countries in collecting, managing and processing data and information for assessing and reporting on the status of fisheries and fishery stocks, in line with the revised methodology and process.

The other “fisheries pillar” of the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies addresses the prohibition of subsidies for IUU fishing operations. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing refers to fishing operations conducted in contravention of applicable laws and regulations and of the applicable reporting procedures or conducted without a fisheries governance framework. It significantly impacts the depletion of natural resources, thereby jeopardizing the ecological integrity that supports fishery stocks and threatening natural capital. Moreover, it undermines sustainable and responsible fishing practices, diminishing the effectiveness of fisheries management programmes.

Generally, there is an underestimation of total losses associated with IUU fishing, particularly considering that many studies have only focused on estimating illegal and unreported catches, not analysing unregulated fisheries. The initial assessment by Agnew et al. (2009) estimated the yearly global loss caused by illegal and unreported fishing at between 11 million and 26 million tonnes of catch from 2000 to 2003, valued at USD 10–23.5 billion. A recent review of this study and its methodology for the period 2005–2014 estimates the yearly value of illegal and unreported captures at USD 9–17 billion. Furthermore, additional financial consequences ranging from USD 34 billion to USD 67 billion may occur due to secondary economic effects, income ramifications and tax revenue losses (Sumalia et al., 2020).

The WTO Agreement provisions prohibiting fisheries subsidies linked to IUU fishing have the potential to reduce this harmful and illegal practice. The agreement needs to be complemented at the national level with the effective implementation of the other existing instruments combating IUU fishing and illegal practices at all value chain stages. Progress in implementing the FAO Port State Measures Agreement (p. 146) describes the implementation status of the FAO Port State Measures Agreement and the FAO Voluntary Guidelines for Transshipment. FAO's standard setting on traceability and certification (p. 176) informs on the progress in implementing the FAO Voluntary Guidelines for Catch Documentation Schemes.^az

Finally, the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies deals with subsidies involving ABNJ. These are high seas zones extending beyond 200 nautical miles from any coastline and not subject to the jurisdiction of any single country or RFMO. Areas beyond national jurisdiction are frequently managed by specific instruments or global and regional arrangements, each with clear objectives and goals, including regional fishery bodies. In this regard, RFBs, which play a critical role in the preservation and governance of fishery stocks across various maritime areas, can be a practical means to enforce the prohibition of fisheries subsidies associated with unregulated ABNJ in the WTO Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies.

Social sustainability in fisheries and aquaculture

Fishing is one of the world’s most hazardous occupations. Ensuring safe and decent working conditions for all in fisheries and aquaculture remains one of the sector’s biggest challenges. The absence of, for example, adequate social protection or health care, the lack of formal working relationships, and inadequate working conditions are structural problems that persist in fisheries and aquaculture value chains, particularly in developing countries, where failure to enforce pertinent labour laws remains a significant problem in the sector.

Furthermore, human and labour rights abuses are still observed throughout fisheries and aquaculture value chains, mainly in fishing, farming and processing. These practices have social implications, particularly for the most vulnerable, such as migrant workers, women and children. Children engage in various activities in capture fishing and aquaculture and in associated downstream and upstream operations, for example, processing, marketing, net making and boatbuilding (FAO and ILO, 2013). Migrant workers are particularly exposed to modern slavery, bondage, forced labour and other abuses, which have been associated with IUU fishing.

The role of women is vital in the sector, but often insufficiently recognized. Women constitute a large percentage of the informal, lowest paid, least stable and less skilled segments of the workforce, and often face gender-based constraints. For example, they are often informal workers and therefore lack access to social protection schemes. Recognizing women’s crucial role, in particular in small-scale artisanal fisheries and aquaculture, is crucial for advancing women’s empowerment and ensuring sustainable development and social protection (Box 33).

BOX 33TRANSFORMING WASTE TO WEALTH IN SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES IN TOGO

In Togo, the women’s cooperative ALOWODO^* has successfully broadened its fish-processing activities in the fishing port of Lomé. In an interview conducted for the International Year of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022,^** the president of ALOWODO proudly described how the group, following a training course, had reduced food loss and waste by recuperating the processing leftovers (that would otherwise have been discarded) and transforming them into a marketable new product: fishmeal for livestock.

The backdrop to ALOWODO’s success is the support provided by FAO to 166 women processors in Togo during the COVID-19 pandemic, providing women’s groups with targeted capacity development and knowledge for improving hygiene standards and strengthening good practices in manufacturing and product traceability in order to cope with the restrictions imposed by the pandemic. Consultations and training sessions provided a good baseline mapping of the women’s organizations, cooperatives, unions and informal groups engaged in the post-harvest sector. New groups and collectives were formed by women and, in addition, some organizations that had ceased to be active revived their activities and operations. Common challenges were also identified, for example, the phenomenon of loans with prohibitively high interest rates.

Building on this baseline mapping, women’s groups have been included in the GloLitter Partnerships Project.^*** Marine plastic litter (MPL) is widespread in coastal communities around the world, degrading ecosystems, contributing to ocean pollution and biodiversity loss, and threatening public health (see Box 42, p. 188). Men’s and women’s exposure to and role in litter reduction are shaped by the gendered division of labour. Women tend to be engaged in the gleaning and fishing of shellfish and smaller fish and in post-harvest activities, while men are more involved in vessel-based fishing. Women can integrate MPL in their harvest and post-harvest activities; men, on the other hand, can contribute to reducing MPL caused by abandoned, discarded and lost fishing gear.

