The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022

1 FAO, UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) & UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2021. A multi-billion-dollar opportunity – Repurposing agricultural support to transform food systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6562en

2 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2006. Applying strategic environmental assessment. Good practice guidance for development co-operation. DAC Guidelines and Reference Series. Paris. www.oecd.org/environment/environment-development/37353858.pdf

3 FAO, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development), UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund), WFP (World Food Programme) & WHO (World Health Organization). 2020. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692en

4 Laborde Debucquet, D., Gautam, M., Martin, W., Pineiro, V. & Vos, R. 2021. Repurposing agricultural policy support for climate change mitigation and adaptation. G20 Italy 2021, Task Force 2: Climate Change, Sustainable Energy & Environment. Policy brief, September 2021. www.t20italy.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TF2-4.pdf

5 FAO. 2022. World Food Situation. Rome. Cited 5 May 2022. www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation

6 World Bank. 2022. Global Economic Prospects, January 2022. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36519

7 Kugler, M., Viollaz, M., Duque, D., Gaddis, I., Newhouse, D.L., Palacios-Lopez, A. & Weber, M. 2021. How did the Covid-19 crisis affect different types of workers in the developing world? Jobs Working Paper No. 60. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35950

8 Sánchez-Páramo, C., Hill, R., Gerszon Mahler, D., Narayan, A. & Yonzan, N. 2021. COVID-19 leaves a legacy of rising poverty and widening inequality. In: World Bank Blogs. Washington, DC, World Bank. Cited 5 May 2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/covid-19-leaves-legacy-rising-poverty-and-widening-inequality

9 Narayan, A., Cojocaru, A., Agrawal, S., Bundervoet, T., Davalos, M., Garcia, N., Lakner, C. et al. 2022. COVID-19 and economic inequality: short-term impacts with long-term consequences. Policy Research Working Papers No. 9902. Washington, DC, World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/36848

10 Yonzan, N., Lakner, C., Mahler, D.G. & Gerszon Mahler, D. 2021. Is COVID-19 increasing global inequality? In: World Bank Blogs. Washington, DC, World Bank. Cited 5 May 2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/covid-19-increasing-global-inequality

11 Gerszon Mahler, D., Yonzan, N., Lakner, C., Castaneda Aguilar, R.A. & Wu, H. 2021. Updated estimates of the impact of COVID-19 on global poverty: Turning the corner on the pandemic in 2021? In: World Bank Blogs. Washington, DC, World Bank. Cited 5 May 2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/updated-estimates-impact-covid-19-global-poverty-turning-corner-pandemic-2021

12 Gentilini, U., Almenfi, M., Iyengar, H.T.M.M., Okamura, Y.Y., Downes, J.A., Dale, P., Weber, M. et al. 2022. Social protection and jobs responses to COVID-19: a real-time review of country measures. “Living paper” version 16 (2 February 2022). Washington, DC, World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/110221643895832724/pdf/Social-Protection-and-Jobs-Responses-to-COVID-19-A-Real-Time-Review-of-Country-Measures.pdf

13 Oxfam International. 2020. Shelter from the storm: the global need for universal social protection in times of COVID-19. Oxford, UK. https://doi.org/10.21201/2020.7048

14 Beazley, R., Marzi, M. & Steller, R. 2021. Drivers of timely and large-scale cash responses to COVID-19: what does the data say? SPACE (Social Protection Approaches to COVID-19: Expert Advice), DAI Global UK Ltd, United Kingdom. https://socialprotection.org/sites/default/files/publications_files/SPACE_Drivers of Timely and Large Scale Cash Responses to COVID_19 %281%29.pdf

15 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CC0639EN

16 FAO. 2022. Information Note – The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict. Rome. www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf

17 FAO. 2022. Impact of the Ukraine-Russia conflict on global food security and related matters under the mandate of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO Council, 169th Session, CL169/3. Rome. www.fao.org/3/ni734en/ni734en.pdf

18 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO. 2019. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdowns and downturns. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca5162en/ca5162en.pdf

19 Cafiero, C., Gheri, F., Kepple, A.W., Rosero Moncayo, J. & Viviani, S. 2022. Access to food in 2021: filling data gaps. Results of twenty national surveys using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0721en

20 FAO. 2020. Gendered impacts of COVID-19 and equitable policy responses in agriculture, food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198en

21 UN Women. 2020. Whose time to care? Unpaid care and domestic work during Covid-19. New York, USA. https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Whose-time-to-care-brief_0.pdf

22 WHO & UNICEF. 2017. The extension of the 2025 Maternal, Infant and Young Child nutrition targets to 2030. WHO/UNICEF Discussion paper. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO and New York, USA, UNICEF.

