CHAPTER 1

1 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), WFP (World Food Programme) & WHO (World Health Organization). 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7695en

2 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en

3 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162EN

4 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

5 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en

6 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN

7 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en

CHAPTER 2

1 FSIN (Food Security Information Network) & GNAFC (Global Network Against Food Crises). 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024

2 IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification). 2024. IPC. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.ipcinfo.org

3 IPC. 2024. IPC Global Initiative - Special Brief: The Gaza Strip. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/IPC_Gaza_Strip_Acute_Food_Insecurity_Feb_July2024_Special_Brief.pdf

4 IPC. 2021. Technical Manual Version 3.1. Evidence and standards for better food security and nutrition decisions. Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/manual/IPC_Technical_Manual_3_Final.pdf

5 IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2024. World Economic Outlook. Steady but slow: resilience amid divergence. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2024/04/16/world-economic-outlook-april-2024

6 IMF. 2019. IMF: World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2019. [Accessed on 24 June 2024]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2019/October

7 European Union, FAO, UN-Habitat (United Nations Human Settlements Programme), OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) & World Bank. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

8 FAO. 2020. Gendered impacts of COVID-19 and equitable policy responses in agriculture, food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198en

9 UN Women. 2020. Whose time to care? Unpaid care and domestic work during COVID-19. New York, USA. https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Whose-time-to-care-brief_0.pdf

10 Mane, E., Giaquinto, A.M., Cafiero, C., Viviani, S. & Anríquez, G. 2024. Why are women more food insecure than men? Exploring socioeconomic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9160en

11 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en

12 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

13 Verger, E.O., Savy, M., Martin-Prevel, Y., Coates, J., Frongillo, E., Neufeld, L., Saha, K. et al. 2023. Healthy diet metrics: A suitability assessment of indicators for global and national monitoring purposes. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240072138

14 WHO. 2020. Healthy diet. In: WHO. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet

15 FAO & WHO. 2019. Sustainable healthy diets: guiding principles. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA6640EN

16 WHO. 2023. Use of non-sugar sweeteners: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073616

17 WHO. 2023. Total fat intake for the prevention of unhealthy weight gain in adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073654

18 WHO. 2023. Saturated fatty acid and trans-fatty acid intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073630

19 WHO. 2023. Carbohydrate intake for adults and children: WHO guideline. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240073593

20 Alvarez-Sanchez, C., Moltedo, A., Troubat, N., Manyani, T., Yassin, F., Kepple, A. & Cafiero, C. 2021. The relationship between food insecurity and dietary outcomes – An analysis conducted with nationally representative data from Kenya, Mexico, Samoa, and the Sudan. FAO Statistics Working Paper 21-25. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6217en

21 Maitra, C. 2018. A review of studies examining the link between food insecurity and malnutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca1447en

22 Global Diet Quality Project. 2024. Global Diet Quality Project. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.dietquality.org

23 Women’s Dietary Diversity Project (WDDP) Study Group. 2017. Development of a dichotomous indicator for population-level assessment of dietary diversity in women of reproductive age. Current Developments in Nutrition, 1(12): cdn.117.001701. https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.001701

24 FAO. 2023. Tracking progress on food and agriculture-related SDG indicators 2023. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7088en

25 Herforth, A., Bai, Y., Venkat, A., Mahrt, K., Ebel, A. & Masters, W.A. 2020. Cost and affordability of healthy diets across and within countries. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 9. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2431en

26 World Bank. 2024. International Comparison Program (ICP). In: World Bank. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp

27 Bai, Y., Conti, V., Ebel, A., Cafiero, C., Herforth, A., Rissanen, M.O., Rosero Moncayo, J. & Masters, W.A. (forthcoming). Methods for monitoring the cost of a healthy diet based on price data from the International Comparison Program. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

28 Herforth, A., Venkat, A., Bai, Y., Costlow, L., Holleman, C. & Masters, W.A. 2022. Methods and options to monitor the cost and affordability of a healthy diet globally. Background paper to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-03. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1169en

29 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en

30 Jolliffe, D. & Prydz, E.B. 2021. Societal poverty: a relative and relevant measure. The World Bank Economic Review, 35(1): 180–206. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhz018

31 Bai, Y., Herforth, A., Cafiero, C., Conti, V., Rissanen, M.O., Masters, W.A. & Rosero Moncayo, J. (forthcoming). Methods for monitoring the affordability of a healthy diet. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

32 Gerszon Mahler, D., Yonzan, N., Hill, R., Lakner, C., Wu, H. & Yoshida, N. 2022. Pandemic, prices, and poverty. In: World Bank Blogs. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/pandemic-prices-and-poverty