In Togo, the GloLitter Partnerships Project is working with women’s cooperatives in fishing communities to strengthen women’s remuneration through the collection and recycling of MPL. The trailblazing women’s group, ALOWODO, was already engaged in collecting and selling plastic waste, but the activity is poorly remunerated and does not make a substantial contribution to women’s income. To increase economic opportunities in the sector, ALOWODO and other women’s cooperatives are now participating in FAO training sessions on how to recycle plastic litter into other usable products, such as bags and shoes. They are well organized and are confident that with the training and support of the GloLitter Partnerships Project, they will be able to find profitable markets for their recycled products.

Cooperative members recycling plastic, Togo
© Agridigitale

NOTES: * ALOWODO is a women’s collective with around 20 members working out of the port of Lomé, Togo; it was formed for women working in the post-harvest sector and also focuses on collecting, transforming and selling marine plastic waste.
^** See: https://wildaf-ao.org/2022/12/22/au-port-de-peche-de-lome-les-mareyeuses-donnent-une-seconde-vie-aux-dechets-de-poissons/
^*** For further details, see: https://www.fao.org/responsible-fishing/marking-of-fishing-gear/glolitter-partnerships-programme/en/

BOX 34PESCATOURISM IN JINSHANZUI: CONNECTING THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT

Pescatourism offers an innovative solution for providing additional income to fishing communities. It can bring multiple benefits, reducing environmental pressure while generating additional returns for these communities, with a potential positive impact on gender balance, youth employment, culture and heritage. The scope of pescatourism goes far beyond recreational fishing, as is demonstrated in Jinshanzui.

Jinshanzui is a modern fishing village in the municipality of Shanghai, 69 km from Shanghai city centre. As coastal marine fishery resources were depleted – negatively impacting local development and fishers’ incomes – the village witnessed the rapid rise of pescatourism. Its success is attributed to strong policy support from national and local governments, a favourable investment environment, and improved infrastructure, as well as its proximity to an important market and easy access by public transport.

In 2010, funds were allocated to improve the infrastructure in and around the village and to restore the old fishing centre. In April 2011, the local township government established Jinshanzui Investment Management Ltd, with a full mandate for numerous interventions to promote tourism: development of the old town centre, creation of the ocean culture innovative development park, as well as the fishers’ tea house, marine fishery culture centre, fishing gear house and fishing boat museum.

Furthermore, the fishing cultural festival was conceived to attract tourists. A good business environment has been created and Jinshanzui Investment Management Ltd acts as mediator to settle any disputes between fishers and tenants. The development programme includes the provision of quality services, and private sector investment has been attracted to create luxury accommodation in the fishing village, complementing the already existing standard hotels.

Jinshanzui fishing village brings together traditions, culture and modern civilization; moreover, thanks to the excellent connections with Shanghai market, it successfully links pescatourism with sustainable fishing outcomes.

Marine fishery culture centre
© Wei Yang

Fishing gear house
© Wei Yang

The COVID-19 pandemic caused considerable disruption to fisheries and aquaculture activities, uncovering new hazards in already precarious employment conditions. Many companies lacked the resources for personal protective and sanitation equipment or could not reorganize the workspace to allow effective social distancing. Trade disruptions also reduced sales turnover and income, affecting both workers and employers, sometimes leading to bankruptcy and its social consequences.

Various international instruments are available to address human and labour rights, and to ensure decent working conditions and equitable social practices. However, their diversity, fragmentation and complexity pose a challenge for stakeholders, making their implementation and enforcement very demanding.

FAO guidance on social responsibility in fisheries and aquaculture value chains

To address the challenges for enforcing existing international instruments, Members gave FAO a specific mandate in 2017 to address labour rights, decent working conditions and social protection, including human rights.^ba Since then, FAO has been developing guidance documents on social responsibility in fisheries and aquaculture value chains. For this purpose, several multistakeholder consultations have been conducted worldwide to identify the limitations and requirements of the sector. The participation of representatives from industry, government, UN agencies, NGOs, trade unions, international organizations, and academia enables FAO to better understand the needs of the sector and the actions required.

Members requested that the FAO guidance should be supportive but non-binding, written in simple language and based on the wide range of existing international conventions, agreements and standards. The guidance will apply to all fisheries and aquaculture value chains, and take into account different national contexts and capacities, with a focus on developing countries and small-scale fisheries and aquaculture. While the target audience will be industry, the FAO guidance could also be a valuable reference for policymakers, RFMOs and civil society, for securing the social sustainability of the sector, including protecting workers’ rights, ensuring decent working conditions and improving access to social protection systems in fisheries and aquaculture value chains.

Using a transparent and inclusive process, the FAO guidance will comprise a general section addressing its nature and scope – including emphasis on the role of the private sector, internationally agreed principles, and cross-cutting aspects (e.g. gender, child labour) relevant to fisheries and aquaculture value chains – in addition to six specific sections covering fisheries and aquaculture value chains: (i) industrial fishing; (ii) small-scale fishing; (iii) aquaculture production; (iv) processing; (v) distribution; and (vi) retailing.

