1 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), WFP (World Food Programme) & WHO (World Health Organization). 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7695en
2 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en
3 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162EN
4 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
5 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
6 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN
7 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
1 FSIN (Food Security Information Network) & GNAFC (Global Network Against Food Crises). 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024
2 IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification). 2024. IPC. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.ipcinfo.org
3 IPC. 2024. IPC Global Initiative - Special Brief: The Gaza Strip. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Gaza_Strip_Acute_Food_Insecurity_Feb_July2024_Special_Brief.pdf
4 IPC. 2021. Technical Manual Version 3.1. Evidence and standards for better food security and nutrition decisions. Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/manual/IPC_Technical_Manual_3_Final.pdf
5 IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2024. World Economic Outlook. Steady but slow: resilience amid divergence. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2024/04/16/world-economic-outlook-april-2024
6 IMF. 2019. IMF: World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2019. [Accessed on 24 June 2024]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2019/October
7 European Union, FAO, UN-Habitat (United Nations Human Settlements Programme), OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) & World Bank. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf
8 FAO. 2020. Gendered impacts of COVID-19 and equitable policy responses in agriculture, food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198en
9 UN Women. 2020. Whose time to care? Unpaid care and domestic work during COVID-19. New York, USA. https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Whose-time-to-care-brief_0.pdf
10 Mane, E., Giaquinto, A.M., Cafiero, C., Viviani, S. & Anríquez, G. 2024. Why are women more food insecure than men? Exploring socioeconomic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9160en
11 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en
12 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
13 Verger, E.O., Savy, M., Martin-Prevel, Y., Coates, J., Frongillo, E., Neufeld, L., Saha, K. et al. 2023. Healthy diet metrics: A suitability assessment of indicators for global and national monitoring purposes. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240072138
14 WHO. 2020. Healthy diet. In: WHO. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet
15 FAO & WHO. 2019. Sustainable healthy diets: guiding principles. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA6640EN
16 WHO. 2023. Use of non-sugar sweeteners: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073616
17 WHO. 2023. Total fat intake for the prevention of unhealthy weight gain in adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073654
18 WHO. 2023. Saturated fatty acid and trans-fatty acid intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073630
19 WHO. 2023. Carbohydrate intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073593
20 Alvarez-Sanchez, C., Moltedo, A., Troubat, N., Manyani, T., Yassin, F., Kepple, A. & Cafiero, C. 2021. The relationship between food insecurity and dietary outcomes – An analysis conducted with nationally representative data from Kenya, Mexico, Samoa, and the Sudan. FAO Statistics Working Paper 21-25. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6217en
21 Maitra, C. 2018. A review of studies examining the link between food insecurity and malnutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca1447en
22 Global Diet Quality Project. 2024. Global Diet Quality Project. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.dietquality.org
23 Women’s Dietary Diversity Project (WDDP) Study Group. 2017. Development of a dichotomous indicator for population-level assessment of dietary diversity in women of reproductive age. Current Developments in Nutrition, 1(12): cdn.117.001701. https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.001701
24 FAO. 2023. Tracking progress on food and agriculture-related SDG indicators 2023. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7088en
25 Herforth, A., Bai, Y., Venkat, A., Mahrt, K., Ebel, A. & Masters, W.A. 2020. Cost and affordability of healthy diets across and within countries. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 9. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2431en
26 World Bank. 2024. International Comparison Program (ICP). In: World Bank. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp
27 Bai, Y., Conti, V., Ebel, A., Cafiero, C., Herforth, A., Rissanen, M.O., Rosero Moncayo, J. & Masters, W.A. (forthcoming). Methods for monitoring the cost of a healthy diet based on price data from the International Comparison Program. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper. Rome, FAO.
28 Herforth, A., Venkat, A., Bai, Y., Costlow, L., Holleman, C. & Masters, W.A. 2022. Methods and options to monitor the cost and affordability of a healthy diet globally. Background paper to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-03. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1169en
29 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
30 Jolliffe, D. & Prydz, E.B. 2021. Societal poverty: a relative and relevant measure. The World Bank Economic Review, 35(1): 180–206. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhz018
31 Bai, Y., Herforth, A., Cafiero, C., Conti, V., Rissanen, M.O., Masters, W.A. & Rosero Moncayo, J. (forthcoming). Methods for monitoring the affordability of a healthy diet. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper. Rome, FAO.
32 Gerszon Mahler, D., Yonzan, N., Hill, R., Lakner, C., Wu, H. & Yoshida, N. 2022. Pandemic, prices, and poverty. In: World Bank Blogs. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/pandemic-prices-and-poverty
33 FAO. 2024. FAO Food Price Index. In: World Food Situation. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex
34 World Bank. 2024. World Bank DataBank: World Development Indicators. [Accessed on 14 March 2024]. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
35 IMF. 2022. Macroeconomic developments and prospects in low-income countries - 2022. Policy Papers, 2022(054). https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400227813.007.A001
36 Scaling Up Nutrition. 2015. Linking nutrition and the SDGs. In: Scaling Up Nutrition. [Cited 30 April 2024]. https://scalingupnutrition.org/resources/nutrition-info/nutrition-action/linking-nutrition-and-sdgs
37 WHO. 2024. SDG Target 2.2 Malnutrition. In: WHO The Global Health Observatory. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/sdg-target-2_2-malnutrition
38 WHO & UNICEF. 2019. The extension of the 2025 maternal, infant and young child nutrition targets to 2030. WHO/UNICEF discussion paper. Geneva, Switzerland and New York, USA. https://data.unicef.org/resources/who-unicef-discussion-paper-nutrition-targets
39 ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council). 2020. Report of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators. https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2020/10/TCG-7-REF-1.pdf
40 WHO. 2013. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506236
41 UNSCN (United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition). 2024. The Decade of Action on Nutrition 2016-2025. In: UNSCN. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.unscn.org/en/topics/un-decade-of-action-on-nutrition
42 Herman, D.R., Taylor Baer, M., Adams, E., Cunningham-Sabo, L., Duran, N., Johnson, D.B. & Yakes, E. 2014. Life course perspective: Evidence for the role of nutrition. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 18(2): 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-013-1280-3
43 Stevens, G.A., Beal, T., Mbuya, M.N.N., Luo, H., Neufeld, L.M., Addo, O.Y., Adu-Afarwuah, S. et al. 2022. Micronutrient deficiencies among preschool-aged children and women of reproductive age worldwide: a pooled analysis of individual-level data from population-representative surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 10(11): e1590–e1599. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00367-9
44 Berger, S.G., de Pee, S., Bloem, M.W., Halati, S. & Semba, R.D. 2007. Malnutrition and morbidity are higher in children who are missed by periodic vitamin A capsule distribution for child survival in rural Indonesia. The Journal of Nutrition, 137(5): 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.5.1328
45 Barker, D.J. 1995. Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 311(6998): 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.311.6998.171
46 Karakochuk, C.D., Whitfield, K.C., Green, T.J. & Kraemer, K., eds. 2017. The biology of the first 1,000 days. Boca Raton, USA, CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315152950
47 Perumal, N., Blakstad, M.M., Fink, G., Lambiris, M., Bliznashka, L., Danaei, G. & Sudfeld, C.R. 2021. Impact of scaling up prenatal nutrition interventions on human capital outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: a modeling analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 114(5): 1708–1718. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab234
48 Lassi, Z.S., Padhani, Z.A., Rabbani, A., Rind, F., Salam, R.A., Das, J.K. & Bhutta, Z.A. 2020. Impact of dietary interventions during pregnancy on maternal, neonatal, and child outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Nutrients, 12(2): 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020531
49 Martorell, R., Melgar, P., Maluccio, J.A., Stein, A.D. & Rivera, J.A. 2010. The nutrition intervention improved adult human capital and economic productivity. The Journal of Nutrition, 140(2): 411. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.114504
50 1,000 Days. 2024. Building brains. In: 1,000 Days. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://thousanddays.org/why-1000-days/building-brains
51 Bhutta, Z.A., Norris, S.A., Roberts, M. & Singhal, A. 2023. The global challenge of childhood obesity and its consequences: what can be done? The Lancet Global Health, 11(8): e1172–e1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00284-X
52 Saad, R.A. & Qutob, H.M. 2022. The relationship between anemia and obesity. Expert Review of Hematology, 15(10): 911–926. https://doi.org/10.1080/17474086.2022.2131521
53 Clark, P. 2024. Iron deficiency related to obesity. Journal of Infusion Nursing, 47(3): 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1097/NAN.0000000000000546
54 UNCTAD (United Nations Trade and Development). 2024. UN list of least developed countries. In: UNCTAD. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list
55 UNCTAD. 2024. Least Developed Countries category. In: United Nations. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.un.org/ohrlls/content/ldc-category
56 Popkin, B.M., Corvalan, C. & Grummer-Strawn, L.M. 2020. Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition and the changing nutrition reality. The Lancet, 395(10217): 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32497-3
57 Osendarp, S.J.M., Brown, K.H., Neufeld, L.M., Udomkesmalee, E. & Moore, S.E. 2020. The double burden of malnutrition—further perspective. The Lancet, 396(10254): 813. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31364-7
58 WHO. 2017. The double burden of malnutrition: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.3
59 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2024. NCD-RisC. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://ncdrisc.org
60 NCD-RisC. 2024. Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet, 403(10431): 1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02750-2
61 WHO. 2024. Growth reference data for 5-19 years. In: WHO. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/tools/growth-reference-data-for-5to19-years
62 UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. In: United Nations. [Cited 24 July 2024]. https://population.un.org/wpp
63 WHO. 2022. Ageing and health. In: WHO. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
64 Decade of Healthy Ageing. 2022. UN Decade of Healthy Ageing – The Platform. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.decadeofhealthyageing.org
65 WHO. 2024. WHO’s work on the UN Decade of Healthy Ageing (2021-2030). In: WHO. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/initiatives/decade-of-healthy-ageing
66 Hawkes, C., Ruel, M.T., Salm, L., Sinclair, B. & Branca, F. 2020. Double-duty actions: seizing programme and policy opportunities to address malnutrition in all its forms. The Lancet, 395(10218): 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32506-1