33 FAO. 2024. FAO Food Price Index. In: World Food Situation. [Cited 29 May 2024]. https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex

34 World Bank. 2024. World Bank DataBank: World Development Indicators. [Accessed on 14 March 2024]. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

35 IMF. 2022. Macroeconomic developments and prospects in low-income countries - 2022. Policy Papers, 2022(054). https://doi.org/10.5089/9798400227813.007.A001

36 Scaling Up Nutrition. 2015. Linking nutrition and the SDGs. In: Scaling Up Nutrition. [Cited 30 April 2024]. https://scalingupnutrition.org/resources/nutrition-info/nutrition-action/linking-nutrition-and-sdgs

37 WHO. 2024. SDG Target 2.2 Malnutrition. In: WHO The Global Health Observatory. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/sdg-target-2_2-malnutrition

38 WHO & UNICEF. 2019. The extension of the 2025 maternal, infant and young child nutrition targets to 2030. WHO/UNICEF discussion paper. Geneva, Switzerland and New York, USA. https://data.unicef.org/resources/who-unicef-discussion-paper-nutrition-targets

39 ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council). 2020. Report of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators. https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2020/10/TCG-7-REF-1.pdf

40 WHO. 2013. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506236

41 UNSCN (United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition). 2024. The Decade of Action on Nutrition 2016-2025. In: UNSCN. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.unscn.org/en/topics/un-decade-of-action-on-nutrition

42 Herman, D.R., Taylor Baer, M., Adams, E., Cunningham-Sabo, L., Duran, N., Johnson, D.B. & Yakes, E. 2014. Life course perspective: Evidence for the role of nutrition. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 18(2): 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-013-1280-3

43 Stevens, G.A., Beal, T., Mbuya, M.N.N., Luo, H., Neufeld, L.M., Addo, O.Y., Adu-Afarwuah, S. et al. 2022. Micronutrient deficiencies among preschool-aged children and women of reproductive age worldwide: a pooled analysis of individual-level data from population-representative surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 10(11): e1590–e1599. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00367-9

44 Berger, S.G., de Pee, S., Bloem, M.W., Halati, S. & Semba, R.D. 2007. Malnutrition and morbidity are higher in children who are missed by periodic vitamin A capsule distribution for child survival in rural Indonesia. The Journal of Nutrition, 137(5): 1328–1333. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.5.1328

45 Barker, D.J. 1995. Fetal origins of coronary heart disease. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 311(6998): 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.311.6998.171

46 Karakochuk, C.D., Whitfield, K.C., Green, T.J. & Kraemer, K., eds. 2017. The biology of the first 1,000 days. Boca Raton, USA, CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315152950

47 Perumal, N., Blakstad, M.M., Fink, G., Lambiris, M., Bliznashka, L., Danaei, G. & Sudfeld, C.R. 2021. Impact of scaling up prenatal nutrition interventions on human capital outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: a modeling analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 114(5): 1708–1718. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab234

48 Lassi, Z.S., Padhani, Z.A., Rabbani, A., Rind, F., Salam, R.A., Das, J.K. & Bhutta, Z.A. 2020. Impact of dietary interventions during pregnancy on maternal, neonatal, and child outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Nutrients, 12(2): 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020531

49 Martorell, R., Melgar, P., Maluccio, J.A., Stein, A.D. & Rivera, J.A. 2010. The nutrition intervention improved adult human capital and economic productivity. The Journal of Nutrition, 140(2): 411. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.114504

50 1,000 Days. 2024. Building brains. In: 1,000 Days. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://thousanddays.org/why-1000-days/building-brains

51 Bhutta, Z.A., Norris, S.A., Roberts, M. & Singhal, A. 2023. The global challenge of childhood obesity and its consequences: what can be done? The Lancet Global Health, 11(8): e1172–e1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00284-X

52 Saad, R.A. & Qutob, H.M. 2022. The relationship between anemia and obesity. Expert Review of Hematology, 15(10): 911–926. https://doi.org/10.1080/17474086.2022.2131521

53 Clark, P. 2024. Iron deficiency related to obesity. Journal of Infusion Nursing, 47(3): 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1097/NAN.0000000000000546

54 UNCTAD (United Nations Trade and Development). 2024. UN list of least developed countries. In: UNCTAD. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list

55 UNCTAD. 2024. Least Developed Countries category. In: United Nations. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.un.org/ohrlls/content/ldc-category

56 Popkin, B.M., Corvalan, C. & Grummer-Strawn, L.M. 2020. Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition and the changing nutrition reality. The Lancet, 395(10217): 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32497-3

