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1 FAO. 2021. Report of the Council of FAO – Hundred and Sixty-sixth Session, 26 April – 1 May 2021. CL 166/REP. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/nf693en/nf693en.pdf
2 TEEB. 2018. TEEB for Agriculture & Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations Report. Geneva, Switzerland, UN Environment. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Foundations_Report_Final_October.pdf
3 Atkinson, G. & Pearce, D. 1995. Measuring sustainable development. In: D.W. Bromley, ed. Handbook of Environmental Economics, pp. 166–182. Oxford, UK, Blackwell.
4 Jansson, A., Hammer, M., Folke, C. & Costanza, R., eds. 1994. Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability. Washington, DC, Island Press.
5 Lord, S. 2020. Valuing the impact of food: Towards practical and comparable monetary valuation of food system impacts. Oxford, UK, FoodSIVI. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Valuing-the-impact-of-food-Report_Foodsivi.pdf
6 Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. 2002. What is the difference between private and social costs, and how do they relate to pollution and production? In: Education. [Cited 14 March 2023]. https://www.frbsf.org/education/publications/doctor-econ/2002/november/private-social-costs-pollution-production
7 FAO & WHO. (forthcoming). Healthy diet fact sheet. Rome, FAO.
8 FAO, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), WFP (World Food Programme) & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cc3017en/cc3017en.pdf
9 de Adelhart Toorop, R., Yates, J., Watkins, M., Bernard, J. & de Groot Ruiz, A. 2021. Methodologies for true cost accounting in the food sector. Nature Food, 2(9): 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00364-z
10 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. & Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-11. Rome, FAO.
11 Acheson, J. 2000. Varieties of Institutional Failure. Keynote Address for the Meetings of the International Association for the Study of Common Property Resources, 3 June 2000, Bloomington, USA. https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/577/iascpkeynote.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
12 Acheson, J.M. 2006. Institutional Failure in Resource Management. Annual Review of Anthropology, 35(1): 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123238
13 Gibson, C. 1999. Politicians and Poachers: The Political Economy of Wildlife Policy in Africa. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
14 Transparency International. n.d. What is corruption? In: Transparency International. [Cited 21 July 2023]. https://www.transparency.org/en/what-is-corruption
15 Transparency International & FAO. 2011. Corruption in the Land Sector. Working Paper, No. 04/2011. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/am943e/am943e00.pdf
16 Hudson, B., Hunter, D. & Peckham, S. 2019. Policy failure and the policy-implementation gap: can policy support programs help? Policy Design and Practice, 2(1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/25741292.2018.1540378
17 Norris, E., Kidson, M., Bouchal, P. & Rutter, J. 2014. Doing them Justice: Lessons from four cases of policy implementation. London, Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/Policy%20Implementation%20case%20studies%20report%20-%20final.pdf
18 Fontaine, P. 2014. Free riding. Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 36(3): 359–376. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1053837214000376
19 Tisdell, C.A. 2005. Open-access, common-property and natural resource management. In: Economics of Environmental Conservation. Second edition, Chapter 6. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781845428266.00012
20 Fox, J. 2007. The uncertain relationship between transparency and accountability. Development in Practice, 17(4–5): 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520701469955
21 IOS. 2006. 14040: Environmental management–life cycle assessment– principles and framework. London, British Standards Institution.
22 Mogensen, L., Hermansen, J.E., Halberg, N., Dalgaard, R., Vis, J.C. & Smith, B.G. 2009. Life Cycle Assessment Across the Food Supply Chain. In: Sustainability in the Food Industry. pp. 115–144. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118467589.ch5
23 Clément, V. & Moureau, N. 2019. Merit goods. In: A. Marciano & G.B. Ramello, eds. Encyclopedia of Law and Economics. New York, USA, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7753-2_663
24 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-12. Rome, FAO.