67 WHO. 2017. Double-duty actions for nutrition: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.2
68 IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2015. Global Nutrition Report 2015: Actions and accountability to advance nutrition and sustainable development. Washington, DC. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896298835
69 WHO. 2023. WHO guideline for complementary feeding of infants and young children 6–23 months of age. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240081864
70 WHO. 2023. WHO guideline on the prevention and management of wasting and nutritional oedema (acute malnutrition) in infants and children under 5 years. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240082830
71 WHO. 2019. Essential nutrition actions: mainstreaming nutrition through the life-course. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241515856
1 Díaz-Bonilla, E. 2021. Financing SDG2 and ending hunger. Food Systems Summit Brief prepared by Research Partners of the Scientific Group for the Food Systems Summit, May 11th, 2021. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://sc-fss2021.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/FSS_Brief_Financing_SDG2_and_Ending_Hunger.pdf
2 Díaz-Bonilla, E., Swinnen, J. & Vos, R. 2021. Financing the transformation to healthy, sustainable, and equitable food systems. In: 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming food systems after COVID-19. pp. 20–23. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293991
3 Havemann, T. & Speckhardt, C. 2020. Mobilizing additional financial resources for nutrition. Männedorf, Switzerland, Clarmondial AG. https://www.shareweb.ch/site/Agriculture-and-Food-Security/focusareas/Documents/nutrition_keydocs_sdc_financing_nutrition.pdf
4 Shekar, M., Shibata Okamura, K., Gautam, M., Christiaensen, L. & Gentilini, U. 2021. Financing SDG2: Hunger and malnutrition – what will it take? In: World Bank Blogs. [Cited 23 April 2024]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/voices/financing-sdg2-hunger-and-malnutrition-what-will-it-take
5 Eber-Rose, M., Laborde, D. & Murphy, S. 2020. Ending Hunger Sustainably: Trends in official development assistance (ODA) spending for agriculture. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ceres2030-en-2020-ehs-tends-official-development-assistance-spending-for-agriculture.pdf
6 GDPRD (Global Donor Platform for Rural Development). 2011. Aid to agriculture, rural development: Unpacking aid flows for enhanced transparency, accountability for rural development and food security and aid effectiveness. Bonn, Germany.
7 Eber Rose, M., Laborde, D., Lefebvre, L., Olivetti, E. & Smaller, C. 2024. Towards a common definition of aid for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO and Geneva, Switzerland, Shamba Centre for Food & Climate. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1957en
8 ODI (Overseas Development Institute). 2012. Measuring aid to agriculture and food security. London. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/7588.pdf
9 ZEF (Center for Development Research of the University of Bonn) & FAO. 2020. Investment costs and policy action opportunities for reaching a world without hunger (SDG2). Joint report. Bonn, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1497en
10 European Commission. 2016. Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. Implementing EU food and nutrition security policy commitments: second biennial report – Annexes. Brussels. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SWD:2016:0155:FIN:EN:PDF
11 OECD. 2024. Development finance data. In: OECD. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data
12 AFSI (L’Aquila Food Security Initiative). 2012. L’Aquila Food Security Initiative (AFSI) 2012 Report. L’Aquila, Italy. https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/202922.pdf
13 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7695en
14 Zoubek, S., Lateef, A., Carrasco Azzini, G. & Holleman, C. (forthcoming). Reorientation, innovation and the global architecture for food security and nutrition financing – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.
15 OECD. 2009. Government at a Glance 2009. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264061651-6-en
16 Perez Weigel, C. & Brun, D. 2024. Tax Foundation: Sources of Government Revenue in the OECD, 2024 Update. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/global/oecd-tax-revenue-by-country-2024
17 OECD. 2024. Official development assistance – definition and coverage. In: OECD. [Cited 25 March 2024]. https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm
18 OECD. 2024. OECD: DAC and CRS code lists. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://webfs.oecd.org/oda/DataCollection/Resources/DAC-CRS-CODES.xls
19 Ofosu-Mensah Ababio, J., Aboagye, A.Q.Q., Barnor, C. & Agyei, S.K. 2022. Foreign and domestic private investment in developing and emerging economies: A review of literature. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1): 2132646. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2022.2132646
20 FAO. 2012. The State of Food and Agriculture 2012. Investing in agriculture for a better future. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i3028e
21 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN
22 Chichaibelu, B.B., Bekchanov, M., von Braun, J. & Torero, M. 2023. The global cost of reaching a world without hunger: Investment costs and policy action opportunities. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation. pp. 625–660. Cham, Switzerland, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_34
23 Gyimah-Brempong, K. & Adesugba, M. 2015. Agricultural aid and food security in Africa. https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2016/retrieve.php?pdfid=21639&tk=EFbbTTah
24 Jensen, R.T. & Miller, N.H. 2010. A revealed preference approach to measuring hunger and undernutrition. Working Paper 16555. Cambridge, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w16555
25 Herforth, A. 2016. Impact assessment of policies to support healthy food environments and healthy diets: Implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. UNSCN Discussion Paper. Geneva, Switzerland, UNSCN. https://www.unscn.org/en/unscn-publications?idnews=1279
26 HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security). 2017. Nutrition and food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7846e
27 HLPE. 2020. Food security and nutrition: building a global narrative towards 2030. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca9731en
28 Kraak, V.I., Swinburn, B., Lawrence, M. & Harrison, P. 2014. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutrition, 17(11): 2467–2483. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014000093
29 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
30 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
31 FSIN & GNAFC. 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024
32 GNAFC. 2024. 2023 Financing Flows and Food Crises Report – Analysis of humanitarian and development financing flows to food sectors in food crisis countries. Rome. https://www.fightfoodcrises.net/fileadmin/user_upload/fightfoodcrises/doc/resources/Financing_Flows_and_Food_Crises_Report_2023.pdf
33 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162EN
34 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en
35 IFAD, World Bank & United Nations Food Systems Coordination Hub. 2024. Tracking Financial Flows to Food Systems (3FS): Methodological approach. Rome.
1 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. & Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: Trends, challenges and priorities. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4492en
2 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
3 Takeshima, H. 2024. Public expenditure’s role in reducing poverty and improving food and nutrition security: Cross-country evidence from SPEED data. The European Journal of Development Research. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-023-00623-8
4 Kasililika-Mlagha, E.C. 2021. The impact of public agriculture expenditure on food security and nutrition in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Pretoria, University of Pretoria, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/78131/Kasililika-Mlagha_Impact_2021.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
5 Sers, C.F. & Mughal, M. 2018. From Maputo to Malabo: Public agricultural spending and food security in Africa. https://hal.science/hal-01844094
6 Miyawaki, A., Evans, C.E.L., Lucas, P.J. & Kobayashi, Y. 2021. Relationships between social spending and childhood obesity in OECD countries: An ecological study. BMJ Open, 11(2): e044205. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044205
7 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
8 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN
9 OECD. 2024. OECD: OECD Data Explorer: Official Devlopment Assistance (ODA). [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://data-explorer.oecd.org/?fs[0]=Topic%2C1%7CDevelopment%23DEV%23%7COfficial%20Development%20Assistance%20%28ODA%29%23DEV_ODA%23&pg=0&fc=Topic&bp=true&snb=11
10 AidData. 2024. In: AidData. [Cited 25 March 2024]. https://www.aiddata.org
11 World Bank & KNOMAD (Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development). 2023. Leveraging diaspora finances for private capital mobilization. Migration and Development Brief 39. Washington, DC. https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/publication-doc/migration_development_brief_39_0.pdf
12 Samdrup, T., Fogarty, J., Pandit, R., Iftekhar, Md.S. & Dorjee, K. 2023. Does FDI in agriculture in developing countries promote food security? Evidence from meta-regression analysis. Economic Analysis and Policy, 80: 1255–1272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2023.10.012
13 Gilmore, A.B., Fabbri, A., Baum, F., Bertscher, A., Bondy, K., Chang, H.-J., Demaio, S. et al. 2023. Defining and conceptualising the commercial determinants of health. The Lancet, 401(10383): 1194–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00013-2
14 Cuevas García-Dorado, S., Cornselsen, L., Smith, R. & Walls, H. 2019. Economic globalization, nutrition and health: a review of quantitative evidence. Globalization and Health, 15(1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0456-z
15 Slater, S., Lawrence, M., Wood, B., Serodio, P. & Baker, P. 2024. Corporate interest groups and their implications for global food governance: mapping and analysing the global corporate influence network of the transnational ultra-processed food industry. Globalization and Health, 20(1): 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01020-4
16 Lane, M.M., Gamage, E., Du, S., Ashtree, D.N., McGuinness, A.J., Gauci, S., Baker, P. et al. 2024. Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: Umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, 384: e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310
17 Monteiro, C.A., Martínez-Steele, E. & Cannon, G. 2024. Reasons to avoid ultra-processed foods. BMJ, 384: q439. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.q439
18 Bandy, L., Jewell, J., Luick, M., Rayner, M., Li, Y., Shats, K., Jebb, S., Chang, S. & Dunford, E. 2023. The development of a method for the global health community to assess the proportion of food and beverage companies’ sales that are derived from unhealthy foods. Globalization and Health, 19(1): 94. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00992-z
19 Fardet, A. & Rock, E. 2020. Ultra-processed foods and food system sustainability: What are the links? Sustainability, 12(15): 6280. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12156280
20 Anastasiou, K., Baker, P., Hadjikakou, M., Hendrie, G.A. & Lawrence, M. 2022. A conceptual framework for understanding the environmental impacts of ultra-processed foods and implications for sustainable food systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 368: 133155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133155
21 Convergence. 2023. State of Blended Finance 2023: Climate edition. Toronto, Canada. https://www.convergence.finance/resource/state-of-blended-finance-2023/view
22 Convergence. 2020. State of Blended Finance 2020. Toronto, Canada. https://www.convergence.finance/resource/the-state-of-blended-finance-2020/view
23 Multilateral Development Banks & Development Finance Institutions. 2023. Mobilization of private finance 2020+2021 joint report. https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2023-delta/mdbs-joint-report-on-mobilization-of-private-finance-2020-21.pdf
24 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Credit to agriculture. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/IC. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.