57 Osendarp, S.J.M., Brown, K.H., Neufeld, L.M., Udomkesmalee, E. & Moore, S.E. 2020. The double burden of malnutrition—further perspective. The Lancet, 396(10254): 813. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31364-7

58 WHO. 2017. The double burden of malnutrition: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.3

59 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2024. NCD-RisC. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://ncdrisc.org

60 NCD-RisC. 2024. Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet, 403(10431): 1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)02750-2

61 WHO. 2024. Growth reference data for 5-19 years. In: WHO. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/tools/growth-reference-data-for-5to19-years

62 UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. In: United Nations. [Cited 24 July 2024]. https://population.un.org/wpp

63 WHO. 2022. Ageing and health. In: WHO. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health

64 Decade of Healthy Ageing. 2022. UN Decade of Healthy Ageing – The Platform. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.decadeofhealthyageing.org

65 WHO. 2024. WHO’s work on the UN Decade of Healthy Ageing (2021-2030). In: WHO. [Cited 25 April 2024]. https://www.who.int/initiatives/decade-of-healthy-ageing

66 Hawkes, C., Ruel, M.T., Salm, L., Sinclair, B. & Branca, F. 2020. Double-duty actions: seizing programme and policy opportunities to address malnutrition in all its forms. The Lancet, 395(10218): 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32506-1

67 WHO. 2017. Double-duty actions for nutrition: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.2

68 IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). 2015. Global Nutrition Report 2015: Actions and accountability to advance nutrition and sustainable development. Washington, DC. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896298835

69 WHO. 2023. WHO guideline for complementary feeding of infants and young children 6–23 months of age. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240081864

70 WHO. 2023. WHO guideline on the prevention and management of wasting and nutritional oedema (acute malnutrition) in infants and children under 5 years. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240082830

71 WHO. 2019. Essential nutrition actions: mainstreaming nutrition through the life-course. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241515856

CHAPTER 3

1 Díaz-Bonilla, E. 2021. Financing SDG2 and ending hunger. Food Systems Summit Brief prepared by Research Partners of the Scientific Group for the Food Systems Summit, May 11th, 2021. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://sc-fss2021.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/FSS_Brief_Financing_SDG2_and_Ending_Hunger.pdf

2 Díaz-Bonilla, E., Swinnen, J. & Vos, R. 2021. Financing the transformation to healthy, sustainable, and equitable food systems. In: 2021 Global Food Policy Report: Transforming food systems after COVID-19. pp. 20–23. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293991

3 Havemann, T. & Speckhardt, C. 2020. Mobilizing additional financial resources for nutrition. Männedorf, Switzerland, Clarmondial AG. https://www.shareweb.ch/site/Agriculture-and-Food-Security/focusareas/Documents/nutrition_keydocs_sdc_financing_nutrition.pdf

4 Shekar, M., Shibata Okamura, K., Gautam, M., Christiaensen, L. & Gentilini, U. 2021. Financing SDG2: Hunger and malnutrition – what will it take? In: World Bank Blogs. [Cited 23 April 2024]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/voices/financing-sdg2-hunger-and-malnutrition-what-will-it-take

5 Eber-Rose, M., Laborde, D. & Murphy, S. 2020. Ending Hunger Sustainably: Trends in official development assistance (ODA) spending for agriculture. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ceres2030-en-2020-ehs-tends-official-development-assistance-spending-for-agriculture.pdf

6 GDPRD (Global Donor Platform for Rural Development). 2011. Aid to agriculture, rural development: Unpacking aid flows for enhanced transparency, accountability for rural development and food security and aid effectiveness. Bonn, Germany.

7 Eber Rose, M., Laborde, D., Lefebvre, L., Olivetti, E. & Smaller, C. 2024. Towards a common definition of aid for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO and Geneva, Switzerland, Shamba Centre for Food & Climate. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd1957en

8 ODI (Overseas Development Institute). 2012. Measuring aid to agriculture and food security. London. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/7588.pdf

9 ZEF (Center for Development Research of the University of Bonn) & FAO. 2020. Investment costs and policy action opportunities for reaching a world without hunger (SDG2). Joint report. Bonn, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1497en

10 European Commission. 2016. Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council. Implementing EU food and nutrition security policy commitments: second biennial report – Annexes. Brussels. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SWD:2016:0155:FIN:EN:PDF

11 OECD. 2024. Development finance data. In: OECD. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-data

12 AFSI (L’Aquila Food Security Initiative). 2012. L’Aquila Food Security Initiative (AFSI) 2012 Report. L’Aquila, Italy. https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/202922.pdf