25 Cabral L.M.B. 2017. Introduction to industrial organization. Second edition. Cambridge, USA, The MIT Press.
26 OECD. 2018. Market concentration. In: OECD. [Cited 9 March 2023]. https://www.oecd.org/competition/market-concentration.htm
27 Heller, W.P. 1999. Equilibrium market formation causes missing markets. In: G. Chichilnisky, ed. Markets, Information and Uncertainty: Essays in Economic Theory in Honor of Kenneth J. Arrow. Cambridge University Press.
28 Burningham, D. & Davies, J. 2004. Environmental Economics. Oxford, UK, Heinemann. [Cited 9 March 2023]. https://books.google.it/books?id=qrVd2unmawsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
29 Varian, H.R. 1992. Microeconomic analysis. Third edition. New York, USA, Norton.
30 Cambridge Dictionary. 2023. Materiality. In: Cambridge Dictionary. [Cited 19 May 2023]. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/materiality
31 Eigenraam, M., Jekums, A., Mcleod, R., Obst, C. & Sharma, K. 2020. Applying the TEEBAgriFood Evaluation Framework: Overarching Implementation Guidance. Global Alliance for the Future of Food. https://futureoffood.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GA_TEEBAgriFood_Guidance.pdf
32 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. & Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-13. Rome, FAO.
33 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023 – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study, No. 31. Rome, FAO.
34 McConnell, A. 2015. What is policy failure? A primer to help navigate the maze. Public Policy and Administration, 30(3–4): 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076714565416
35 Ansell, C., Sørensen, E. & Torfing, J. 2017. Improving policy implementation through collaborative policymaking. Policy & Politics, 45(3): 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14972799760260
36 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
37 IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services). 2016. The methodological assessment of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services – Summary for policymakers. Bonn, Germany, Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/pdf/SPM_Deliverable_3c.pdf
38 Oxford Reference. n.d. business-as-usual scenario. In: Oxford Reference. [Cited 31 July 2023]. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609957.001.0001/acref-9780198609957-e-1026
39 IPBES. 2017. Exploratory scenarios. In: IPBES. [Cited 5 April 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/exploratory-scenarios
40 IPBES. 2017. Policy-screening (ex-ante) scenarios. In: IPBES. [Cited 5 April 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/policy-screening-ex-ante-scenarios
41 IPBES. 2017. Restrospective policy evaluation (ex-post evaluation). In: IPBES. [Cited 5 April 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/restrospective-policy-evaluation-ex-post-evaluation
42 United Nations. 2021. Policy Scenario Analysis using SEEA Ecosystem Accounting. [Cited 19 May 2023]. https://seea.un.org/content/policy-scenario-analysis-using-seea-ecosystem-accounting
43 UNEP, TEEB, Capitals Coalition & GAFF (Global Alliance for the Future of Food). 2021. True Cost Accounting For Food Systems: Redefining Value To Transform Decision-Making. Technical Briefing Note. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TechnicalBriefingNote.pdf
Chapter 1
1 Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. FAO Statistics Working Paper Series, No. 23-34. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cc4337en/cc4337en.pdf
2 FAO. 2022. The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging agricultural automation for transforming agrifood systems. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/CC7724EN/CC7724EN.pdf
3 Kraak, V.I., Swinburn, B., Lawrence, M. & Harrison, P. 2014. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutrition, 17(11): 2467–2483. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014000093
4 HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts). 2017. Nutrition and food systems – A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i7846e.pdf
5 UNSCN (United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition). 2016. Impact Assessment of Policies to Support Healthy Food Environments and Healthy Diet – Implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. Rome. https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/document/DiscPaper3-EN-WEB.pdf
6 Capitals Coalition. n.d. The Capitals Approach. In: Capitals Coalition. [Cited 8 December 2022]. https://capitalscoalition.org/capitals-approach
7 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
8 Ewert, B. & Loer, K. 2021. Advancing behavioural public policies: in pursuit of a more comprehensive concept. Policy and Politics, 49(1): 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557320X15907721287475
9 Cesareo, M., Sorgente, A., Labra, M., Palestini, P., Sarcinelli, B., Rossetti, M., Lanz, M. et al. 2022. The effectiveness of nudging interventions to promote healthy eating choices: A systematic review and an intervention among Italian university students. Appetite, 168: 105662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105662
10 Elwin, P., Amadi, E., Mitchell, E. & Hunter, P. 2023. Financial markets roadmap for transforming the global food system. In: Planet Tracker. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Financial-Markets-Roadmap-for-transforming-the-Global-Food-System.pdf
11 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. & Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-13. Rome, FAO.