25 ISF Advisors. 2022. The state of the agri-SME sector – Bridging the finance gap. FCDO (Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office). https://isfadvisors.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/ISF_AgriSME-Finance-state-of-the-sector-report.pdf
26 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Capital Stock. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CS. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.
27 Sánchez, M.V. & Cicowiez, M. 2014. Trade-offs and payoffs of investing in human development. World Development, 62: 14–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.04.012
28 FAO. 2015. Achieving Zero Hunger: The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i4951e/i4951e.pdf
29 Mason-D’Croz, D., Sulser, T.B., Wiebe, K., Rosegrant, M.W., Lowder, S.K., Nin-Pratt, A., Willenbockel, D. et al. 2019. Agricultural investments and hunger in Africa modeling potential contributions to SDG2 – Zero Hunger. World Development, 116: 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.006
30 Laborde, D., Bizikova, L., Lallemant, T. & Smaller, C. 2016. Ending hunger: What would it cost? Winnipeg, Canada and Washington, DC, IISD and IFPRI. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ending-hunger-what-would-it-cost.pdf
31 Laborde, D., Murphy, S., Parent, M., Porciello, J. & Smaller, C. 2020. Ceres2030: Sustainable solutions to end hunger – Summary report. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ceres2030_en-summary-report.pdf
32 ZEF & FAO. 2020. Investment costs and policy action opportunities for reaching a world without hunger (SDG2). Joint report. Bonn, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1497en
33 Shekar, M., Kakietek, J., Dayton Eberwein, J. & Walters, D. 2017. An investment framework for nutrition: Reaching the global targets for stunting, anemia, breastfeeding, and wasting. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/26069
34 Development Initiatives. 2021. 2021 Global Nutrition Report: The state of global nutrition. Bristol, UK. https://globalnutritionreport.org/documents/851/2021_Global_Nutrition_Report_aUfTRv0.pdf
35 Laborde, D. & Torero, M. 2023. Modeling actions for transforming agrifood systems. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation. pp. 105–132. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_7
36 WFP. 2023. Estimating the food security impact of cuts in WFP assistance: A look at the highly affected operations using micro-data. Rome. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000152402/download
37 FSIN & GNAFC. 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024
38 Lischer, S.K. 2017. The global refugee crisis: Regional destabilization & humanitarian protection. Daedalus, 146(4): 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00461
39 Haer, R. & Hecker, T. 2019. Recruiting refugees for militarization: The determinants of mobilization attempts. Journal of Refugee Studies, 32(1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey002
40 Salehyan, I. 2018. The strategic case for refugee resettlement. Washington, DC, Niskanen Center. https://www.niskanencenter.org/wp-content/uploads/old_uploads/2018/09/NC-Refugee-Paper-SalehyanElec_FINAL.pdf
41 Milner, J. 2019. Refugees, peacebuilding, and paternalism: Lessons from Mozambique. In: M. Bradley, J. Milner & B. Peruniak, eds. Refugees’ roles in resolving displacement and building peace: Beyond beneficiaries. pp. 115–131. Washington, DC, Georgetown University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvfrxq90.11
42 Omata, N. 2015. Displacement economies in Africa: Paradoxes of crisis and creativity. Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(4): 597–599. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fev026
43 IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2023. 2023 Global Report on Internal Displacement. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2023
44 UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2023. Global trends. In: UNHCR. [Cited 24 April 2024]. https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends
45 WFP. 2017. 2017 - At the root of exodus: Food security, conflict and international migration. Rome. https://www.wfp.org/publications/2017-root-exodus-food-security-conflict-and-international-migration
46 OECD. 2024. ODA levels in 2023 – preliminary data. Detailed summary note. Paris. https://www.oecd.org/dac/ODA-summary-2023.pdf
47 Akseer, N., Tasic, H., Nnachebe Onah, M., Wigle, J., Rajakumar, R., Sanchez-Hernandez, D., Akuoku, J. et al. 2022. Economic costs of childhood stunting to the private sector in low- and middle-income countries. eClinicalMedicine, 45: 101320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101320
48 AUC (African Union Commission) & COHA (Cost of Hunger in Africa). 2020. The cost of hunger in Africa (COHA) continental report. Social and economic impact of child undernutrition. https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/41660-doc-COHA_CONTINENTAL_REPORTEnglish20211.pdf
49 World Obesity Federation. 2023. World Obesity Atlas 2023. London. https://data.worldobesity.org/publications/WOF-Obesity-Atlas-V5.pdf
50 Okunogbe, A., Nugent, R., Spencer, G., Powis, J., Ralston, J. & Wilding, J. 2022. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for 161 countries. BMJ Global Health, 7(9): e009773. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009773
51 Brero, M., Meyer, C.L., Jackson-Morris, A., Spencer, G., Ludwig-Borycz, E., Wu, D., Espinosa De Candido, A.F. et al. 2023. Investment case for the prevention and reduction of childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity in Mexico. Obesity Reviews, 24(9): e13595. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13595
52 Ma, G., Meyer, C.L., Jackson-Morris, A., Chang, S., Narayan, A., Zhang, M., Wu, D. et al. 2024. The return on investment for the prevention and treatment of childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity in China: a modelling study. The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific, 43: 100977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100977
53 Food and Land Use Coalition. 2019. Growing better: Ten critical transitions to transform food and land use. https://www.foodandlandusecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FOLU-GrowingBetter-GlobalReport.pdf
54 FAO. 2023. The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. Revealing the true cost of food to transform agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7724en
55 Foster, V., Rana, A. & Gorgulu, N. 2022. Understanding public spending trends for infrastructure in developing countries. Policy Research Working Paper 9903. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/727991642167519238/pdf/Understanding-Public-Spending-Trends-for-Infrastructure-in-Developing-Countries.pdf
56 World Bank. 2022. Tanzania Agriculture Public Expenditure Review 2022. Washington, DC. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099940006282220953/pdf/P1770630615f6e0e0bd4f0286e88583775.pdf
57 FAO, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) & UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2021. A multi-billion-dollar opportunity – Repurposing agricultural support to transform food systems. In brief. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6562en
58 Gautam, M., Mamun, A., Martin, W. & Vos, R. 2022. Repurposing agricultural policies and support: Options to transform agriculture and food systems to better serve the health of people, economies, and the planet. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/36875
59 Sánchez, M.V., Cicowiez, M., Pernechele, V. & Battaglia, L. (forthcoming). The opportunity cost of not optimally repurposing public expenditure in food and agriculture in sub-Saharan African countries – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.