13 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2017. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7695en

14 Zoubek, S., Lateef, A., Carrasco Azzini, G. & Holleman, C. (forthcoming). Reorientation, innovation and the global architecture for food security and nutrition financing – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

15 OECD. 2009. Government at a Glance 2009. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264061651-6-en

16 Perez Weigel, C. & Brun, D. 2024. Tax Foundation: Sources of Government Revenue in the OECD, 2024 Update. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/global/oecd-tax-revenue-by-country-2024

17 OECD. 2024. Official development assistance – definition and coverage. In: OECD. [Cited 25 March 2024]. https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/officialdevelopmentassistancedefinitionandcoverage.htm

18 OECD. 2024. OECD: DAC and CRS code lists. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://webfs.oecd.org/oda/DataCollection/Resources/DAC-CRS-CODES.xls

19 Ofosu-Mensah Ababio, J., Aboagye, A.Q.Q., Barnor, C. & Agyei, S.K. 2022. Foreign and domestic private investment in developing and emerging economies: A review of literature. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1): 2132646. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2022.2132646

20 FAO. 2012. The State of Food and Agriculture 2012. Investing in agriculture for a better future. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i3028e

21 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN

22 Chichaibelu, B.B., Bekchanov, M., von Braun, J. & Torero, M. 2023. The global cost of reaching a world without hunger: Investment costs and policy action opportunities. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation. pp. 625–660. Cham, Switzerland, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_34

23 Gyimah-Brempong, K. & Adesugba, M. 2015. Agricultural aid and food security in Africa. https://www.aeaweb.org/conference/2016/retrieve.php?pdfid=21639&tk=EFbbTTah

24 Jensen, R.T. & Miller, N.H. 2010. A revealed preference approach to measuring hunger and undernutrition. Working Paper 16555. Cambridge, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research. http://www.nber.org/papers/w16555

25 Herforth, A. 2016. Impact assessment of policies to support healthy food environments and healthy diets: Implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. UNSCN Discussion Paper. Geneva, Switzerland, UNSCN. https://www.unscn.org/en/unscn-publications?idnews=1279

26 HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security). 2017. Nutrition and food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i7846e

27 HLPE. 2020. Food security and nutrition: building a global narrative towards 2030. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/ca9731en

28 Kraak, V.I., Swinburn, B., Lawrence, M. & Harrison, P. 2014. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutrition, 17(11): 2467–2483. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014000093

29 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

30 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en

31 FSIN & GNAFC. 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024

32 GNAFC. 2024. 2023 Financing Flows and Food Crises Report – Analysis of humanitarian and development financing flows to food sectors in food crisis countries. Rome. https://www.fightfoodcrises.net/fileadmin/user_upload/fightfoodcrises/doc/resources/Financing_Flows_and_Food_Crises_Report_2023.pdf

33 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162EN

34 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2018. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018. Building climate resilience for food security and nutrition. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9553en

35 IFAD, World Bank & United Nations Food Systems Coordination Hub. 2024. Tracking Financial Flows to Food Systems (3FS): Methodological approach. Rome.

CHAPTER 4

1 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. & Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: Trends, challenges and priorities. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4492en

2 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en

3 Takeshima, H. 2024. Public expenditure’s role in reducing poverty and improving food and nutrition security: Cross-country evidence from SPEED data. The European Journal of Development Research. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-023-00623-8

4 Kasililika-Mlagha, E.C. 2021. The impact of public agriculture expenditure on food security and nutrition in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Pretoria, University of Pretoria, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development. https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/78131/Kasililika-Mlagha_Impact_2021.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

5 Sers, C.F. & Mughal, M. 2018. From Maputo to Malabo: Public agricultural spending and food security in Africa. https://hal.science/hal-01844094

6 Miyawaki, A., Evans, C.E.L., Lucas, P.J. & Kobayashi, Y. 2021. Relationships between social spending and childhood obesity in OECD countries: An ecological study. BMJ Open, 11(2): e044205. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044205

7 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

8 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. Urbanization, agrifood systems transformation and healthy diets across the rural–urban continuum. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CD1254EN

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10 AidData. 2024. In: AidData. [Cited 25 March 2024]. https://www.aiddata.org

11 World Bank & KNOMAD (Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development). 2023. Leveraging diaspora finances for private capital mobilization. Migration and Development Brief 39. Washington, DC. https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/publication-doc/migration_development_brief_39_0.pdf