GLOBEFISH: 40 years of market monitoring and marketing intelligence

About GLOBEFISH

GLOBEFISH is a long-standing multi-donor project located within the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Division. Created in 1984, its primary mission remains the provision of unbiased price and market data and reliable analysis of international trade and markets for aquatic food products.^bb

GLOBEFISH collects, analyses, generates and disseminates market- and trade-related data and information from private and public sources all over the world. It also contributes to the global organization of technical and trade events, conferences, and capacity-building initiatives designed to facilitate trade, improve access to markets, promote communication among critical stakeholders of the fisheries and aquaculture chains, and foster cooperation between countries, international organizations and private companies.

GLOBEFISH generates and distributes publications, reports and statistical data on its website for the fisheries and aquaculture sector. For example:

• GLOBEFISH Highlights – the project’s flagship publication – provides in-depth analysis of thirteen important aquatic food commodities. It is widely acknowledged as one of the most authoritative sources of information on the global market for aquatic food products and forms the basis for the “Fish and fishery products” section of FAO’s Food Outlook publication.^bc
• European Price Report (EPR) and Chinese Fish Price Report (CFPR) publish detailed price information for major species and product forms for Europe and China.
• Trade Statistics are centred on trade flows between the most important markets and suppliers for specific major product groups, including catfish, groundfish, salmon, small pelagics, shrimp, tilapia and tuna.
• European Price Dashboard – launched in June 2021 – puts current market prices for around 350 products into an easily accessible interface on the GLOBEFISH website. Prices are automatically updated weekly on Mondays, drawing from large European wholesale and first-sale markets.
• Regular reports provide updates on GLOBEFISH activities to FAO Members of the COFI Sub-Committee on Fish Trade.

GLOBEFISH’s coverage continues to expand with the regular introduction of new information and publications on aquatic products with a specific focus on emerging issues and areas lacking sufficient disseminated data, such as:

• information on trade and production at a glance by country (Market Profiles);
• regulatory information, tariffs and trade data by country (Market Access);
• border rejections of aquatic products by food control authorities in major importing countries (Import Notifications);
• current regulatory requirements impacting trade of aquatic products by country (Food Safety Regulation for Fishery and Aquaculture Products); and
• data on prices and trade of aquatic products.

GLOBEFISH and the FISHINFO Network

GLOBEFISH fosters international cooperation and industry development through the global FISHINFO Network (FIN), linking six regional networks across the world: INFOPESCA (Latin America and the Caribbean), INFOFISH (Asia and the Pacific), INFOPÊCHE (Africa), INFOSAMAK (Arab countries), EUROFISH (Europe) and INFOYU (China) (Figure 57). GLOBEFISH coordinates the overall activities of these independent intergovernmental organizations forming the FIN, which it supports by delivering marketing information and technical services. The network represents the foremost source of up-to-date market and trade information, with periodical analysis reports in five different languages addressing all levels of the fisheries and aquaculture value chain.

FIGURE 57THE FISHINFO NETWORK

Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.
NOTES: EUROFISH – International Organisation for the Development of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Europe; INFOFISH – Intergovernmental Organization for Marketing Information and Technical Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Asia and Pacific Region; INFOPÊCHE – Intergovernmental Organization for Marketing Information and Cooperation Services for Fishery Products in Africa; INFOPESCA – Centre for Marketing Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in Latin America and the Caribbean; INFOSAMAK – Centre for Marketing Information and Advisory Services for Fishery Products in the Arab Region; INFOYU – China Fish Marketing Information and Trade Advisory Service Center.
SOURCE: Adapted from United Nations Geospatial. 2020. Map geodata [shapefiles]. New York, USA, United Nations.

FAO and GLOBEFISH have a coordinating role in the operations of the FIN, and the Director-General of FAO is also the depository for all formal documents regarding accession to membership of the regional networks.

GLOBEFISH partners and correspondents

GLOBEFISH partners (national government administrations, specialized agencies, academia, and other interested parties dealing with the marketing and trade of aquatic food products) play a significant role in the project’s success. In addition to providing financial support, they collaborate in the collection and dissemination of data, and the analysis and distribution of market information. Through these partnerships, GLOBEFISH enhances its global reach, credibility and impact, ultimately supporting the sustainable development of international trade in aquatic products.

The network of GLOBEFISH correspondents comprises individuals and organizations located in various countries around the world; the valuable information and data they supply results in market intelligence that supports the project’s objectives.

The world of information over the last 40 years

Over the past 40 years, the world of trade and market information has undergone tremendous changes with its availability increasing massively and in real time. However, new rules and regulations, including both regulatory and voluntary market-based measures, have brought fresh challenges for producers, exporters and importers. Access to neutral and up-to-date robust information on prices, market trends and market access requirements, together with market analysis, remains therefore of key importance to the sector in general and to exporters from developing countries in particular.

Together with its partners in the FIN, GLOBEFISH continues to provide capacity building on the major issues related to international trade in aquatic food products, supporting the sustainable development of global trade in aquatic products, facilitating market access, promoting social responsibility, and contributing to the achievement of the SDGs related to fisheries and aquaculture.