60 Sánchez, M.V. & Cicowiez, M. 2022. Repurposing agriculture’s public budget to align healthy diets affordability and agricultural transformation objectives in Ethiopia – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-04. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1174en
1 World Bank. 2024. How does the World Bank classify countries? In: World Bank Data. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378834-how-does-the-world-bank-classify-countries
2 IDA (International Development Association). 2024. What Is IDA? In: IDA. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://ida.worldbank.org/en/about
3 UN DESA. 2024. LDC identification criteria & indicators. In: United Nations. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html
4 UNCDF (United Nations Capital Development Fund). 2024. What We Do – Mobilizing and deploying impact capital for development in the LDCs is more critical now than ever. In: UNCDF. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.uncdf.org/whatwedo
5 IMF. 2018. Guidance note on the bank-fund Debt Sustainability Framework for Low Income Countries. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Policy-Papers/Issues/2018/02/14/pp122617guidance-note-on-lic-dsf
6 Mustapha, S. & Prizzon, A. 2018. Africa’s rising debt: How to avoid a new crisis. Briefing note. London, ODI. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/12491.pdf
7 Robertson, F. 2024. Urgent solutions for a new era of debt distress. In: ONE Data & Analysis. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://data.one.org/data-dives/debt
8 Landers, C. & Aboneaaj, R. 2022. How the global debt crisis could make the hunger crisis worse. In: Center for Global Development. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/how-global-debt-crisis-could-make-hunger-crisis-worse
9 World Bank. 2020. Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA). Washington, DC. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/b8464ff32b31e488bd3aec5437c3cc92-0290032021/original/CPIAFAQ2020.pdf
10 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
11 Drummond, P., Daal, W., Srivastava, N. & Oliveira, L.E. 2012. Mobilizing revenue in sub-Saharan Africa: Empirical norms and key determinants. Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Mobilizing-Revenue-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa-Empirical-Norms-and-Key-Determinants-25882
12 Zouhaier, A. 2019. The role of political instability and corruption on foreign direct investment in the MENA region. Faculty of Economic and Management of Sousse University of Sousse, Tunisia. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/95732/1/MPRA_paper_95732.pdf
13 Wang Qingshi, A., Muhammad Akbar, A. & Junaid, A. 2020. The impact of political risk and institutions on food security. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 8(3): 924–941. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.3.21
14 Bollaert, H., Lopez-de-Silanes, F. & Schwienbacher, A. 2021. Fintech and access to finance. Journal of Corporate Finance, 68: 101941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2021.101941
15 World Bank. 2016. World Development Report 2016: Digital dividends. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016
16 Eber-Rose, M., Laborde, D. & Murphy, S. 2020. Ending Hunger Sustainably: Trends in official development assistance (ODA) spending for agriculture. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ceres2030-en-2020-ehs-tends-official-development-assistance-spending-for-agriculture.pdf
17 Cornell University, IFPRI & IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development). 2020. Ceres2030: Sustainable solutions to end hunger. IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/ceres2030-nature-portfolio-.pdf
18 FAO. 2023. Achieving SDG 2 without breaching the 1.5 °C threshold: A global roadmap, Part 1 – How agrifood systems transformation through accelerated climate actions will help achieving food security and nutrition, today and tomorrow, In brief. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9113en
19 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1–34. Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf
20 WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2024. WMO confirms that 2023 smashes global temperature record. In: WMO. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/wmo-confirms-2023-smashes-global-temperature-record
21 Ebrahimzadeh, C. 2024. Dutch Disease: Wealth Managed Unwisely. In: IMF. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/Series/Back-to-Basics/Dutch-Disease
22 McKinley, T. 2005. Why is ‘the Dutch disease’ always a disease? The macroeconomic consequences of scaling up ODA. Working Paper 10. New York, USA, UNDP. https://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper10.pdf
23 Mary, S., Saravia-Matus, S. & Gomez y Paloma, S. 2018. Does nutrition-sensitive aid reduce the prevalence of undernourishment? Food Policy, 74: 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.11.008
24 Crivelli, E., Gupta, S., Muthoora, P.S. & Benedek, D. 2012. Foreign aid and revenue: Still a crowding out effect? Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Foreign-Aid-and-Revenue-Still-a-Crowding-Out-Effect-26085
25 Morrissey, O. 2015. Aid and government fiscal behavior: Assessing recent evidence. World Development, 69: 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.12.008
26 Mawejje, J. & Sebudde, R.K. 2019. Tax revenue potential and effort: Worldwide estimates using a new dataset. Economic Analysis and Policy, 63: 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2019.05.005
27 Ajaz, T. & Ahmad, E. 2010. The effect of corruption and governance on tax revenues. The Pakistan Development Review, 49(4): 405–417. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41428665
28 McNabb, K., Danquah, M. & Tagem, A.M.E. 2021. Tax effort revisited: New estimates from the Government Revenue Dataset. WIDER Working Paper No. 2021/170. Helsinki, UNU-WIDER (United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research). https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2021/110-5
29 Ullah, S., Luo, R., Ali, K. & Irfan, M. 2023. How does the sectoral composition of FDI induce economic growth in developing countries? The key role of business regulations. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 36(2): 2129406. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2022.2129406
30 Dhahri, S. & Omri, A. 2020. Does foreign capital really matter for the host country agricultural production? Evidence from developing countries. Review of World Economics, 156(1): 153–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10290-019-00361-2
31 United Nations. undated. Chapter III.A Domestic public resources. In: Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2023. pp. 35–57. New York, USA. https://desapublications.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/2023-04/FSDR_2023_ChptIIIA.pdf
32 Christensen, C.M., Ojomo, E. & Dillon, K. 2019. Cracking Frontier Markets. In: Harvard Business Review. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://hbr.org/2019/01/cracking-frontier-markets
33 Dalberg Global Development Advisors. 2014. Innovative financing for development: Scalable business models that produce economic, social, and environmental outcomes. https://www.citigroup.com/rcs/citigpa/akpublic/storage/public/innovative_financing_for_development.pdf
34 Zoubek, S., Lateef, A., Carrasco Azzini, G. & Holleman, C. (forthcoming). Reorientation, innovation and the global architecture for food security and nutrition financing – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.
35 Bharali, I., Zoubek, S., McDade, K.K., Martinez, S., Brizzi, A., Yamey, G., Brownell, K. & Schäferhoff, M. 2020. The financing landscape for agricultural development: An assessment of external financing flows to low- and middle-income countries and of the global aid architecture. Duke World Food Policy Center, Duke Center for Policy Impact in Global Health and Open Consultants. https://wfpc.sanford.duke.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2022/05/AgDevFinancing-WFPC-Dec2020.pdf
36 Bove, R., Nordhagen, S. & Zonnenberg, M. 2023. Innovative finance for nutrition. GAIN Discussion Paper n°14. Geneva, Switzerland, GAIN. https://doi.org/10.36072/dp.14
37 Fredenberg, E., Karl, K., Passarelli, S., Porciello, J., Rattehalli, V., Auguston, A., Chimwaza, G. et al. 2024. Vision for Adapted Crops and Soils (VACS) research in action: Opportunity crops for Africa. https://doi.org/10.7916/3hd1-8t86
38 Hossain, M. & Songsermsawas, T. (forthcoming). Impact assessment report: Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas project (ASHA). Rome, IFAD.
39 IFAD. 2024. Project completion report: Outer Islands Food and Water Project (OIFWP). Rome.
40 UNCTAD. 2023. A world of debt: A growing burden to global prosperity. Geneva, Switzerland. https://unctad.org/publication/world-of-debt
41 Chamon, M., Klok, E., Thakoor, V.V. & Zettelmeyer, J. 2022. Debt-for-climate swaps: Analysis, design, and implementation. Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2022/08/11/Debt-for-Climate-Swaps-Analysis-Design-and-Implementation-522184
42 UNDP. 2023. UNDP Signals Spotlight 2023: Insights from UNDP’s futures network. New York, USA. https://www.undp.org/future-development/signals-spotlight/publications/undp-signals-spotlight-2023-insights-undps-futures-network
43 Jones, M., Campos, R. & Campos, R. 2023. Ecuador seals record debt-for-nature swap with Galapagos bond. In: Reuters. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/ecuador-seals-record-debt-for-nature-swap-with-galapagos-bond-2023-05-09
44 Owen, N. 2022. Belize: Swapping debt for nature. In: IMF. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/05/03/CF-Belize-swapping-debt-for-nature
45 The Nature Conservancy. 2023. The nature conservancy announces debt conversion for ocean conservation in Gabon, first ever in mainland Africa. In: The Nature Conservancy. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.nature.org/en-us/newsroom/tnc-announces-debt-conversion-for-ocean-conservation-in-gabon
46 World Bank. 2023. International Debt Report 2023. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/idr/products
47 Reuters. 2023. Egypt, China sign debt swapping MoU for developmental projects - statement. In: Reuters. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSS8N39Z021
48 White, N. & Duarte, E. 2023. Debt-swap market credit suisse built poised to get EIB backing. In: Bloomberg. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-10-25/debt-swap-market-gets-new-backing-as-eib-nears-barbados-deal
49 WFP. 2021. Debt-for-food swaps. Rome. https://scalingupnutrition.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/WFP_SUN-Debt-for-food-Swaps-Presentation.pdf
50 Club de Paris. 2024. Club de Paris. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://clubdeparis.org
51 IMF. 2024. Special Drawing Rights (SDR). In: IMF. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2023/special-drawing-rights-sdr
52 ECA (Economic Commission for Africa) & ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean). 2022. Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and the COVID-19 crisis. COVID-19 Report. https://repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a4d76467-4802-421e-bb51-207cdb91bccf/content
53 IMF. 2022. Resilience and sustainability trust FAQs. In: IMF. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/About/FAQ/Resilience-and-Sustainability-Trust
54 IMF. 2024. Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT). In: IMF. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/PRGT
55 Rampa, F., Bilal, S., D’Alessandro, C. & Karaki, K. undated. Using special drawing rights for climate-resilient food systems and food security. In: ECDPM (European Centre for Development Policy Management). [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://ecdpm.org/work/using-special-drawing-rights-climate-resilient-food-systems-and-food-security
56 FAO. 2013. Credit guarantee systems for agriculture and rural enterprise development. Rome. https://aecm.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/FAO-study-on-agricultural-credit-guarantee-schemes.pdf
57 FAO. 2021. Protecting livelihoods – Linking agricultural insurance and social protection. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2690en
58 Perera, O., Smaller, C., Elharty, K. & Lefebvre, L. 2024. Unleashing the catalytic power of donor financing to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 2. Summary report. Rome and Geneva, Switzerland, GDPRD and Shamba Centre for Food & Climate. https://www.shambacentre.org/s/2_GDPRD_Shamba_Unleashing-the-Catalytic-Power-of-Donor-Financing-to-Achieve-SDG2.pdf
59 Stevens, D. 2023. Agriculture insurance: Partnerships remain critical for Africa. In: Food For Mzansi. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.foodformzansi.co.za/agriculture-insurance-partnerships-remain-critical-for-africa
60 FAO. 2023. The status of women in agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en
61 World Economic Forum. 2023. Green returns: Unleashing the power of finance for sustainable food systems. White paper. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Green_Returns_2023.pdf
62 Szebini, A., Anyango, E., Orora, A. & Agwe, J. 2021. A technical review of select de-risking schemes to promote rural and agricultural finance in sub-Saharan Africa. FAO, AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa) and IFAD. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6625en
63 African Risk Capacity. 2023. African risk capacity launches the first flood risk insurance product in Africa. In: African Risk Capacity. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.arc.int/news/african-risk-capacity-launches-first-flood-risk-insurance-product-africa
64 WFP. 2020. Climate risk management as part of a food systems approach – The experience of the Rural Resilience Initiative (R4) in Kenya 2017-2020. World Food Programme Kenya Info brief No. 43. Rome.