12 Samdrup, T., Fogarty, J., Pandit, R., Iftekhar, Md.S. & Dorjee, K. 2023. Does FDI in agriculture in developing countries promote food security? Evidence from meta-regression analysis. Economic Analysis and Policy, 80: 1255–1272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2023.10.012

13 Gilmore, A.B., Fabbri, A., Baum, F., Bertscher, A., Bondy, K., Chang, H.-J., Demaio, S. et al. 2023. Defining and conceptualising the commercial determinants of health. The Lancet, 401(10383): 1194–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)00013-2

14 Cuevas García-Dorado, S., Cornselsen, L., Smith, R. & Walls, H. 2019. Economic globalization, nutrition and health: a review of quantitative evidence. Globalization and Health, 15(1): 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0456-z

15 Slater, S., Lawrence, M., Wood, B., Serodio, P. & Baker, P. 2024. Corporate interest groups and their implications for global food governance: mapping and analysing the global corporate influence network of the transnational ultra-processed food industry. Globalization and Health, 20(1): 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01020-4

16 Lane, M.M., Gamage, E., Du, S., Ashtree, D.N., McGuinness, A.J., Gauci, S., Baker, P. et al. 2024. Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: Umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, 384: e077310. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310

17 Monteiro, C.A., Martínez-Steele, E. & Cannon, G. 2024. Reasons to avoid ultra-processed foods. BMJ, 384: q439. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.q439

18 Bandy, L., Jewell, J., Luick, M., Rayner, M., Li, Y., Shats, K., Jebb, S., Chang, S. & Dunford, E. 2023. The development of a method for the global health community to assess the proportion of food and beverage companies’ sales that are derived from unhealthy foods. Globalization and Health, 19(1): 94. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-023-00992-z

19 Fardet, A. & Rock, E. 2020. Ultra-processed foods and food system sustainability: What are the links? Sustainability, 12(15): 6280. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12156280

20 Anastasiou, K., Baker, P., Hadjikakou, M., Hendrie, G.A. & Lawrence, M. 2022. A conceptual framework for understanding the environmental impacts of ultra-processed foods and implications for sustainable food systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 368: 133155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133155

21 Convergence. 2023. State of Blended Finance 2023: Climate edition. Toronto, Canada. https://www.convergence.finance/resource/state-of-blended-finance-2023/view

22 Convergence. 2020. State of Blended Finance 2020. Toronto, Canada. https://www.convergence.finance/resource/the-state-of-blended-finance-2020/view

23 Multilateral Development Banks & Development Finance Institutions. 2023. Mobilization of private finance 2020+2021 joint report. https://www.ifc.org/content/dam/ifc/doc/2023-delta/mdbs-joint-report-on-mobilization-of-private-finance-2020-21.pdf

24 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Credit to agriculture. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/IC. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

25 ISF Advisors. 2022. The state of the agri-SME sector – Bridging the finance gap. FCDO (Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office). https://isfadvisors.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/ISF_AgriSME-Finance-state-of-the-sector-report.pdf

26 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Capital Stock. [Accessed on 24 July 2024]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CS. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

27 Sánchez, M.V. & Cicowiez, M. 2014. Trade-offs and payoffs of investing in human development. World Development, 62: 14–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.04.012

28 FAO. 2015. Achieving Zero Hunger: The critical role of investments in social protection and agriculture. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i4951e/i4951e.pdf

29 Mason-D’Croz, D., Sulser, T.B., Wiebe, K., Rosegrant, M.W., Lowder, S.K., Nin-Pratt, A., Willenbockel, D. et al. 2019. Agricultural investments and hunger in Africa modeling potential contributions to SDG2 – Zero Hunger. World Development, 116: 38–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.006

30 Laborde, D., Bizikova, L., Lallemant, T. & Smaller, C. 2016. Ending hunger: What would it cost? Winnipeg, Canada and Washington, DC, IISD and IFPRI. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ending-hunger-what-would-it-cost.pdf

31 Laborde, D., Murphy, S., Parent, M., Porciello, J. & Smaller, C. 2020. Ceres2030: Sustainable solutions to end hunger – Summary report. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ceres2030_en-summary-report.pdf

32 ZEF & FAO. 2020. Investment costs and policy action opportunities for reaching a world without hunger (SDG2). Joint report. Bonn, Germany. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb1497en

33 Shekar, M., Kakietek, J., Dayton Eberwein, J. & Walters, D. 2017. An investment framework for nutrition: Reaching the global targets for stunting, anemia, breastfeeding, and wasting. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/26069

34 Development Initiatives. 2021. 2021 Global Nutrition Report: The state of global nutrition. Bristol, UK. https://globalnutritionreport.org/documents/851/2021_Global_Nutrition_Report_aUfTRv0.pdf