12 Meybeck, A. & FAO, eds. 2014. Voluntary Standards for Sustainable Food Systems: Challenges and Opportunities – A Workshop of the FAO/UNEP Programme on Sustainable Food Systems. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i3421e/i3421e.pdf
13 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. & Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa – Trends, challenges and priorities. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4492en/cb4492en.pdf
14 TEEB. 2018. TEEB for Agriculture & Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations. Geneva, Switzerland, UN Environment. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Foundations_Report_Final_October.pdf
15 Gemmill-Herren, B., Baker, L.E. & Daniels, P.A., eds. 2021. True cost accounting for food – Balancing the scale. London, New York, Routledge.
16 Gravelle, H. & Rees, R. 2004. Microeconomics. Third edition. Harlow, UK, Financial Times/Prentice Hall.
17 Rocha, C. 2007. Food Insecurity as Market Failure: A Contribution from Economics. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 1(4): 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1300/J477v01n04_02
18 Mateo-Sagasta, J., Marjani Zadeh, S. & Turral, H., eds. 2018. More people, more food, worse water? A global review of water pollution from agriculture. Rome and Colombo, FAO and IWMI (International Water Management Institute). www.fao.org/3/ca0146en/CA0146EN.pdf
19 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-12. Rome, FAO.
20 Kerr, W.A. & Hobbs, J.E. 2022. Is the quest to eat healthy a route to enhancing consumer’s food security? Agriculture & Food Security, 11(1): 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00340-7
21 Musgrave, R.A. 1987. Merit goods. Vol. 3. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics.
22 Cabral L.M.B. 2017. Introduction to industrial organization. Second edition. Cambridge, USA, The MIT Press.
23 De Castro, P., Adinolfi, F., Capitanio, F. & Di Falco, S. 2011. Building a New Framework for the Common Agricultural Policy: A Responsibility Towards the Overall Community. EuroChoices, 10(1): 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-692X.2010.00171.x
24 Acheson, J. 2000. Varieties of Institutional Failure. Keynote Address for the Meetings of the International Association for the Study of Common Property Resources, 3 June 2000, Bloomington, Indiana, USA. https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/577/iascpkeynote.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
25 McConnell, A. 2015. What is policy failure? A primer to help navigate the maze. Public Policy and Administration, 30(3–4): 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076714565416
26 FAO. 2022. Thinking about the future of food safety – A foresight report. Rome. http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb8667en
27 Transparency International. n.d. What is corruption? In: Transparency International. [Cited 21 July 2023]. https://www.transparency.org/en/what-is-corruption
28 Transparency International & FAO. 2011. Corruption in the Land Sector. Working Paper, No. 04/2011. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/am943e/am943e00.pdf
29 Nawaz, F. 2008. Corruption in land administration/land management in Kosovo. Bergen, Norway, U4 and Transparency International. https://www.u4.no/publications/corruption-in-land-administration-land-management-in-kosovo.pdf
30 Hudson, B., Hunter, D. & Peckham, S. 2019. Policy failure and the policy-implementation gap: can policy support programs help? Policy Design and Practice, 2(1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/25741292.2018.1540378
31 Norris, E., Kidson, M., Bouchal, P. & Rutter, J. 2014. Doing them Justice: Lessons from four cases of policy implementation. London, Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/Policy%20Implementation%20case%20studies%20report%20-%20final.pdf
32 Gibson, C. 1999. Politicians and Poachers: The Political Economy of Wildlife Policy in Africa. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
33 Ansell, C., Sørensen, E. & Torfing, J. 2017. Improving policy implementation through collaborative policymaking. Policy & Politics, 45(3): 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14972799760260
34 Sumaila, U.R., Pierruci, A., Oyinlola, M.A., Cannas, R., Froese, R., Glaser, S., Jacquet, J. et al. 2022. Aquaculture over-optimism? Frontiers in Marine Science, 9: 984354. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.984354
35 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3017en. https://www.fao.org/3/cc3017en/cc3017en.pdf
36 Wolter, M. 2022. Sustainable food systems need True Cost Accounting. Rural 21, 19 December 2022. https://www.rural21.com/fileadmin/downloads/2022/en-04/rural2022_04-S09-10.pdf
37 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. & Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-11. Rome, FAO.