65 Benni, N. 2021. Impact evaluation of credit guarantee schemes in agriculture. Methodology and guidelines. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7917en
66 Food Security Task Force. 2012. Innovative financing for agriculture, food security and nutrition. Report of the high-level expert Committee to the Leading Group on Innovative Financing for agriculture, food security and nutrition. https://www.cbd.int/financial/interdevinno/lg-food-inno.pdf
67 USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2023. Mobilizing investment for development with catalytic funding. Learning Brief. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/2023-03/Catalytic%20Funding%20Learning%20Brief_Final%20%281%29.pdf
68 Benni, N. 2023. Fintech innovation for smallholder agriculture – A review of experiences. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9117en
69 Barr, D., Bush, O. & Pienkowski, A. 2014. GDP-linked bonds and sovereign default. Working Paper No. 484. London, Bank of England. https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/working-paper/2014/gdp-linked-bonds-and-sovereign-default.pdf
70 Pérez Caldentey, E. & Villarreal, F.G. 2023. Innovative financing instruments in Latin America and the Caribbean. Santiago, ECLAC. http://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/48669
71 WHO. 2022. WHO manual on sugar-sweetened beverage taxation policies to promote healthy diets. Geneva, Switzerland. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/365285/9789240056299-eng.pdf?sequence=1
72 WHO. 2017. Tackling NCDs: ‘best buys’ and other recommended interventions for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases. Geneva, Switzerland. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/259232
73 WHO & Inter-Parliamentary Union. 2022. Saving lives and mobilizing revenue: a parliamentary action guide to health taxes. Geneva, Switzerland. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/363522
74 WHO. 2024. Noncommunicable diseases, rehabilitation and disability: Updating Appendix 3 of the WHO Global NCD action plan 2013–2030. In: WHO. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/updating-appendix-3-of-the-who-global-ncd-action-plan-2013-2030
75 WHO. 2023. Global report on the use of sugar-sweetened beverage taxes, 2023. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240084995
76 Lauer, J.A., Sassi, F., Soucat, A. & Vigo, A. 2023. Health taxes: Policy and practice. Imperial College Business School and WHO. https://doi.org/10.1142/q0365
77 World Bank. 2019. High-performance health financing for universal health coverage: Driving sustainable, inclusive growth in the 21st century. Washington, DC. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/31930
78 WHO. 2017. Earmarking for health – From theory to practice. Health Financing Working Paper No. 5. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241512206
79 Ozer, Bloom, D., Martinez Valle, A., Banzon, E., Mandeville, K., Paul, J., Blecher, E., Sparkers, S. & Chhabra, S. 2020. Health earmarks and health taxes: What do we know? Knowledge brief. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/415911607500858658/pdf/Health-Earmarks-and-Health-Taxes-What-Do-We-Know.pdf
80 ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2021. Financing sustainable and resilient food systems in Asia and the Pacific. Mandaluyong, Philippines. https://doi.org/10.22617/SPR210428-2
81 Apampa, A., Clubb, C., Cosgrove, B.E., Gambarelli, G., Loth, H., Newman, R., Rodriguez Osuna, V., Oudelaar, J. & Tasse, A. 2021. Scaling up critical finance for sustainable food systems through blended finance. CCAFS Discussion Papers. CCAFS (CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4b8dbd37-b2f4-4a79-b87b-271fe09bb701/content
82 Convergence Blended Finance. 2022. Blended finance for food systems. Data brief. https://sdginvest.jointsdgfund.org/node/643
83 Li, S., Gray, E., Dennis, M., Hand, D. & Avi, S. 2022. Chapter 2. Partnership financing challenges. In: Unlocking early-stage financing for SDG partnerships. Washington, DC, WRI (World Resources Institute). https://publications.wri.org/unlocking-early-stage-financing-for-sdg-partnerships/partnership-financing-challenges
84 GGGI (Global Green Growth Institute). 2023. Africa and Middle East SAFE Initiative. Scaling-up agriculture and food systems for economic development. Seoul. https://gggi.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Africa-Middle-SAFE-Initiative_Technical-Proposition-Dec.2023.pdf
85 Attridge, S. & Engen, L. 2019. Blended finance in the poorest countries: The need for a better approach. London, ODI. https://odi.cdn.ngo/media/documents/12666.pdf
86 Convergence. 2023. State of Blended Finance 2023: Climate edition. Toronto, Canada. https://www.convergence.finance/resource/state-of-blended-finance-2023/view
87 Crabb, J. 2023. Food insecurity: why is finance failing? In: GlobalMarkets. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.globalcapital.com/globalmarkets/article/2cb1pijytzmorpbuxl728/emerging-markets/food-insecurity-why-is-finance-failing
88 IFAD. 2021. Project design report: Rural Kenya Financial Inclusion Facility (RK-FINFA). Rome. https://www.ifad.org/documents/38711624/39485424/Kenya+2000003431+RK-FINFA+Project+Design+Report+October+2021.pdf/39736bc4-281c-2b65-636a-0dc9114f1fcc?t=1636715245360
89 IFAD. 2023. IFAD launches innovative financing mechanism to support small-scale food producers to adapt to climate change in Eastern Africa. In: IFAD. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/-/ifad-launches-innovative-financing-mechanism-to-support-small-scale-food-producers-to-adapt-to-climate-change-in-eastern-africa
90 Amundi. 2023. Emerging market green bonds. IFC-Amundi Joint Report. https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2023/ifc-amundi-emerging-market-green-bonds-july2023.pdf
91 Environmental Finance. undated. Sustainable Bonds Insight 2024. In: Environmental Finance. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.environmental-finance.com/content/downloads/sustainable-bonds-insight-2024.html
92 OECD. 2024. Global Debt Report 2024. Bond markets in a high-debt environment. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/91844ea2-en
93 Zuleta Jaramillo, L.A. 2021. Análisis del financiamiento de la banca de desarrollo con bonos verdes. Documentos de Proyectos (LC/TS.2021/39). Santiago, ECLAC. https://repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6fdf1190-0f33-4825-bda8-8be71938ce93/content
94 CAF (Andean Development Corporation) & UNEP. 2023. Cómo los bancos de América Latina y el Caribe se adaptan al cambio climático. 1a Encuesta en América Latina y el Caribe. https://www.unepfi.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Como-los-Bancos-de-America-Latina-y-el-Caribe-se-Adaptan-al-Cambio-Climatico.pdf
95 United Nations. undated. Chapter III.B Domestic and international private business and finance. In: Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2023. pp. 35–57. New York, USA. https://desapublications.un.org/sites/default/files/publications/2023-04/FSDR_2023_ChptIIIB.pdf
96 United Nations. 2024. Greenwashing – the deceptive tactics behind environmental claims. In: United Nations. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/greenwashing
97 World Bank. 2023. Rwanda issues first-ever Sustainability-Linked Bond (SLB) backed by World Bank’s innovative financial structure. Washington, DC. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/743272cfbb73c6a9a1e97ecfcadb2d58-0340012023/original/Case-Study-Rwanda-SLB.pdf
98 IFAD. 2023. IFAD’s sustainable development finance framework. Rome. https://www.ifad.org/documents/d/guest/ifad-sustainable-development-finance-framework-2023
99 Wellenstein, A. & Afanasieva, I. 2019. Have you heard of impact bonds? In: World Bank Blogs. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/sustainablecities/have-you-heard-impact-bonds
100 UNEP. 2023. Driving finance for sustainable food systems. A roadmap to implementation for financial institutions and policy makers. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.unepfi.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Driving-Finance-for-Sustainable-Food-Systems.pdf
101 GO Lab (Government Outcomes Lab). 2024. Impact bonds. In: Government Outcomes Lab. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://golab.bsg.ox.ac.uk/the-basics/social-impact-bonds/
102 World Bank. 2019. Banking on impact: What you need to know about results-based financing. In: World Bank. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/06/28/banking-on-impact-what-you-need-to-know-about-results-based-financing
103 Mabiso, A., Togeum, R., Rosi, A. & Mastroeni, A. 2024. Impact assessment report: Youth Agropastoral Entrepreneurship Promotion Programme (PEA-Jeune). Rome.