35 Laborde, D. & Torero, M. 2023. Modeling actions for transforming agrifood systems. In: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation. pp. 105–132. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_7

36 WFP. 2023. Estimating the food security impact of cuts in WFP assistance: A look at the highly affected operations using micro-data. Rome. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000152402/download

37 FSIN & GNAFC. 2024. Global Report on Food Crises 2024. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024

38 Lischer, S.K. 2017. The global refugee crisis: Regional destabilization & humanitarian protection. Daedalus, 146(4): 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00461

39 Haer, R. & Hecker, T. 2019. Recruiting refugees for militarization: The determinants of mobilization attempts. Journal of Refugee Studies, 32(1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey002

40 Salehyan, I. 2018. The strategic case for refugee resettlement. Washington, DC, Niskanen Center. https://www.niskanencenter.org/wp-content/uploads/old_uploads/2018/09/NC-Refugee-Paper-SalehyanElec_FINAL.pdf

41 Milner, J. 2019. Refugees, peacebuilding, and paternalism: Lessons from Mozambique. In: M. Bradley, J. Milner & B. Peruniak, eds. Refugees’ roles in resolving displacement and building peace: Beyond beneficiaries. pp. 115–131. Washington, DC, Georgetown University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvfrxq90.11

42 Omata, N. 2015. Displacement economies in Africa: Paradoxes of crisis and creativity. Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(4): 597–599. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fev026

43 IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2023. 2023 Global Report on Internal Displacement. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2023

44 UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2023. Global trends. In: UNHCR. [Cited 24 April 2024]. https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends

45 WFP. 2017. 2017 - At the root of exodus: Food security, conflict and international migration. Rome. https://www.wfp.org/publications/2017-root-exodus-food-security-conflict-and-international-migration

46 OECD. 2024. ODA levels in 2023 – preliminary data. Detailed summary note. Paris. https://www.oecd.org/dac/ODA-summary-2023.pdf

47 Akseer, N., Tasic, H., Nnachebe Onah, M., Wigle, J., Rajakumar, R., Sanchez-Hernandez, D., Akuoku, J. et al. 2022. Economic costs of childhood stunting to the private sector in low- and middle-income countries. eClinicalMedicine, 45: 101320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101320

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49 World Obesity Federation. 2023. World Obesity Atlas 2023. London. https://data.worldobesity.org/publications/WOF-Obesity-Atlas-V5.pdf

50 Okunogbe, A., Nugent, R., Spencer, G., Powis, J., Ralston, J. & Wilding, J. 2022. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for 161 countries. BMJ Global Health, 7(9): e009773. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009773

51 Brero, M., Meyer, C.L., Jackson-Morris, A., Spencer, G., Ludwig-Borycz, E., Wu, D., Espinosa De Candido, A.F. et al. 2023. Investment case for the prevention and reduction of childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity in Mexico. Obesity Reviews, 24(9): e13595. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13595

52 Ma, G., Meyer, C.L., Jackson-Morris, A., Chang, S., Narayan, A., Zhang, M., Wu, D. et al. 2024. The return on investment for the prevention and treatment of childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity in China: a modelling study. The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific, 43: 100977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100977

53 Food and Land Use Coalition. 2019. Growing better: Ten critical transitions to transform food and land use. https://www.foodandlandusecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FOLU-GrowingBetter-GlobalReport.pdf

54 FAO. 2023. The State of Food and Agriculture 2023. Revealing the true cost of food to transform agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc7724en

55 Foster, V., Rana, A. & Gorgulu, N. 2022. Understanding public spending trends for infrastructure in developing countries. Policy Research Working Paper 9903. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/727991642167519238/pdf/Understanding-Public-Spending-Trends-for-Infrastructure-in-Developing-Countries.pdf

56 World Bank. 2022. Tanzania Agriculture Public Expenditure Review 2022. Washington, DC. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099940006282220953/pdf/P1770630615f6e0e0bd4f0286e88583775.pdf

57 FAO, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) & UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2021. A multi-billion-dollar opportunity – Repurposing agricultural support to transform food systems. In brief. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6562en

58 Gautam, M., Mamun, A., Martin, W. & Vos, R. 2022. Repurposing agricultural policies and support: Options to transform agriculture and food systems to better serve the health of people, economies, and the planet. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/36875

59 Sánchez, M.V., Cicowiez, M., Pernechele, V. & Battaglia, L. (forthcoming). The opportunity cost of not optimally repurposing public expenditure in food and agriculture in sub-Saharan African countries – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