23 United Nations. 2019. Report of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators. Statistical Commission Fifty-first session 3–6 March 2020. New York, USA. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/51st-session/documents/2020-2-SDG-IAEG-E.pdf

24 WHO. 2013. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506236

25 WHO & UNICEF. 2004. Low birthweight: country, regional and global estimates. Geneva, Switzerland and New York, USA, WHO and UNICEF. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43184

26 Jornayvaz, F.R., Vollenweider, P., Bochud, M., Mooser, V., Waeber, G. & Marques-Vidal, P. 2016. Low birth weight leads to obesity, diabetes and increased leptin levels in adults: The CoLaus study. Cardiovascular Diabetology, 15(73). http://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-016-0389-2

27 Lou, F., Qin, H., He, S., Li, M., An, X., Song, L., Tong, Y. et al. 2021. The benefits of breastfeeding still outweigh the risks of COVID-19 transmission. Frontiers in Medicine, 8: 703950. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.703950

28 Bhutta, Z.A., Berkley, J.A., Bandsma, R.H.J., Kerac, M., Trehan, I. & Briend, A. 2017. Severe childhood malnutrition. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 3(1): 17067. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.67

29 WHO. 2014. Global nutrition targets 2025: childhood overweight policy brief (WHO/NMH/NHD/14.6). Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/149021

30 WHO. 2020. Healthy diet. In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 6 May 2022. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet

31 Kinyoki, D., Osgood-Zimmerman, A.E., Bhattacharjee, N. V., Schaeffer, L.E., Lazzar-Atwood, A., Lu, D., Ewald, S.B. et al. 2021. Anemia prevalence in women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries between 2000 and 2018. Nature Medicine, 27(10): 1761–1782. www.nature.com/articles/s41591-021-01498-0

32 Amini, H., Habibi, S., Islamoglu, A.H., Isanejad, E., Uz, C. & Daniyari, H. 2021. COVID-19 pandemic-induced physical inactivity: the necessity of updating the Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018-2030. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 26(32). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-021-00955-z

33 World Bank. 2022. World Bank country and lending groups. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 5 May 2022. https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups

34 Osendarp, S., Verburg, G., Bhutta, Z., Black, R.E., de Pee, S., Fabrizio, C., Headey, D. et al. 2022. Act now before Ukraine war plunges millions into malnutrition. Nature, 604(7907): 620–624. www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01076-5

35 Osendarp, S., Akuoku, J.K., Black, R.E., Headey, D., Ruel, M., Scott, N., Shekar, M. et al. 2021. The COVID-19 crisis will exacerbate maternal and child undernutrition and child mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Nature Food, 2(7): 476–484. www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00319-4

36 UNICEF, USAID (United States Agency for International Development), WHO & USAID Advancing Nutrition (United States Agency for International Development Advancing Nutrition). 2022. The Analytical Framework. https://data.unicef.org/resources/nutrition-and-covid-19-pandemic-analytical-framework, www.who.int/tools/covid19-nutrition-analytical-framework, www.advancingnutrition.org/resources/analytical-framework

37 INSEED (Institut National de la Statistique des Etudes Economiques et Démographiques) & World Bank. 2020. Socio Economic Impacts of COVID-19 in Chad. Bulletin No. 1 – July 2020. N’Djamena, INSEED.

38 USAID. 2008. The Coping Strategies Index: field methods manual (2nd edition). Cited 6 May 2022. www.spring-nutrition.org/publications/tool-summaries/coping-strategies-index-field-methods-manual-2nd-edition

39 WFP. 2020. HungerMap: hunger and COVID-19 weekly snapshot - Chad. November 6, 2020. Rome.

40 INSEED & World Bank. 2020. Socio Economic Impacts of COVID-19 in Chad. Bulletin No. 2 – October 2020. N’Djamena, INSEED.

41 UNICEF. 2021. Tracking the situation of children during COVID-19. In: UNICEF. New York, USA. Cited 6 May 2022. data.unicef.org/resources/rapid-situation-tracking-covid-19-socioeconomic-impacts-data-viz

42 UNICEF, WHO & World Bank. 2021. UNICEF/WHO/World Bank: Joint child malnutrition estimates - Levels and trends: key findings of the 2021 edition. data.unicef.org/resources/jme-report-2021

43 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2017. Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet, 390(10113): 2627–2642. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3

44 NCD-RisC. 2019. Rising rural body-mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults. Nature, 569: 260–264. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1171-x

45 WHO. 2017. The double burden of malnutrition. Geneva, Switzerland. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/255413/WHO-NMH-NHD-17.3-eng.pdf?ua=1