FAO’s standard setting on traceability and certification

Traceability of aquatic foods faces various challenges, some emerging from the fragmentation and complexity of fisheries and aquaculture value chains. Despite the increased use of digital tools, many value chains still lack reliable traceability to support fully product quality, safety, legality and sustainability (Tripoli, 2020). Specific to aquatic foods, major gaps and inconsistencies in traceability fall within six main categories (FAO, 2016; Blaha, Vincent and Piedrahita, 2023):

1. Standards gap. There is a lack of specific requirements or published standards in the sector, and effective traceability therefore relies on the gathering and sharing of information.
2. Awareness gap. There can be a lack of understanding of what traceability is, what it does and how it differs from other principles addressing safety, quality, legality and sustainability standards.
3. Commitment gap. Companies sometimes consider mainly the legal requirement of traceability , not its overall benefits and financial returns. The commitment gap may be linked to the awareness gap.
4. Implementation gap. Industry implementation often does not meet regulatory or market requirements. This may be due to the complexity of the production process. Maintaining the integrity of a lot or batch can be challenging when mixing many products from different suppliers, with inadequate document security and, most often, a lack of management control.
5. Technology gap. Traceability practices tend to lack robustness, considering the importance companies place on their marketing strategy and the economic interests involved. Despite the availability of a wide range of technological innovations to develop reliable traceability, there is still a lack of affordable, functional and robust technology for automatic data capture and sharing. Manual data entry – in particular at the beginning of the value chain and especially when performed by small-scale operators – requires significant time, resources and capabilities.
6. Economic gap. It is widely documented that good traceability not only fulfils legislative and market requirements, but it also reduces operating costs and underpins company branding and marketing strategies. However, operators required to implement more record-keeping or change their working habits often question the nature of the resulting benefits. A cost–benefit analysis of investment in improved traceability can provide the necessary evidence.

To address these gaps, over a two-year period FAO conducted online and regional consultations (FAO, 2022d) to finalize the development of a guidance document (Blaha, Vincent and Piedrahita, 2023) on end-to-end traceability in capture fisheries and aquaculture. The document provides details on the identification of critical tracking events (CTEs) and key data elements (KDEs) across all supply chain steps, as well as their respective data sources (Table 13). When applicable, it also provides a benchmark against the Global Dialogue on Seafood Traceability (GDST) listing of KDEs. Specific guidance is incorporated in due recognition of the specific sanitary requirements for bivalves. Box 36 illustrates a traceability system deployed in Saudi Arabia.

TABLE 13EXAMPLE OF IDENTIFIED HARVESTING CRITICAL TRACKING EVENTS AND KEY DATA ELEMENTS TO BE OVERSEEN BY A FLAG STATE TO COMBAT IUU FISHING

NOTE: CTE – critical tracking event; GDST – Global Dialogue on Seafood Traceability; KDE – key data element; IMO – International Maritime Organization; IRCS – international radio call sign; IUU fishing – illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; RFMO – regional fisheries management organization; UVI – unique vessel identifier.
SOURCE: Adapted from Blaha, F., Vincent, A. & Piedrahita, Y. 2023. Guidance document: Advancing end-to-end traceability – Critical tracking events and key data elements along capture fisheries and aquaculture value chains. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5484en

BOX 36BLOCKCHAIN TRACEABILITY OF SAUDI ARABIAN AQUATIC PRODUCTS THROUGH A DIGITAL AUCTION SYSTEM

An aquatic product auction system developed by FAO and Saudi Arabia has begun to transform fisheries and aquaculture trading and marketing in the country.

The Fisheries General Directorate of the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MoEWA) worked with FAO to develop a digital auction system supported by appropriate operational equipment to improve the safety and quality of aquatic foods in the country. Applying the Guidelines in Operations and Management of Fish Auction Halls – elaborated jointly by MoEWA and FAO in 2022 – the new system enables the government to track aquatic food products all along the supply chain. Thanks to a mobile application and screens located in the auction halls, inspectors, traders and consumers can easily obtain full details and data on a given aquatic food, by simply scanning a QR code. The resulting blockchain auction digital system is bringing aquatic foods to a wide range of traders and consumers.

This new auction system will also enhance the biosecurity and aquatic food safety programme of Saudi Arabia by advancing the fisheries system, thus enabling marketing and trading of aquatic products from capture fisheries to improve by following strict biosecurity and safety protocols as in aquaculture.

In 2021, fish utilization in Saudi Arabia stood at 402 385 tonnes, including 220 436 tonnes imported, with local consumption accounting for 88 percent and exports 12 percent. The post-harvest sector employed over 120 000 people, thanks to rapid expansion in recent years, driven by a dynamic private sector with a strong market and high demand among youth.

Before 2023 and the introduction of the digital system, fishers, auctioners and traders managed and operated the auctions manually – an inefficient process with deficiencies in conservation and quality, and limited participation of buyers. The advent of the blockchain auction in 2023 turned that operation into a more efficient and higher-quality process. A rapid scanning of the QR code on a box provides the history of the aquatic food – from harvesting or production location through to the end buyer. The system is complemented by new and innovative equipment including conveyor belts, apposite boxes and trolleys, as well as screens displaying the wares during auction.