60 Sánchez, M.V. & Cicowiez, M. 2022. Repurposing agriculture’s public budget to align healthy diets affordability and agricultural transformation objectives in Ethiopia – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-04. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1174en

CHAPTER 5

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2 IDA (International Development Association). 2024. What Is IDA? In: IDA. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://ida.worldbank.org/en/about

3 UN DESA. 2024. LDC identification criteria & indicators. In: United Nations. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldc-criteria.html

4 UNCDF (United Nations Capital Development Fund). 2024. What We Do – Mobilizing and deploying impact capital for development in the LDCs is more critical now than ever. In: UNCDF. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://www.uncdf.org/whatwedo

5 IMF. 2018. Guidance note on the bank-fund Debt Sustainability Framework for Low Income Countries. Washington, DC. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Policy-Papers/Issues/2018/02/14/pp122617guidance-note-on-lic-dsf

6 Mustapha, S. & Prizzon, A. 2018. Africa’s rising debt: How to avoid a new crisis. Briefing note. London, ODI. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/12491.pdf

7 Robertson, F. 2024. Urgent solutions for a new era of debt distress. In: ONE Data & Analysis. [Cited 9 May 2024]. https://data.one.org/data-dives/debt

8 Landers, C. & Aboneaaj, R. 2022. How the global debt crisis could make the hunger crisis worse. In: Center for Global Development. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/how-global-debt-crisis-could-make-hunger-crisis-worse

9 World Bank. 2020. Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA). Washington, DC. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/b8464ff32b31e488bd3aec5437c3cc92-0290032021/original/CPIAFAQ2020.pdf

10 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en

11 Drummond, P., Daal, W., Srivastava, N. & Oliveira, L.E. 2012. Mobilizing revenue in sub-Saharan Africa: Empirical norms and key determinants. Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Mobilizing-Revenue-in-Sub-Saharan-Africa-Empirical-Norms-and-Key-Determinants-25882

12 Zouhaier, A. 2019. The role of political instability and corruption on foreign direct investment in the MENA region. Faculty of Economic and Management of Sousse University of Sousse, Tunisia. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/95732/1/MPRA_paper_95732.pdf

13 Wang Qingshi, A., Muhammad Akbar, A. & Junaid, A. 2020. The impact of political risk and institutions on food security. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science Journal, 8(3): 924–941. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.3.21

14 Bollaert, H., Lopez-de-Silanes, F. & Schwienbacher, A. 2021. Fintech and access to finance. Journal of Corporate Finance, 68: 101941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2021.101941

15 World Bank. 2016. World Development Report 2016: Digital dividends. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016

16 Eber-Rose, M., Laborde, D. & Murphy, S. 2020. Ending Hunger Sustainably: Trends in official development assistance (ODA) spending for agriculture. Cornell University, IFPRI and IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ceres2030-en-2020-ehs-tends-official-development-assistance-spending-for-agriculture.pdf

17 Cornell University, IFPRI & IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development). 2020. Ceres2030: Sustainable solutions to end hunger. IISD. https://ceres2030.iisd.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/ceres2030-nature-portfolio-.pdf

18 FAO. 2023. Achieving SDG 2 without breaching the 1.5 °C threshold: A global roadmap, Part 1 – How agrifood systems transformation through accelerated climate actions will help achieving food security and nutrition, today and tomorrow, In brief. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9113en

19 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1–34. Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf

20 WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2024. WMO confirms that 2023 smashes global temperature record. In: WMO. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/wmo-confirms-2023-smashes-global-temperature-record

21 Ebrahimzadeh, C. 2024. Dutch Disease: Wealth Managed Unwisely. In: IMF. [Cited 2 May 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/Series/Back-to-Basics/Dutch-Disease

22 McKinley, T. 2005. Why is ‘the Dutch disease’ always a disease? The macroeconomic consequences of scaling up ODA. Working Paper 10. New York, USA, UNDP. https://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/IPCWorkingPaper10.pdf

23 Mary, S., Saravia-Matus, S. & Gomez y Paloma, S. 2018. Does nutrition-sensitive aid reduce the prevalence of undernourishment? Food Policy, 74: 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.11.008

24 Crivelli, E., Gupta, S., Muthoora, P.S. & Benedek, D. 2012. Foreign aid and revenue: Still a crowding out effect? Washington, DC, IMF. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2016/12/31/Foreign-Aid-and-Revenue-Still-a-Crowding-Out-Effect-26085

25 Morrissey, O. 2015. Aid and government fiscal behavior: Assessing recent evidence. World Development, 69: 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.12.008