46 Seferidi, P., Hone, T., Duran, A.C., Bernabe-Ortiz, A. & Millett, C. 2022. Global inequalities in the double burden of malnutrition and associations with globalisation: a multilevel analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys from 55 low-income and middle-income countries, 1992–2018. The Lancet Global Health, 10(4): e482–e490. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214109X21005945

47 UNICEF. 2007. How to calculate Average Annual Rate of Reduction (AARR) of underweight prevalance. New York, USA. https://data.unicef.org/resources/technical-note-calculate-average-annual-rate-reduction-aarr-underweight-prevalence

48 United Nations. 2022. Member State dialogues synthesis. Report 4, March 2022. Food Systems Summit Dialogues. New York, USA. https://summitdialogues.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/UN-Food-Systems-Summit-Dialogues-Synthesis-Report-3-Full-Text.pdf

49 Nutrition for Growth. 2021. Tokyo compact on global nutrition for growth annex: commitments. Tokyo. www.mofa.go.jp/files/100275456.pdf

50 FAO & WHO. 2017. United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition 2016–2025: work programme. Rome and Geneva, Switzerland. www.un.org/nutrition/sites/www.un.org.nutrition/files/general/pdf/work_programme_nutrition_decade.pdf

51 World Bank. 2022. Poverty & Inequality Platform (PIP). In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 27 May 2022. https://pip.worldbank.org/home

52 World Bank. 2021. Global Consumption Database – food and beverages. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 6 May 2022. datatopics.worldbank.org/consumption/sector/Food-and-Beverages

53 World Bank. 2022. ICP national accounts expenditure data. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 26 May 2022. www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp/brief/methodology-national-accounts

54 Herforth, A., Venkat, A., Bai, Y., Costlow, L., Holleman, C. & Masters, W.A. (forthcoming). Methods and options to monitor the cost and affordability of a healthy diet globally. Background paper to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-03. Rome, FAO.

55 OECD. 2016. OECD’s Producer Support Estimate and related indicators of agricultural support. Concepts, calculations, interpretation and use. (The PSE manual). Paris.

56 FAO. 2015. Methodology working paper. Volume I. Measures of price incentives. MAFAP Technical Notes Series. Rome. www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/mafap/documents/Methodological_Guidelines/METHODOLOGY_WORKING_PAPER_Vol1_Prices_Incentives.pdf

57 WTO (World Trade Organization). 2022. Glossary - domestic support. In: WTO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 6 May 2022. www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/glossary_e/domestic_support_e.htm

58 OECD. 2019. Evaluating the environmental impact of agricultural policies. OECD Food, Agriculture, and Fisheries Papers No. 130. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/add0f27c-en

59 Benton, T., Bieg, C., Harwatt, H., Pudasaini, R. & Wellesley, L. 2021. Food system impacts on biodiversity loss. Three levers for food system transformation in support of nature. London, Chatham House. www.chathamhouse.org/2021/02/food-system-impacts-biodiversity-loss

60 Ricker-Gilbert, J., Lunduka, R., Shively, G. & Jayne, T. 2014. Improving the effectiveness of Malawi’s FISP. Food Security Collaborative Policy Briefs 234944. Michigan, USA, Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.234944

61 Dorward, A. 2009. Rethinking agricultural input subsidy programmes in developing countries. In A. Elbehri & A. Sarris, eds. Non-distorting farm support to enhance global food production, pp. 311–374. Rome, FAO. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1808847

62 DeBoe, G. 2020. Impacts of agricultural policies on productivity and sustainability performance in agriculture: A literature review. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers No. 141. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/6bc916e7-en

63 Mogues, T., Yu, B., Fan, S. & Mcbride, L. 2012. The impacts of public investment in and for agriculture. Synthesis of the existing evidence. ESA Working paper No. 12-07. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ap108e/ap108e.pdf

64 Fan, S., Yu, B. & Saurkar, A. 2008. Public spending in developing countries: trends, determination, and impact. In S. Fan, ed. Public expenditures, growth, and poverty. Lessons from developing countries, pp. 20–55. Baltimore, USA, Johns Hopkins University Press.

65 Pratt, A.N. & Magalhaes, E. 2018. Revisiting rates of return to agricultural R&D investment. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01718. Washington, DC, IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute). www.ifpri.org/cdmref/p15738coll2/id/132370/filename/132581.pdf

66 Norton, G.W., Alwang, J. & Masters, W.A. 2021. Economics of agricultural development: world food systems and resource use. Routledge. www.routledge.com/Economics-of-Agricultural-Development-World-Food-Systems-and-Resource-Use/Norton-Alwang-Masters/p/book/9780367321482

67 Bastagli, F., Hagen-Zanker, J., Harman, L., Barca, V., Sturge, G., Schmidt, T. & Pellerano, L. 2016. Cash transfers: what does the evidence say? A rigorous review of programme impact and of the role of design and implementation features. London, ODI. https://odi.org/en/publications/cash-transfers-what-does-the-evidence-say-a-rigorous-review-of-impacts-and-the-role-of-design-and-implementation-features