The programme aims to improve the safety and biosecurity of the aquatic products and provide wider access to fisheries markets and products.”

Safe and high-quality aquatic foods can help address malnutrition and diseases while providing income and revenue to those communities that depend on fisheries and aquaculture in the country.

DIGITALIZING THE AUCTION OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS

SOURCE: Authors’ own elaboration.

AUCTION OF AQUATIC PRODUCTS IN SAUDI ARABIA

SOURCE: Authors’ own elaboration.

Furthermore, in order to offer solutions to address these standard-setting and technology gaps in fisheries, FAO is leading a pilot initiative to develop the Global Record of Stocks and Fisheries (GRSF). The GRSF is a web-based system that assigns unique identifiers to stocks and fisheries. It is designed to support the monitoring of the status and trends of fishery resources and could eventually be used to reinforce traceability and ecolabelling schemes by connecting them to the scientific evidence of the status of stocks and fisheries.

The GRSF is proposing a global repository of uniquely identified stocks and fisheries with standard codifications, thus enabling the collation, standardization and sharing of marine resources and fisheries information. The standard stocks and fisheries identifiers are the pillars of this initiative aimed at boosting connected knowledge on stocks and fisheries. To date, the GRSF is probably the biggest collation of stocks and fisheries data in the world from national, regional and global sources.

FISH4ACP: transforming aquatic food systems through a value chain approach

Fisheries and aquaculture activities continue to expand in most African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries. But growth has been uneven and slow, and the benefits do not always reach those communities that rely on aquatic foods for their food security and livelihood. Where fisheries and aquaculture management practices are deficient, these expansions challenge the ecological sustainability of aquatic resources.

The complexity of aquatic food systems calls for innovative approaches to address the root causes that are preventing these systems from performing to their potential.

In line with FAO’s Blue Transformation Roadmap and its third pillar focusing on value chain improvement, FISH4ACP – a five-year programme developed by FAO in collaboration with the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) – proposes a new methodology to enhance the productivity and competitiveness of fisheries and aquaculture value chains, ensuring that economic improvements go hand in hand with environmental sustainability and social inclusiveness. FISH4ACP is implemented by FAO with funding from the European Union and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development.^bd

What sets FISH4ACP apart from other initiatives?

FISH4ACP promotes a holistic and participatory approach to value chain development. It focuses equally on all three aspects of sustainability – the economic, the environmental and the social. FISH4ACP starts with an evaluation of each value chain by conducting a functional analysis and a sustainability assessment. The functional analysis examines all stages of the value chain; this includes identifying current and potential products, new market opportunities, incentives, behaviours and dynamics, as well as existing inefficiencies. The sustainability assessment uses qualitative and quantitative analyses to identify areas for improvement in selected value chains.

Stakeholder participation is ensured at every step of the process, from the collection of information for sector analysis, to the development of value chain upgrading strategies. Each strategy identifies opportunities to address inefficiencies along the value chain in order to achieve a common vision for the chain agreed on by the stakeholders themselves.

To further embed stakeholder involvement, the methodology supports the establishment of a multistakeholder partnership (MSP) – a collective approach to gather key actors within the value chain, from both the public and the private sectors, for regular coordination, information and knowledge exchange, and decision-making to help drive the strategic development of the value chain (Box 38).

BOX 38COLLECTIVE ACTION FOR TRANSFORMATIVE CHANGE: FISH4ACP MULTISTAKEHOLDER PARTNERSHIP IN CÔTE D’IVOIRE

The farmed tilapia value chain in Côte d’Ivoire has been underperforming for several decades in comparison with other countries. Current annual production (estimated at 8 000 tonnes) does not meet domestic demand (estimated at 50 000 tonnes) despite suitable environmental conditions and the availability of technology and know-how.

Reinvigorating the value chain therefore requires an innovative approach. To create a new dynamic for the sector, FISH4ACP has supported the establishment of a multistakeholder partnership bringing together key public and private actors from the entire tilapia value chain with the objective of identifying and removing the bottlenecks hindering the sector’s development.

This collaboration between producers, fishmongers, input suppliers and government officials has led to the development of a common value chain-upgrading strategy aimed at increasing national tilapia production ninefold over ten years. This will be done by focusing on four strategic areas:

• establishing new farms and developing the business models of existing ones;
• increasing the quality and availability of fish feed and seed;
• improving monitoring and overall management of the sector; and
• enhancing marketing of domestic tilapia.

To achieve this ambitious target, the partnership draws on expertise and financial resources from a broad range of stakeholders, projects and initiatives underway in the sector. With support from the FISH4ACP project (2020–2025), it aims to be a catalysing force for the development of the tilapia value chain in Côte d’Ivoire.

Farmer feeding tilapia, Côte d'Ivoire
© FAO/Sia Kambou

Processing workers smoking tilapia, Côte d'Ivoire
© FAO/Sia Kambou

Value chain upgrading indeed requires that different actors in the chain work together to achieve the desired improvements. These actors are linked through the professional and, in some cases, social relationships that bind them (commercial, regulatory, advisory, etc.). However, the depth and extent of these linkages vary from one value chain to another. Effective linkages between actors and overall value chain governance are essential to enhance the competitiveness of the value chain. The FISH4ACP methodology proposes to accompany and promote improved linkages, structure and governance mechanisms across the value chain with a view to improving its collective agency. Multistakeholder partnerships are a key tool in this respect.