38 Lord, S. & Ingram, J.S.I. 2021. Measures of equity for multi-capital accounting. Nature Food, 2(9): 646–654. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00336-3
39 Roe, D., Seddon, N. & Elliott, J. 2019. Biodiversity loss is a development issue. A rapid review of the evidence. Issue paper, April 2019. International Institute for Development. https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/17636IIED.pdf
40 Füssel, H.-M. 2010. How inequitable is the global distribution of responsibility, capability, and vulnerability to climate change: A comprehensive indicator-based assessment. Global Environmental Change, 20(4): 597–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.009
41 Perez-Escamilla, R., Bermudez, O., Buccini, G.S., Kumanyika, S., Lutter, C.K., Monsivais, P. & Victora, C. 2018. Nutrition disparities and the global burden of malnutrition. BMJ, 361: k2252. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2252
42 Rosa, L., Chiarelli, D.D., Rulli, M.C., Dell’Angelo, J. & D’Odorico, P. 2020. Global agricultural economic water scarcity. Science Advances, 6(18): eaaz6031. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaz6031
43 FAO. 2020. The State of Food and Agriculture 2020. Overcoming water challenges in agriculture. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb1447en/cb1447en.pdf
44 Rockefeller Foundation. 2021. True Cost of Food – Measuring What Matters to Transform the U.S. Food System. New York, USA. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/True-Cost-of-Food-Full-Report-Final.pdf
45 Lord, S. 2022. Incurred and avoided external costs from the removal of agricultural trade barriers and farm sector subsidies. Background Report for the Food System Economic Commission. Oxford, UK, Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford.
46 Lord, S. 2020. Valuing the impact of food: Towards practical and comparable monetary valuation of food system impacts. Oxford, UK, FoodSIVI. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Valuing-the-impact-of-food-Report_Foodsivi.pdf
47 David-Benz, H., Sirdey, N., Deshons, A., Orbell, C. & Herlant, C. 2022. Catalysing the sustainable and inclusive transformation of food systems – Conceptual framework and method for national and territorial assessments. Rome, FAO, Brussels, European Union and Montpellier, France, CIRAD. https://www.fao.org/3/cb8603en/cb8603en.pdf
48 UNEP, TEEB, Capitals Coalition & GAFF. 2021. True Cost Accounting For Food Systems: Redefining Value To Transform Decision-Making. Technical Briefing Note. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TechnicalBriefingNote.pdf
49 Cambridge Dictionary. Materiality. In: Cambridge Dictionary. [Cited 19 05 2023]. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/materiality
50 Impact Institute. 2023. The current field of true cost accounting: An analysis of the similarities and differences of True Cost Accounting frameworks. TCA Accelerator. https://tcaaccelerator.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/The-Current-Field-of-True-Cost-Accounting-Final.pdf
51 Capitals Coalition. 2023. TEEB for agriculture and food: operational guidelines for business. Putting nature and people at the centre of food system transformation. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TEEB-for-Agriculture-and-Food-Operational-Guidelines-for-Business.pdf
Chapter 2
1 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023 – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study, No. 31. Rome, FAO.