104 UNCTAD. 2023. Chapter III – Capital market and sustainable finance. In: World Investment Report 2023. Investing in sustainable energy for all. pp. 98–138. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/wir2023_ch03_en.pdf
105 Child Nutrition Fund. 2024. Child Nutrition Fund. [Cited 15 May 2024]. https://www.childnutritionfund.org
106 Benni, N. 2024. The design and implementation of Technical Assistance Facilities to unlock agribusiness investment – Taking stock of recent experiences. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9219en
107 United Nations. 2024. Goal 17 | Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development. In: United Nations. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal17
108 World Bank. 2021. The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial inclusion, digital payments, and resilience in the age of COVID-19. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex
109 Maftei, A. 2024. Rural women and financial inclusion – Technical guidance note. Technical Guidance Note. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9522en
110 FAO. 2019. Women’s access to rural finance: challenges and opportunities. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca5167en
111 FAO. 2020. Deconstructing the gender gap in rural financial inclusion – The cases of Mozambique and Tanzania. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb0569en
112 UN Women. 2023. Asia and the Pacific: Gender bond programme by a multilateral development bank – Asian Development Bank (ADB). New York, USA. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-05/case-study-series-innovative-financing-for-gender-equality-via-bonds-asia-pacific-en.pdf
113 UN Women. 2023. Morocco: Social bond issued by a commercial bank – Banque Centrale Populaire (BCP). New York, USA. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-05/case-study-series-innovative-financing-for-gender-equality-via-bonds-morocco-en.pdf
114 FAO. (forthcoming). Women and financial inclusion in agrifood systems: alternative approaches to collateral. Rome.
115 D’Rosario, M. 2020. Promoting indigenous financial inclusion: improving ICT access within rural Australia. In: Indigenous Studies. pp. 348–360. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-0423-9.ch019
116 Schembri, L.L. 2023. The next generation: Innovating to improve indigenous access to finance in Canada. Fraser Institute. https://www.fraserinstitute.org/sites/default/files/next-generation-innovating-to-improve-indigenous-access-to-finance-in-canada.pdf
117 Cultural Survival. 2017. Study on the on the rights of Indigenous Peoples – Good practices and challenges in business and access to financial services by Indigenous Peoples. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/StudyGoodPractices/CulturalSurvival.pdf
118 Forest Tenure Funders Group. 2022. Indigenous Peoples and local communities forest tenure pledge. Annual report 2021–2022. https://www.fordfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/indigenous-peoples-and-local-communities-forest-tenure-pledge-annual-report-2021-2022.pdf
119 IFAD. 2019. The Indigenous Peoples Assistance Facility (IPAF) – Assessment of the performance of the fourth IPAF cycle. Desk review. Rome. https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/41013759/IPAF_report_e_web.pdf/7f262882-599e-dc77-d85e-a89996583b05?t=1549875791000
120 FIMI (International Indigenous Women’s Forum). 2024. Mapuche Cayún: Earth’s refuge. In: FIMI. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://tierra.fimi-iiwf.org/en/indigenous-people-mapuche-cayun.html
121 FIMI. 2024. Guaraní: Vegetables at your doorstep. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://tierra.fimi-iiwf.org/en/indigenous-people-guarani.html
122 FIMI. 2024. Pasto: The shagra and the potato. In: FIMI. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://tierra.fimi-iiwf.org/en/indigenous-people-pasto.html
123 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN
124 Uganda Yield Investment Fund. 2021. A €20 million impact investment fund for Uganda, focused on the agriculture sector. https://site.pearlcapital.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Brochure-Design_new2.pdf
125 Materia, V.C., Linnemann, A.R., Smid, E.J. & Schoustra, S.E. 2021. Contribution of traditional fermented foods to food systems transformation: value addition and inclusive entrepreneurship. Food Security, 13(5): 1163–1177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01185-5
126 IFAD. 2021. Rural Development Report 2021. Transforming food systems for rural prosperity. Rome. www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/-/rural-development-report-2021
127 Abraham, F. & Schmukler, S.L. 2017. Addressing the SME finance problem. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/809191507620842321/pdf/Addressing-the-SME-finance-problem.pdf
128 IFAD. 2016. President’s report: Proposed loan to the Kingdom of Cambodia for the Accelerating Inclusive Markets for Smallholders Project. Rome. https://webapps.ifad.org/members/eb/119/docs/EB-2016-119-R-23-Rev-1.pdf
129 IFAD. 2024. Cambodia: Accelerating inclusive markets for smallholders project. Supervision report. Rome.
130 Mendiratta, V. & Gemessa, S. 2023. Impact assessment report: Dairy Value Chains Development Project (DVCDP). Rome, IFAD.
131 Blended Finance Taskforce. 2020. Better finance, better food: Case study catalogue. London. https://www.systemiq.earth/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Better-Finance-Better-Food-Case-study-catalogue-2.pdf
132 Miranda, M.J., Mulangu, F.M. & Kemeze, F.H. 2019. Warehouse receipt financing for smallholders in developing countries: Challenges and limitations. Agricultural Economics, 50(5): 629–641. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12514
133 Mastercard. 2023. Mastercard collaborates with M1xchange to roll out digital invoice discounting solution for FPOs and agri-MSMEs via Farm Pass. In: Mastercard. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.mastercard.com/news/ap/en-in/newsroom/press-releases/en-in/2023/april/mastercard-collaborates-with-m1xchange-to-roll-out-digital-invoice-discounting-solution-for-fpos-and-agri-msmes-via-farm-pass
134 Stampini, M., Londoño, D., Robles, M. & Ibarrarán, P. 2021. Effect of remittances on food security in Venezuelan households. Washington, DC, IDB (Inter-American Development Bank). http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0003346
135 Mora-Rivera, J. & van Gameren, E. 2021. The impact of remittances on food insecurity: Evidence from Mexico. World Development, 140: 105349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105349
136 IFAD. undated. Platform for Remittances, Investments and Migrants’ Entrepreneurship in Africa (PRIME Africa). In: IFAD. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.ifad.org/en/prime-africa
137 Fallas Conejo, D. & Sánchez, M.V. (forthcoming). Leveraging remittance-based matching grants for investing in agribusiness development – Leaving no migrants behind. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study, No. 35. Rome, FAO.
138 Ogunniyi, A.I., Mavrotas, G., Olagunju, K.O., Fadare, O. & Adedoyin, R. 2020. Governance quality, remittances and their implications for food and nutrition security in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 127: 104752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104752
139 World Bank. 2023. Remittance flows continue to grow in 2023 albeit at slower pace. In: World Bank. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/12/18/remittance-flows-grow-2023-slower-pace-migration-development-brief
140 Access Corporation. 2024. Coronation Group, Access Holdings Plc, Safaricom and M-PESA Africa partner to explore remittances. In: Access Corporation. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://theaccesscorporation.com/coronation-group-access-holdings-plc-safaricom-and-m-pesa-africa-partner-to-explore-remittances/
141 World Bank, The Food and Land Use Coalition & IFPRI. 2021. Food Finance Architecture. Financing a healthy, equitable & sustainable food system. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/879401632342154766/pdf/Food-Finance-Architecture-Financing-a-Healthy-Equitable-and-Sustainable-Food-System.pdf
142 Le Roy, A. & Severino, J.-M. 2023. Diversification and fragmentation of public financing for development. Working Paper 321. FERDI (Foundation for Studies and Research on International Development). https://ferdi.fr/dl/df-AWENkNBBXyG3BtK5RqTsertp/ferdi-wp321-diversification-and-fragmentation-of-public-financing-for.pdf
143 Gehring, K., Michaelowa, K., Dreher, A. & Spörri, F. 2017. Aid fragmentation and effectiveness: What do we really know? World Development, 99: 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.019
144 Sharma, K. & Bhattarai, B. 2021. Does aid fragmentation affects growth: The case of Nepal. Global Business Review: 09721509211011561. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509211011561
145 Furukawa, M. 2020. The effect of project aid fragmentation on economic growth. Development in Practice, 30(2): 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2019.1662371
146 Child, T., Wright, A.L. & Xiao, Y. 2020. Aid fragmentation and corruption. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3543247
147 Prakash Jena, L. & Saxena, R. 2023. Blended finance: How to accelerate sustainable development. In: World Economic Forum. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/04/blended-finance-financial-intermediation-can-accelerate-sustainable-development
148 Li, S., Gray, E., Dennis, M., Hand, D. & Avi, S. 2022. Chapter 3. Partnership funders and investors. In: Unlocking early-stage financing for SDG partnerships. Washington, DC, WRI. https://publications.wri.org/unlocking-early-stage-financing-for-sdg-partnerships/partnership-funders-and-investors
149 Deeg, R. & Hardie, I. 2016. ‘What is patient capital and who supplies it?’ Socio-Economic Review, 14(4): 627–645. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mww025
150 Khan, T. 2023. Moving beyond (en)forced North–South collaboration for development: Possibilities from Pakistan. In: Reimagining Civil Society Collaborations in Development. Routledge.