After some delays linked to the COVID-19 pandemic, FISH4ACP has now reached cruising speed; implementation of the upgrading strategies is well underway with some promising preliminary experiences to share:

• First, timely value chain analysis (VCA) is key to ensure that the upgrading strategy focuses on critical bottlenecks preventing the chain from developing to its full potential. It helps maintain the momentum generated through the mobilization of motivated value chain stakeholders. Moreover, value chains are dynamic, with conditions and relationships evolving all the time. Prompt actions to address deficiencies or harness leverage points identified can generate more effective and positive impact.
• Second, stakeholder engagement is fundamental to ensure the sustainability of value chain development. However, the process may be gradual; starting with a motivated small core group of actors can help to initiate and generate a participatory dynamic that can gradually evolve into a fully-fledged MSP.
• Third, value chain upgrading does not happen in a vacuum. Many other public and private initiatives, projects and activities often take place within or around the value chain, with little or no coordination between them. Creating linkages between these various initiatives is key but challenging. In addition, mobilizing and connecting various efforts is critical to ensure a coherent value chain development process; the MSP as a platform for interaction is a great asset in this respect.

These learning points and many others are currently being used to adapt and reinforce the FISH4ACP methodology.

Beyond the methodological guidance, FISH4ACP is generating a wealth of information on the 12 value chains it supports (selected from the 79 cases submitted by cooperating countries), uncovering some of the hidden potential of fisheries and aquaculture in OACPS countries (Box 39). The findings of each VCA and the related upgrading strategies are presented in value chain reports available for all 12 countries. The development of knowledge products will continue over the coming years with the aim of sharing the knowledge generated by the programme as widely as possible. These knowledge products will focus on the most successful value chain upgrading practices and cover topics such as improved business environments, quality and safety of production, productivity, collective action, working conditions and energy efficiency.

BOX 39THE POTENTIAL OF USING BLACK SOLDIER FLY TO PRODUCE AQUACULTURE FEED IN ZIMBABWE

Tilapia consumption in Zimbabwe has gained in popularity but it is more expensive than locally caught lake sardines and imported fish. Production costs are high mainly due to the reliance on imported feed and feed ingredients, which are affected by macroeconomic factors such as foreign currency exchange rates, inflation and competing demand from other industries.

Larvae of black soldier fly represent a promising and nutritious alternative – reducing both feed costs and the dependency on imported fishmeal – for small-scale producers in Zimbabwe, where the FISH4ACP initiative helps to strengthen tilapia aquaculture and promote livelihood opportunities for women, youth and marginalized groups without adversely impacting the environment.

Black soldier flies are widely recognized for their waste conversion efficiency, good nutritional value, and strong immune system that prevents the spread of diseases. In addition, the black soldier fly pilot initiative in Zimbabwe has a low carbon footprint, is pro-poor and supports the autonomy of local farmers as the larvae can be produced with local waste products, at small, medium or large scale.

FISH4ACP partnered with the Chinhoyi University of Technology to pilot black soldier fly production – and black soldier fly-based fish feed – with small- and medium-scale enterprises in Zimbabwe. The university has trained ten government extension officers and several feed suppliers and farmers to pilot black soldier fly production, feed formulation and feeding regimes. The results of the pilots will be evaluated using a cost–benefit analysis, and feedback from stakeholders will inform the potential for their upscaling in Zimbabwe.

Feed formulation trials mixing black soldier fly larvae (left) with various ingredients (right)
© FAO/Zingyange Auntony

Before its completion at the end of 2025, FISH4ACP is working to set off a chain reaction across the fisheries and aquaculture value chains it supports in OACPS countries. This will enable these countries to move towards more sustainable, productive and inclusive fisheries and aquaculture, contributing to a Blue Transformation that will convert aquatic value chains into drivers of long-term economic, environmental and social development.

Multidimensional solutions to food loss and waste

Food loss and waste (FLW) in aquatic food value chains is a major global issue, enshrined in SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and Target 12.3 to “halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses” by 2030. Reducing FLW and increasing the consumption of sustainable aquatic foods are also key targets of FAO’s Blue Transformation Roadmap (FAO, 2022a). Reducing aquatic food losses requires complex and diverse actions by many participants in the supply chain, from production to consumption (Love et al., 2015). Research can serve to monitor and evaluate these efforts, but interventions to prevent post-harvest losses should be appropriate to the socioeconomic, business and political context of a country (Fahrenkamp-Uppenbrink, 2016).

However, effective post-harvest fish loss reduction does not rely on a single factor or variable such as the introduction of a new technology. On the contrary, legislation, capacity building, services and infrastructure, together with appropriate technology, are critical to ensure not only that solutions to FLW reduction are adopted but that they are sustainable.

A multidimensional and multistakeholder approach is promoted by the FAO Voluntary Code of Conduct for Food Loss and Waste Reduction, which includes ideas and examples of general solutions to FLW reduction that can be translated into the fisheries context (FAO 2022e).