2 FAO. 2014. Food wastage footprint – Full-cost accounting. Final report. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i3991e/i3991e.pdf
3 TEEB. 2015. TEEB for Agriculture & Food: an interim report. Geneva, Switzerland, UNEP. https://www.teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/TEEBAgFood_Interim_Report_2015_web.pdf
4 Food System Economics Commission. 2023. Food, Planet, Health: Moving towards healthy, inclusive, and nature-positive food systems. [Cited 23 May 2023]. https://foodsystemeconomics.org
5 FAO. 2021. Report to the Council. Hundred and Sixty-sixth Session, 26 April – 1 May 2021. CL 166/REP. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/nf693en/nf693en.pdf
6 FAO. 2022. The State of the World’s Forests 2022. Forest pathways for green recovery and building inclusive, resilient and sustainable economies. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9360en
7 Kruid, S., Macedo, M.N., Gorelik, S.R., Walker, W., Moutinho, P., Brando, P.M., Castanho, A. et al. 2021. Beyond Deforestation: Carbon Emissions From Land Grabbing and Forest Degradation in the Brazilian Amazon. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 4: 645282. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2021.645282
8 Hosonuma, N., Herold, M., De Sy, V., De Fries, R.S., Brockhaus, M., Verchot, L., Angelsen, A. & Romijn, E. 2012. An assessment of deforestation and forest degradation drivers in developing countries. Environmental Research Letters, 7(4): 044009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044009
9 FAO. 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825en
10 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
11 Mathers, C.D. 2020. History of global burden of disease assessment at the World Health Organization. Archives of Public Health, 78(1): 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00458-3
12 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4474en/cb4474en.pdf
13 Cattaneo, A., Sadiddin, A., Vaz, S., Conti, V., Holleman, C., Sánchez, M.V. & Torero, M. 2023. Viewpoint: Ensuring affordability of diets in the face of shocks. Food Policy, 117: 102470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2023.102470
14 FAO. 2021. The State of Food and Agriculture 2021. Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4476en/cb4476en.pdf
15 Jaffee, S., Henson, S., Unnevehr, L., Grace, D. & Cassou, E. 2019. The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e018c0ed-0e18-517d-b733-cbfc90f6a371/content
16 FoodSIVI. 2023. SPIQ-FS. [Cited 1 June 2023]. https://foodsivi.org/what-we-do/projects/spiq-food-system-v0
17 Leimbach, M., Kriegler, E., Roming, N. & Schwanitz, J. 2017. Future growth patterns of world regions – A GDP scenario approach. Global Environmental Change, 42: 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.005
18 FOLU. 2019. Growing Better: Ten Critical Transitions to Transform Food and Land Use. London. https://www.foodandlandusecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FOLU-GrowingBetter-GlobalReport.pdf
19 Springmann, M. 2020. Valuation of the health and climate-change benefits of healthy diets. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 20-03. Rome, FAO.
20 Hendriks, S., de Groot Ruiz, A., Acosta, M.H., Baumers, H., Galgani, P., Mason-D’Croz, D., Godde, C. et al. 2023. The True Cost of Food: A Preliminary Assessment. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation, pp. 581–601. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_32
21 Galgani, P., Woltjer, G., de Adelhart Toorop, R., de Groot Ruiz, A. & Varoucha, E. 2021. Land use, Land use change, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: True pricing method for agri-food products. Wageningen, Kingdom of the Netherlands, Wageningen University and Research. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/555581
22 Lord, S. 2021. Estimation of marginal damage costs for loss of ecosystem services from land-use change or ecosystem degradation. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford, UK, Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-3-Land-Use_DRAFT.pdf
23 WHO. 2015. WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases. Foodborne disease burden epidemiology Reference Group 2007–2015. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/199350/9789241565165_eng.pdf?sequence=1
24 David-Benz, H., Sirdey, N., Deshons, A., Orbell, C. & Herlant, C. 2022. Catalysing the sustainable and inclusive transformation of food systems – Conceptual framework and method for national and territorial assessments. Rome, FAO, Brussels, European Union and Montpellier, France, CIRAD. https://www.fao.org/3/cb8603en/cb8603en.pdf
Chapter 3
1 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-12. Rome, FAO.