151 Deloitte. 2022. Advancing more women leaders in financial services: A global report. In: Deloitte. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://www.deloitte.com/conf/modern/settings/wcm/templates/modern--di-research-template/initial.html
152 Freeman, D. 2018. North-South negotiations about financing for development: State, society and market in the global age. Global Policy, 9(3): 377–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12551
153 Andersen, J.J., Johannesen, N. & Rijkers, B. 2020. Elite capture of foreign aid. Evidence from offshore bank accounts. Policy Research Working Paper 9150. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/493201582052636710/pdf/Elite-Capture-of-Foreign-Aid-Evidence-from-Offshore-Bank-Accounts.pdf?utm_source=substack&utm_medium=email
154 Baker, P., Machado, P., Santos, T., Sievert, K., Backholer, K., Hadjikakou, M., Russell, C. et al. 2020. Ultra-processed foods and the nutrition transition: Global, regional and national trends, food systems transformations and political economy drivers. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 21(12): e13126. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13126
155 Cuevas García-Dorado, S., Cornselsen, L., Smith, R. & Walls, H. 2019. Economic globalization, nutrition and health: a review of quantitative evidence. Globalization and Health, 15(1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0456-z
156 Shekar, M., O’Hearn, M., Knudsen, E., Shibuya, K., Bishop, S., van Berchem, H., Egerton-Warburton, C., Shibata Okamura, K. & Mozaffarian, D. 2023. Innovative financing for nutrition. Nature Food, 4(6): 464–471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00778-x
157 European Commission. 2024. EU Taxonomy Navigator. In: European Commission. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://ec.europa.eu/sustainable-finance-taxonomy
158 Noya, A. & Clarence, E. 2013. Entrepreneurial activities in Europe - Social entrepreneurship. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/5jxrcml2kdtd-en
159 Lyons, T.S. & Kickul, J.R. 2013. The social enterprise financing landscape: The lay of the land and new research on the horizon. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 3(2): 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2013-0045
160 Mozaffarian, D., Angell, S.Y., Lang, T. & Rivera, J.A. 2018. Role of government policy in nutrition – barriers to and opportunities for healthier eating. BMJ, 361: k2426. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2426
161 WHO. 2013. OneHealth Tool. In: WHO. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/tools/onehealth
162 Cormier, B., Heinzel, M. & Reinsberg, B. 2024. Informally governing international development: G7 coordination and orchestration in aid. International Studies Quarterly, 68(2): sqae019. https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqae019
163 Garrett, G.S. 2024. An investment conundrum – Why are nutrition’s high investment returns ignored? In: Impakter. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://impakter.com/an-investment-conundrum-why-are-nutrition-high-investments-returns-ignored
164 United Nations. 2024. UN operational rates of exchange. In: United Nations. [Cited 19 June 2024]. https://treasury.un.org/operationalrates/OperationalRates.php
165 Results for Development. 2024. Seqota declaration – Resource mobilization plan for the expansion and scale-up phases. https://r4d.org/resources/seqota-declaration-resource-mobilization-plan/
166 CFS (Committee on World Food Security). 2012. Coming to terms with terminology. Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/cfs/doclibrary/CFS%20Terminology%2016%20July%202012_rev2.pdf
167 GNAFC. 2024. 2023 Financing Flows and Food Crises Report – Analysis of humanitarian and development financing flows to food sectors in food crisis countries. Rome. https://www.fightfoodcrises.net/fileadmin/user_upload/fightfoodcrises/doc/resources/Financing_Flows_and_Food_Crises_Report_2023.pdf
168 Galbiati, G.M., Yoshida, M., Benni, N. & Bernoux, M. 2023. Climate-related development finance to agrifood systems – Global and regional trends between 2000 and 2021. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9010en
169 FAO. 2023. Submission by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in relation to the Sharm el-Sheikh joint work on implementation of climate action on agriculture and food security 3/CP.27, paragraph 17 and paragraph 18. Rome. https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/SubmissionsStaging/Documents/202304171527---Joint%20work%20on%20implementation%20of%20climate%20action%20on%20agriculture%20and%20food%20security-FAO.pdf
170 FAO. 2024. Climate Change. In: FAO. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://www.fao.org/climate-change/action-areas/climate-negotiations/sharm-el-sheikh-joint-work
171 I-CAN & GAIN (Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition). 2023. Accelerating action and opening opportunities: A closer integration of climate and nutrition – 2023 I-CAN baseline assessment. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.gainhealth.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/Accelerating-Action-and-Opening-Opportunities-A-Closer-Integration-of-Climate-and-Nutrition.pdf
172 United Nations Food Systems Summit. 2021. Governance of food systems transformation. Policy brief. https://www.unfoodsystemshub.org/docs/unfoodsystemslibraries/fss-community/chapter-2/policybrief_governanceunfss.pdf?sfvrsn=edae3afc_1
173 Woodhill, J. & Surie, M. 2023. From rhetoric to reality: Donor coordination for food systems transformation. Rome, GDPRD. https://www.donorplatform.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/GDPRD_DonorCoordinationReport_2023.pdf
174 WHO, FAO, WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health) & UNEP. 2023. A guide to implementing the One Health Joint Plan of Action at national level. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240082069
175 WHO. 2021. Food systems delivering better health: Executive summary. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031814
176 Lankes, H.P. & Prizzon, A. 2023. Multilateral development bank reform can – and must – benefit both low- and middle-income countries. In: ODI. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://odi.org/en/insights/multilateral-development-bank-reform-can-and-must-benefit-both-low-and-middle-income-countries
177 Multilateral Development Banks & Development Finance Institutions. 2023. Mobilization of private finance 2020+2021 joint report. https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2023-delta/mdbs-joint-report-on-mobilization-of-private-finance-2020-21.pdf
178 IsDB (Islamic Development Bank). 2024. Multilateral development banks deepen collaboration to deliver as a system. In: IsDB. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.isdb.org/news/multilateral-development-banks-deepen-collaboration-to-deliver-as-a-system
179 Development Committee. 2023. Ending poverty on a livable planet: Report to governors on World Bank evolution. https://www.devcommittee.org/content/dam/sites/devcommittee/doc/documents/2023/Final%20Updated%20Evolution%20Paper%20DC2023-0003.pdf
180 The South Centre. 2022. A proposal for a new approach to restructuring African eurobonds: The DOVE fund and principles. In: The South Centre. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.southcentre.int/southviews-no-242-4-november-2022
181 IMF. 2024. Debt relief under the heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) initiative. In: IMF. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/About/Factsheets/Sheets/2023/Debt-relief-under-the-heavily-indebted-poor-countries-initiative-HIPC
182 World Bank. 2022. Debt Service Suspension Initiative. In: World Bank. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/debt/brief/covid-19-debt-service-suspension-initiative
183 G20 Saudi Arabia. 2020. Common framework for debt treatments beyond the DSSI. https://clubdeparis.org/sites/default/files/annex_common_framework_for_debt_treatments_beyond_the_dssi.pdf
184 Elliott, L. 2024. World Bank official calls for shake-up of G20 debt relief scheme. In: The Guardian. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2024/apr/21/world-bank-chief-economist-indermit-gill-g20-debt-relief-mechanism-common-framework
185 Bradlow, D., Lastra, R. & Park, S. 2023. Re-thinking the sustainability of sovereign debt. Sixth Conference on Law and Macroeconomics Working Paper.
186 Clapp, J. & Isakson, S.R. 2018. Risky returns: The implications of financialization in the food system. Development and Change, 49(2): 437–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12376
187 Garrett, G.S. 2024. How can financial markets help tackle the unhealthy food crisis? In: World Economic Forum. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/01/financial-markets-help-tackle-unhealthy-food
188 ATNI (Access to Nutrition Initiative). 2020. Investor expectations on nutrition, diets & health. https://accesstonutrition.org/app/uploads/2020/06/Investor-Expectations-on-Nutrition-Diets-and-Health-FINAL.pdf
189 ATNI. 2023. ATNI’s investors in nutrition and health. In: Access to Nutrition Initiative. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://accesstonutrition.org/investor-signatories
190 IFAD. 2024. IFAD partners with Hamkorbank in Uzbekistan to provide needed micro-loans to dairy and horticulture producers. In: IFAD. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/-/ifad-partners-with-hamkorbank-in-uzbekistan-to-provide-needed-micro-loans-to-dairy-and-horticulture-producers
191 Fanzo, J., Shawar, Y.R., Shyam, T., Das, S. & Shiffman, J. 2021. Challenges to establish effective public-private partnerships to address malnutrition in all its forms. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10(12): 934–945. https://doi.org/10.34172/ijhpm.2020.262
192 UNICEF. 2023. Engaging with the food and beverage industry. UNICEF Programme Guidance. New York, USA. https://www.unicef.org/documents/nutrition/engaging-food-and-beverage-industry#:~:text=UNICEF%27s%20Programme%20Guidance%20on%20Engagement,advisor%20to%20governments%20and%20partners
193 Bandy, L., Jewell, J., Luick, M., Rayner, M., Li, Y., Shats, K., Jebb, S., Chang, S. & Dunford, E. 2023. The development of a method for the global health community to assess the proportion of food and beverage companies’ sales that are derived from unhealthy foods. Globalization and Health, 19(1): 94. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00992-z
194 WHO. 2018. Safeguarding against possible conflicts of interest in nutrition programmes: draft approach for the prevention and management of conflicts of interest in the policy development and implementation of nutrition programmes at country level: report by the Director-General. Geneva, Switzerland. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/274165
195 WHO. 2018. Framework of engagement with non-state actors. New section of basic documents that will be incorporated into the forty-ninth edition. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/gb/bd/PDF/Framework_Engagement_non-State_Actors.pdf
196 UNSCN. 2016. Investments for healthy food systems – A framework analysis and review of evidence on food system investments for improving nutrition. Implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. Discussion Paper. https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/document/EN-final-Investments-for-Healthy-Food-Systems-UNSCN.pdf
197 UNCTAD. 2022. World Investment Report 2022. International tax reforms and sustainable investment. Geneva, Switzerland. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/wir2022_en.pdf
198 IMF. 2023. International corporate tax reform. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/PP/2023/English/PPEA2023001.ashx
199 FAO. 2020. Nutrition-sensitive investments in agriculture and food systems – Budget analysis guidance note. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cb0914en
200 Bousios, T., O’Neill, E. & Rendon Cepeda, R. 2024. 4 ways IFAD is using AI to transform rural development. In IFAD. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/-/4-ways-ifad-is-using-ai-to-transform-rural-development?p_l_back_url=%2Fen%2Fweb%2Flatest%2Fgallery
201 World Bank. 2024. World Bank Country and Lending Groups. In: World Bank Data. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
202 World Bank. 2024. Debt Sustainability Framework (DSF). In: World Bank. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-toolkit/dsf
203 IMF. 2022. Staff guidance note on the sovereign risk and debt sustainability framework for market access countries. Policy Paper No. 2022/039. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Policy-Papers/Issues/2022/08/08/Staff-Guidance-Note-on-the-Sovereign-Risk-and-Debt-Sustainability-Framework-for-Market-521884
204 World Bank. undated. World Bank Data: Short-term debt (% of total reserves). [Accessed on 9 May 2024]. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/DT.DOD.DSTC.IR.ZS?end=2022&start=2022&view=map. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.