26 Mawejje, J. & Sebudde, R.K. 2019. Tax revenue potential and effort: Worldwide estimates using a new dataset. Economic Analysis and Policy, 63: 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2019.05.005

27 Ajaz, T. & Ahmad, E. 2010. The effect of corruption and governance on tax revenues. The Pakistan Development Review, 49(4): 405–417. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41428665

28 McNabb, K., Danquah, M. & Tagem, A.M.E. 2021. Tax effort revisited: New estimates from the Government Revenue Dataset. WIDER Working Paper No. 2021/170. Helsinki, UNU-WIDER (United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research). https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2021/110-5

29 Ullah, S., Luo, R., Ali, K. & Irfan, M. 2023. How does the sectoral composition of FDI induce economic growth in developing countries? The key role of business regulations. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 36(2): 2129406. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2022.2129406

30 Dhahri, S. & Omri, A. 2020. Does foreign capital really matter for the host country agricultural production? Evidence from developing countries. Review of World Economics, 156(1): 153–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10290-019-00361-2

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32 Christensen, C.M., Ojomo, E. & Dillon, K. 2019. Cracking Frontier Markets. In: Harvard Business Review. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://hbr.org/2019/01/cracking-frontier-markets

33 Dalberg Global Development Advisors. 2014. Innovative financing for development: Scalable business models that produce economic, social, and environmental outcomes. https://www.citigroup.com/rcs/citigpa/akpublic/storage/public/innovative_financing_for_development.pdf

34 Zoubek, S., Lateef, A., Carrasco Azzini, G. & Holleman, C. (forthcoming). Reorientation, innovation and the global architecture for food security and nutrition financing – Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper. Rome, FAO.

35 Bharali, I., Zoubek, S., McDade, K.K., Martinez, S., Brizzi, A., Yamey, G., Brownell, K. & Schäferhoff, M. 2020. The financing landscape for agricultural development: An assessment of external financing flows to low- and middle-income countries and of the global aid architecture. Duke World Food Policy Center, Duke Center for Policy Impact in Global Health and Open Consultants. https://wfpc.sanford.duke.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2022/05/AgDevFinancing-WFPC-Dec2020.pdf

36 Bove, R., Nordhagen, S. & Zonnenberg, M. 2023. Innovative finance for nutrition. GAIN Discussion Paper n°14. Geneva, Switzerland, GAIN. https://doi.org/10.36072/dp.14

37 Fredenberg, E., Karl, K., Passarelli, S., Porciello, J., Rattehalli, V., Auguston, A., Chimwaza, G. et al. 2024. Vision for Adapted Crops and Soils (VACS) research in action: Opportunity crops for Africa. https://doi.org/10.7916/3hd1-8t86

38 Hossain, M. & Songsermsawas, T. (forthcoming). Impact assessment report: Adaptation for Smallholders in Hilly Areas project (ASHA). Rome, IFAD.

39 IFAD. 2024. Project completion report: Outer Islands Food and Water Project (OIFWP). Rome.

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42 UNDP. 2023. UNDP Signals Spotlight 2023: Insights from UNDP’s futures network. New York, USA. https://www.undp.org/future-development/signals-spotlight/publications/undp-signals-spotlight-2023-insights-undps-futures-network

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44 Owen, N. 2022. Belize: Swapping debt for nature. In: IMF. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/05/03/CF-Belize-swapping-debt-for-nature

45 The Nature Conservancy. 2023. The nature conservancy announces debt conversion for ocean conservation in Gabon, first ever in mainland Africa. In: The Nature Conservancy. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.nature.org/en-us/newsroom/tnc-announces-debt-conversion-for-ocean-conservation-in-gabon

46 World Bank. 2023. International Debt Report 2023. Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-statistics/idr/products

47 Reuters. 2023. Egypt, China sign debt swapping MoU for developmental projects - statement. In: Reuters. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSS8N39Z021

48 White, N. & Duarte, E. 2023. Debt-swap market credit suisse built poised to get EIB backing. In: Bloomberg. [Cited 26 April 2024]. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-10-25/debt-swap-market-gets-new-backing-as-eib-nears-barbados-deal

49 WFP. 2021. Debt-for-food swaps. Rome. https://scalingupnutrition.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/WFP_SUN-Debt-for-food-Swaps-Presentation.pdf

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54 IMF. 2024. Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust (PRGT). In: IMF. [Cited 3 June 2024]. https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/PRGT

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56 FAO. 2013. Credit guarantee systems for agriculture and rural enterprise development. Rome. https://aecm.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/FAO-study-on-agricultural-credit-guarantee-schemes.pdf

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