2 FAO. 2021. Guidelines on data disaggregation for SDG Indicators using survey data. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb3253en/cb3253en.pdf
3 FAO. 2021. The impact of disasters and crises on agriculture and food security: 2021. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cb3673en/cb3673en.pdf
4 Mullié, W.C., Prakash, A., Müller, A. & Lazutkaite, E. 2023. Insecticide Use against Desert Locust in the Horn of Africa 2019–2021 Reveals a Pressing Need for Change. Agronomy, 13(3): 819. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13030819
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9 Pascual, U., Balvanera, P., Díaz, S., Pataki, G., Roth, E., Stenseke, M., Watson, R.T. et al. 2017. Valuing nature’s contributions to people: the IPBES approach. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 26–27: 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.12.006
10 de Adelhart Toorop, R., Yates, J., Watkins, M., Bernard, J. & de Groot Ruiz, A. 2021. Methodologies for true cost accounting in the food sector. Nature Food, 2(9): 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00364-z
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12 Bandel, T., Kayatz, B., Doucet, T. & Leutner, N. 2020. Der teure Preis des Billigfleischs: Wer Fleisch konsumiert, zahlt nur einen Bruchteil der wahren Kosten – zu Lasten von Umwelt und Klima [The expensive price of cheap meat: Anyone who consumes meat only pays a fraction of the true costs – at the expense of the environment and climate]. Hamburg, Germany, Soil & More Impacts GmbH. https://www.greenpeace.de/publikationen/s03201_landwirtschaft_studie_wahre_kosten_fleisch_2020.pdf
13 Khon Kaen University. 2022. Measuring What Matters in Rice Systems: TEEBAgriFood Assessment Thailand, focus on the Northeast region. Key messages, August 2022. TEEB. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/5-TEEBAgriFood-IKI-Key-messages.pdf
14 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. & Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-11. Rome, FAO.
15 IPBES. 2017. Scenarios. In: IPBES. [Cited 14 April 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/node/16146
16 Springmann, M. 2020. Valuation of the health and climate-change benefits of healthy diets. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 20-03. Rome, FAO.
17 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
18 IPBES. 2017. Policy-screening (ex-ante) scenarios. In: IPBES. [Cited 5 April 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/policy-screening-ex-ante-scenarios
19 Wardhany, M. & Adzim, F. 2018. Determinant of Cocoa Export in Indonesia. Economics Development Analysis Journal, 7(3): 286–293. https://doi.org/10.15294/edaj.v7i3.25262
20 Rahim, A., Antara, M., Rauf, R.A., Lamusa, A., Safitri, D. & Mulyo, J.H. 2020. Sustainability of cocoa production in Indonesia. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 14(6): 997–1003. https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.20.14.06.p2510
21 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. & Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-13. Rome, FAO.