205 World Bank. 2024. Metadata glossary. In: DataBank. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/world-development-indicators/series/DT.DOD.DSTC.IR.ZS
206 World Bank. 2023. Worldwide Governance Indicators. In: World Bank. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/worldwide-governance-indicators
207 World Bank. undated. Voice and accountability. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/govindicators/doc/va.pdf
208 World Bank. undated. Government effectiveness. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/govindicators/doc/ge.pdf
209 World Bank. undated. Regulatory quality. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/govindicators/doc/rq.pdf
210 World Bank. undated. Rule of law. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/govindicators/doc/rl.pdf
211 World Bank. undated. Control of corruption. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/govindicators/doc/cc.pdf
212 World Bank. 2024. Digital Adoption Index. In: World Bank. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016/Digital-Adoption-Index
213 Jeanne, O. & Rancière, R. 2006. The optimal level of international reserves for emerging market countries: Formulas and applications. IMF working paper. Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2006/wp06229.pdf
1 FAO. 1996. Methodology for assessing food inadequacy in developing countries. In: The Sixth World Food Survey. pp. 114–143. Rome. www.fao.org/3/w0931e/w0931e.pdf
2 FAO. 2014. Advances in hunger measurement: traditional FAO methods and recent innovations. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper, 14-04. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4060e/i4060e.pdf
3 Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General. 2019. Global Sustainable Development Report 2019: the future is now – science for achieving sustainable development. New York, USA, United Nations. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf
4 UNU (United Nations University), WHO & FAO. 2004. Human energy requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Rome. https://www.fao.org/4/y5686e/y5686e00.htm
5 UN DESA. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. In: United Nations. [Cited 24 July 2024]. https://population.un.org/wpp
6 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Food Balance Sheets. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.
7 FAO. 2023. World Food Situation. In: FAO. [Cited 11 May 2023]. www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation
8 Meybeck, A., Cederberg, C., Gustavsson, J., Van Otterdijk, R. & Sonesson, U. 2011. Global food losses and food waste – Extent, causes and prevention. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i2697e
9 FAO. 2002. Summary of proceedings: measurement and assessment of food deprivation and undernutrition. International Scientific Symposium, 26–28 June 2002. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-y4250e.pdf
10 Wanner, N., Cafiero, C., Troubat, N. & Conforti, P. 2014. Refinements to the FAO methodology for estimating the prevalence of undernourishment indicator. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper Series ESS / 14-05. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i4046e/i4046e.pdf
11 World Bank. 2024. International Comparison Program (ICP). In: World Bank. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp
12 World Bank. 2024. World Bank DataBank: World Development Indicators. [Accessed on 14 March 2024]. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
13 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Consumer Price Indices. [Accessed on 11 June 2024]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CP. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.
14 World Bank. 2024. Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP). [Cited 12 June 2024]. https://pip.worldbank.org
15 Denwood, M.J. 2016. runjags: An R package providing interface utilities, model templates, parallel computing methods and additional distributions for MCMC models in JAGS. Journal of Statistical Software, 71: 1–25. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v071.i09
16 Su, Y.-S. & Yajima, M. 2024. Package ‘R2jags’. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/R2jags/R2jags.pdf
17 Ahmad, O.B., Boschi-Pinto, C., Lopez, A.D., Murray, C.J.L., Lozano, R. & Inoue, M. 2001. Age standardization of rates: A new WHO standard. GPE Discussion Paper Series No. 31. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/gho-documents/global-health-estimates/gpe_discussion_paper_series_paper31_2001_age_standardization_rates.pdf
18 IPC Global Partners. 2019. Technical Manual version 3.0. Evidence and standards for better food security and nutrition decisions. Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Technical_Manual_3_Final.pdf
19 FAO. 2023. FAO/WHO GIFT | Global Individual Food consumption data Tool. In: FAO. [Cited 10 May 2023]. https://www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/methodology/food-groups-and-sub-groups
20 Menza, V. & Probart, C. 2013. Eating well for good health. Lessons on nutrition and healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i3261e
21 OECD. 2024. Blended finance. In: OECD. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/blended-finance-principles/
22 USAID. 2020. White paper #2: Innovative finance taxonomy in USAID language. Washington, DC. https://usaidlearninglab.org/system/files/2023-04/white_paper_2_innovative_finance_taxonomy_in_usaid_language_02212020_1.pdf
23 CFI (Corporate Finance Institute). 2024. Capital markets. In: CFI. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/career-map/sell-side/capital-markets/capital-markets
24 Investopedia. 2022. Commercial: What it means in business and the financial markets. In: Investopedia. [Cited 6 June 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/commercial.asp
25 Agard, J., Schipper, E.L.F., Birkmann, J., Campos, M., Dubeux, C., Nojiri, Y., Olsoon, L. et al. 2014. Glossary. In: IPCC, ed. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. pp. 1757–1776. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-AnnexII_FINAL.pdf
26 IPCC. 2012. The risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. In: C.B. Field, V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, et al., eds. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/SREX_Full_Report-1.pdf
27 Chambers, R. & Conway, G.R. 1991. Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st century. Discussion Paper 296. Brighton and Hove, UK, IDS (Institute of Development Studies). www.ids.ac.uk/download.php?file=files/Dp296.pdf
28 Dercon, S., Hoddinott, J. & Woldehanna, T. 2005. Shocks and consumption in 15 Ethiopian villages, 1999–2004. Journal of African Economies, 14(4): 559–585. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/eji022
29 WFP. 2009. Comprehensive Food Security & Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) Guidelines - First Edition, 2009. Rome. www.wfp.org/publications/comprehensive-food-security-and-vulnerability-analysis-cfsva-guidelines-first-edition
30 FAO. 2016. Managing climate risk using climate-smart agriculture. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i5402e
31 OECD. 2007. Lessons learnt from experience with debt-for-environment swaps in economies in transition. Paris. https://www.oecd.org/environment/outreach/39352290.pdf
32 MasterClass. 2022. Gross private domestic investment: Definition, examples, and how to calculate GPDI - 2024. In: MasterClass. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-gross-private-domestic-investment
33 World Bank. 2022. Fact sheet: an adjustment to global poverty lines. In: World Bank. [Cited 10 May 2023]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/05/02/fact-sheet-an-adjustment-to-global-poverty-lines
34 Investopedia. 2023. Financing: What it means and why it matters. In: Investopedia. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/financing.asp
35 HLPE. 2017. Nutrition and food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7846e
36 HLPE. 2020. Food security and nutrition: building a global narrative towards 2030. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca9731en
37 Investopedia. 2020. Capital funding: Definition, how it works, and 2 primary methods. In: Investopedia. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capital-funding.asp
38 FAO. 2013. Reviewed strategic framework. FAO Conference – Thirthy-eight Session, Rome, 15–22 June 2013. Rome. https://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/027/mg015e.pdf
39 UNGA (United Nations General Assembly). 2016. Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction. Seventy-first session, Agenda item 19 (c), A/71/644. New York, USA. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/852089
40 WHO. 2024. WHO: Health taxes. [Accessed on 9 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/health-taxes
41 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en
42 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
43 FAO. 2015. Guidelines on the collection of information on food processing through food consumption surveys. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4690e/i4690e.pdf
44 Investopedia. 2021. What is foreign portfolio investment (FPI)? Benefits and risks. In: Investopedia. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/foreign-portfolio-investment-fpi.asp
45 CFI. 2024. Multilateral development bank (MDB). In: CFI. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/multilateral-development-bank-mdb
46 OECD. 2024. Net ODA. In: OECD Data. [Cited 9 May 2024]. http://data.oecd.org/oda/net-oda.htm
47 WHO. 2023. Child growth standards. In: WHO. [Cited 5 June 2023]. www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards
48 Investopedia. 2024. Private equity explained with examples and ways to invest. In: Investopedia. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/privateequity.asp
49 United Nations. 2017. Report of the High-Level Committee on Programmes at its thirty-fourth session. Annex III. CEB/2017/6 (6 November 2017). New York, USA. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3844899
50 Investopedia. 2024. What are financial securities? Examples, types, regulation, and importance. In: Investopedia. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/security.asp
51 AMS (American Meteorological Society). 2015. Weather - Glossary of Meteorology. In: AMS. [Cited 5 June 2023]. https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Weather