Pivotal to the multidimensional solutions (MDS) approach^be promoted by FAO is the development of an MDS strategy which ties together the different aspects of the solutions. A key element of this strategy is the establishment and involvement of a multistakeholder FLW platform. The platform members are drawn from the public and private sectors, NGOs, civil society, food research and development institutes, investment and financial institutions, large retailers, and the media. The platform oversees the deployment of an MDS strategy, with members being actively involved in its development and validation as well as in monitoring and implementation.

With support from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, FAO has been actively promoting the MDS approach to address fish loss and waste. This necessitates multistakeholder involvement in the identification of multidimensional solutions and the development of FLW reduction strategies; these may be complex and cover not only policy and legislation, but also capacity development and technological and socioeconomic aspects. The MDS approach is echoed in the Food Loss and Waste in Fish Value Chains webpage, where further information on multidimensional solutions can be found.^bf

Multidimensional solutions strategies have been developed with partners in Colombia, Sri Lanka and the United Republic of Tanzania to address FLW associated with, respectively, a particular geographical location, a specific fishery, and small pelagic fish species. An MDS strategy builds on an FLW assessment, which provides the necessary understanding of: (i) where and when FLW is occurring; (ii) what the causes are; (iii) the extent (i.e. the volume and the economic impact); and (iv) who the key stakeholders affected are (as well as the potential beneficiaries of the MDS strategy).

The development of an MDS strategy involves a multidisciplinary team systematically undertaking a “theory of change” process – as successfully used by the FISH4ACP project – that has been adapted to fish loss and waste. The steps in the process are shown in Figure 58. Multidimensional solutions strategies resulting from this process are validated with the FLW platform before roll-out. Box 40 presents aspects of an MDS strategy developed with Sri Lankan stakeholders and Box 41 illustrates how solar energy can support reducing FLW in small-scale fisheries.

FIGURE 58FISH LOSS AND WASTE MULTIDIMENSIONAL SOLUTIONS STRATEGY PROCESS

NOTES: FLW – food loss and waste. Addressing FLW in aquatic food value chains requires a multistakeholder approach focused on a combination of some or all of the entry points.
SOURCE: Authors' own elaboration.

Significant resources are required to implement an MDS strategy, using funding from the public and private sectors in addition to donor support. Certain outcomes – for example, those entailing infrastructure development and equipment upgrading – may require significant investment. In contrast, assessments, planning, and policy and regulatory reforms are likely to be easier and less costly to adopt. The importance of solutions centred on technology and renewable energy is gaining traction and they are actively promoted by FAO.

An MDS approach, such as that in Sri Lanka, is built on consultation and consensus to address sustainable FLW reduction and entails long-term strategies. For a successful outcome, it is important to monitor and report on MDS strategy implementation, reviewing and adapting as necessary. Finally, development organizations must be well placed to work in conjunction with national authorities to facilitate the development and uptake of MDS strategies.

Aquatic food safety

Aquatic foods are highly valued for their nutritional benefits, as well as for their contribution to livelihoods and food security. Their production and per capita consumption have grown significantly over the last decades and are predicted to play an increasingly significant role in providing food and nutrition globally.

As with many other foods, there are risks associated with their production and distribution. Understanding the food safety hazards linked to their consumption is key to managing the relative food safety risks. While most microbiological risks can be mitigated by practices such as good hygiene, heat processing or cooking, there are chemical risks that originate from the aquatic environment, or which depend on feeding ground, age or trophic level. Dioxins, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) and methylmercury are of increasing concern for the food safety of aquatic products.

To address the growing public concerns regarding the presence of these chemicals in aquatic foods, in 2006, the Codex Alimentarius Commission requested scientific advice from FAO and the World Health Organization (WHO) on the risks and benefits of fish^bg consumption. FAO and WHO commissioned an analysis of the health benefits of fish consumption in comparison with the health risks associated with the potential presence of methylmercury and dioxins (including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dl-PCBs) in aquatic products. Two expert consultations on the risks and benefits of fish consumption were held by FAO and WHO in 2009 and 2023 to provide recommendations and food safety guidance based on the latest scientific evidence.

The expert panel examined the benefits of fatty and lean fish consumption for several human health outcomes including, but not only, allergy and immunological disorders, cancer, cardiovascular disease, neurodevelopment and neurological disorders, and overweight and obesity. Potential adverse effects of dioxins were investigated with respect to chloracne and other dermatological conditions, male and female reproduction, birth outcomes, thyroid disease and thyroid hormones, type 2 diabetes and obesity, cardiovascular diseases, hepatic disorders, cancers, and impacts on teeth, bones and the digestive, immune and nervous systems. Exposure to methylmercury from fish consumption was considered for effects on growth, and for neurological, cardiovascular and other health outcomes. Furthermore, a possible health-protective role of selenium with respect to the health-adverse effects of methylmercury was investigated with regard to cardiovascular outcomes, oxidative stress, the immune system, reproduction, thyroid hormones, birth outcomes, neurodevelopment and cognition, vision, and motor function.