22 FMI & NielsenIQ. 2022. Transparency in an Evolving Omnichannel World. FMI. [Cited 5 April 2023]. https://www.fmi.org/forms/store/ProductFormPublic/transparency-evolving-omnichannel-world
23 Capitals Coalition. 2023. TEEB for agriculture and food: operational guidelines for business. Putting nature and people at the centre of food system transformation. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TEEB-for-Agriculture-and-Food-Operational-Guidelines-for-Business.pdf
24 True Cost Initiative. 2022. True Cost Accounting Agrifood Handbook – Practical guidelines for the food and farming sector on impact measurement, valuation and reporting. https://tca2f.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/TCA_Agrifood_Handbook.pdf
25 Transparent. 2021. Corporate Natural Capital Accounting – from building blocks to a path for standardization. Understanding the landscape, leading applications, challenges and opportunities. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Transparent-benchmarking-final.pdf
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27 Global Farm Metric. 2022. The Global Farm Metric Framework – Categories, sub-categories and indicators explained. https://www.globalfarmmetric.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/GFM-fwk-2023.pdf
28 True Price Foundation & Impact Economy Foundation. 2020. Principles for True Pricing. Consultation Draft. True Price Foundation. https://trueprice.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2020-03-04-Principles-for-True-Pricing-Trueprice.org-Consultation-Draft.pdf
Chapter 4
1 FAO & FIAN International. 2017. Putting the Voluntary Guidelines on Tenure into practice – A learning guide for civil society organizations. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i7763e/i7763e.pdf
2 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
3 Rosendal, G.K. & Schei, P.J. 2014. How may REDD+ affect the practical, legal and institutional framework for ‘Payment for ecosystem services’ in Costa Rica? Ecosystem Services, 9: 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.04.009
4 Sales, E., Rodas, O., Valenzuela, O., Hillbrand, A. & Sabogal, C. 2016. On the way to restore Guatemala’s degraded lands: Creating governance conditions. World Development Perspectives, 4: 16–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2016.11.010
5 Benton, T., Bieg, C., Harwatt, H., Pudasaini, R. & Wellesley, L. 2021. Food system impacts on biodiversity loss. Three levers for food system transformation in support of nature. London, Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/2021-02-03-food-system-biodiversity-loss-benton-et-al_0.pdf
6 OECD. 2019. Evaluating the environmental impact of agricultural policies. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Paper, No. 130. Paris. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/add0f27c-en.pdf?expires=1695656289&id=id&accname=ocid195767&checksum=3FE61D99A1B06E9D76743002FB1E28CE
7 WTO (World Trade Organization). 2023. Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies. In: WTO. [Cited 19 July 2023]. https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_e.htm
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9 FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards Blue Transformation. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461en/cc0461en.pdf
10 FAO, IFAD, PAHO (Pan American Health Organization), UNICEF & WFP. 2023. Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition – Latin America and the Caribbean 2022 – Towards improving affordability of healthy diets. Santiago. https://www.fao.org/3/cc3859en/cc3859en.pdf
11 Calel, R. 2013. Carbon markets: a historical overview. WIREs Climate Change, 4(2): 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.208
12 Springmann, M. & Freund, F. 2022. Options for reforming agricultural subsidies from health, climate, and economic perspectives. Nature Communications, 13(1): 82. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27645-2
13 Cassou, E. 2018. The greening of farm support programs: international experiences with agricultural subsidy reform. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/827371554284501204/pdf/The-Greening-of-Farm-Support-Programs-International-Experiences-with-Agricultural-Subsidy-Reform.pdf
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15 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. & Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa – Trends, challenges and priorities. Rome, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4492en/cb4492en.pdf
16 Elwin, P., Amadi, E., Mitchell, E. & Hunter, P. 2023. Financial markets roadmap for transforming the global food system. In: Planet Tracker. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Financial-Markets-Roadmap-for-transforming-the-Global-Food-System.pdf
17 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. & Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper, No. 23-13. Rome, FAO.
18 French, S.A. 2003. Pricing effects on food choices. Journal of Nutrition, 133(3): 841S-843S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.3.841S
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20 Vittersø, G., Torjusen, H., Thorjussen, C.B., Schjøll, A. & Kjærnes, U. 2019. Survey on Public Opinion in Europe regarding contentious inputs – a report. Organic-PLUS. https://organicplusnet.files.wordpress.com/2019/11/d2.2-o-survey-on-puplic-opinion-regarding-contentious-inputs.pdf
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41 Rawat, S. 2020. Global volatility of public agricultural R&D expenditure. Advances in Food Security and Sustainability, 5: 119–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.af2s.2020.08.001
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Annex 1
1 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023 – Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study, No. 31. Rome, FAO.
2 Leimbach, M., Kriegler, E., Roming, N. & Schwanitz, J. 2017. Future growth patterns of world regions – A GDP scenario approach. Global Environmental Change, 42: 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.005
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