Conclusions from the 2023 expert consultation clearly indicate that there are considerable health and nutrition benefits of fish consumption, and strong evidence exists for the benefits of whole fish consumption during all life stages. For example, there are associations between fish consumption by women during pregnancy and improved birth outcomes; and there are connections between fish consumption by adults and reduced risks of cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Methylmercury exposure from fish consumption in early life has been associated with reduced neurodevelopmental benefits; and there is heterogeneous evidence regarding selenium intake potentially providing some protective measures against the adverse health effects of methylmercury.

The results of the expert consultation set a framework for assessing the health benefits and risks of fish consumption and will provide guidance to the Codex Alimentarius Commission in its work on managing risks, considering the existing data on the risks and benefits of consuming fish. The consultation’s report presents detailed conclusions, identifies research needs and data gaps, and recommends a series of steps that Members should take to better assess and manage the risks and benefits of fish consumption. The summary report of the Ad hoc Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Risks and Benefits of Fish Consumption contains key conclusions and recommendations.^bh Examples of emerging concerns for the safety of aquatic foods are presented in Box 42 and Box 43.

BOX 42THE IMPACTS OF MICROPLASTICS ON THE SAFETY OF AQUATIC FOODS

Microplastics (0.1 µm – 5 mm in diameter) and nanoplastics (< 0.1 µm in diameter) result from the degradation of plastic waste and can pose a threat to aquatic organisms, food safety and public health. Foods are an important pathway of human exposure to microplastics. Exposure to the plastic polymers themselves is cause for concern because, although they are generally considered to be biologically inert, reactive compounds may still be embedded in their structure; in addition, microplastics may also absorb contaminants from their environment.

Microplastics have been found to be widespread in a variety of foods, and their presence in aquatic products has been the focus of several studies. Reports in the scientific literature identify various harmful health effects, with neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and immunotoxicity among the main consequences of exposure to microplastics.

Although the reported hazards and their associated exposure levels are currently considered low in aquatic foods, significant challenges – data limitations for other food commodities, knowledge gaps on the toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics, and a lack of standardized analytical methods – hamper the formulation of definitive conclusions on the public health significance of these particles. An FAO report (Garrido Gamarro and Costanzo, 2022) analyses these issues and identifies the need for the development and harmonization of reliable analytical techniques for micro- and nanoplastics in foods; further investigation into the occurrence and toxicity of these substances in food value chains; and evaluation of acute and chronic exposure to microplastics in various foods to understand the overall impact and propose effective preventative measures.

Microplastics: their ingestion and presence in fish
SOURCE: Adapted from Barboza, L.G.A., Lopes, C., Oliveira, P., Bessa, F., Otero, V., Henriques, B., Raimundo, J., Caetano, M., Vale, C. & Guilhermino, L. 2020. Microplastics in wild fish from North East Atlantic Ocean and its potential for causing neurotoxic effects, lipid oxidative damage, and human health risks associated with ingestion exposure. Science of the Total Environment, 717: 134625. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134625

SOURCE: Garrido Gamarro, E. & Costanzo, V. 2022. Microplastics in food commodities – A food safety review on human exposure through dietary sources. Food Safety and Quality Series, No. 18. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc2392en

BOX 43ENSURING THE SAFETY OF SEAWEED FOODS

World seaweed production has more than tripled since 2000, reaching around 38 million tonnes in 2022, mostly from aquaculture. Between 30 percent and 38 percent of production is used for human consumption, and seaweed aquaculture provides significant employment opportunities for coastal communities, in particular for women and youth (Cai et al., 2021).

Recent decades have seen growing interest globally in seaweeds thanks to their great potential for improved nutrition, pharmaceutical and cosmetics uses, carbon sequestration, and ecosystem services. It is therefore necessary to consider carefully the food safety implications of seaweed production and utilization and develop adequate legislation, codes and guidelines to manage the associated hazards.

Hazards potentially posed by seaweed consumption depend on, inter alia, the type of seaweed, its physiology, the water and season in which it grows, and the harvesting and processing methods adopted. Hazards caused by microorganisms and toxic levels of heavy metals and marine biotoxins have been associated with seaweeds, but there are limited data on their occurrence across the wide variety of seaweed species.

An FAO–WHO report (2022) indicates that heavy metals (principally inorganic arsenic and cadmium), microbial hazards (e.g. Salmonella spp.) and high iodine levels might raise food safety concerns in seaweed products. However, the limited national and regional seaweed intake data make it difficult to evaluate populations’ exposure from seaweed to these potentially toxic components. More data are necessary to conduct a risk assessment of potential hazards, to establish their public health significance, and to provide evidence for the development and subsequent enforcement of food legislation. The report provides basic information and guidance to Codex Alimentarius for the development of a Codex standard or guidelines that specifically address food safety during seaweed production, processing and utilization. Such guidelines will be key for unlocking the potential – economic, nutritional and environmental – of seaweeds.

Ingredients for pickled seaweed
© FAO/David Hogsholt

SOURCES: FAO & WHO. 2022. Report of the expert meeting on food safety for seaweed – Current status and future perspectives. Rome, 28–29 0ctober 2021. Food Safety and Quality Series, No. 13. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0846en Cai, J., Lovatelli, A., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Cornish, L., Dabbadie, L., Desrochers, A., Diffey, S. et al. 2021. Seaweeds and microalgae: an overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular, No. 1229. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5670en