68 Daidone, S., Davis, B., Handa, S. & Winters, P. 2019. The household and individual-level productive impacts of cash transfer programs in Sub-Saharan Africa. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 101(5): 1401–1431. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay113

69 OECD. 2021. Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2021. Addressing the Challenges facing food systems. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/2d810e01-en

70 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. & Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: trends, challenges and priorities. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4492en

71 FAO. 2021. Public food stockholding – a review of policies and practices. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7146en

72 Pingali, P.L. 2012. Green revolution: Impacts, limits, and the path ahead. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(31): 12302–12308. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912953109

73 Pingali, P.L. 2015. Agricultural policy and nutrition outcomes – getting beyond the preoccupation with staple grains. Food Security, 7(3): 583–591. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12571-015-0461-x

74 Bowman, M.S. & Zilberman, D. 2013. Economic factors affecting diversified farming systems. Ecology and Society, 18(1): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05574-180133

75 UN Nutrition. 2021. The role of aquatic foods in sustainable healthy diets. Rome. www.unnutrition.org/wp-content/uploads/FINAL-UN-Nutrition-Aquatic-foods-Paper_EN_.pdf

76 Consalez, F., Ahern, M., Andersen, P. & Kjellevold, U.N. (forthcoming). A scoping review of the meat factor and the role of animal-source foods in alleviating micronutrient deficiencies. Advances in Nutrition

77 Öksüz, A. 2010. Determination of fillet yield in cultured bluefin tuna, Thunnus Thynnus (Linnaeus 1758) in Turkey. International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) Scientific Papers, 65(3): 962–967. www.iccat.int/Documents/CVSP/CV065_2010/n_3/CV065030962.pdf

78 FAO. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en

79 Glover-Amengor, M., Ottah Atikpo, M.A., Abbey, L.D., Hagan, L., Ayin, J. & Toppe, J. 2012. Proximate composition and consumer acceptability of three underutilised fish species and tuna frames. World Rural Observations, 4(2): 65–70. www.sciencepub.net/rural/rural0402/011_9765rural0402_65_70.pdf

80 FAO. 2022. The contribution of small-scale fisheries to sustainable development. A snapshot of findings from the illuminating Hidden Harvests (IHH) report . Rome. www.fao.org/3/cb8233en/cb8233en.pdf

81 FAO. 2015. Voluntary guidelines for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries in the context of food security and poverty eradication. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4356en/i4356en.pdf

82 World Bank. 2006. Repositioning nutrition as central to development: a strategy for large scale action. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/7409

83 CFS (Committee on World Food Security). 2021. CFS Voluntary Guidelines on Food Systems and Nutrition. Rome. www.fao.org/cfs/vgfsn

84 FAO & WHO. 2019. Sustainable healthy diets – guiding principles. Rome and Geneva, Switzerland. www.fao.org/3/ca6640en/ca6640en.pdf

85 Hoekman, B., Ng, F. & Olarreaga, M. 2004. Agricultural tariffs or subsidies: which are more important for developing economies? The World Bank Economic Review, 18(2): 175–204. www.jstor.org/stable/3990173

86 Herforth, A., Bai, Y., Venkat, A., Mahrt, K., Ebel, A. & Masters, W.A. 2020. Cost and affordability of healthy diets across and within countries. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2020. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 9. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb2431en

87 FAO. 2015. Key recommendations for improving nutrition through agriculture and food systems. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4922e/i4922e.pdf

88 FAO. 2022. Why is gender equality and rural women’s empowerment central to the work of FAO? In: Gender. Cited 23 May 2022. www.fao.org/gender/background

89 FAO. 2018. Trade and nutrition technical note. FAO Trade Policy Technical Notes. No. 21. Rome. www.fao.org/3/I8545EN/i8545en.pdf

90 FAO. 2022. Food Balance Sheets. In: FAOSTAT. Rome. Cited 25 May 2022. www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS

91 FAO. 2018. The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2018. Agricultural trade, climate change and food security. Rome. www.fao.org/3/I9542EN/i9542en.pdf

92 Artuc, E., Porto, G. & Rijkers, B. 2021. Household impacts of tariffs: data and results from agricultural trade protection. The World Bank Economic Review, 35(3): 563–585. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhaa005

93 Bell, C., Latu, C., Coriakula, J., Waqa, G., Snowdon, W. & Moodie, M. 2020. Fruit and vegetable import duty reduction in Fiji to prevent obesity and non-communicable diseases: a case study. Public Health Nutrition, 23(1): 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019002660

94 Barlow, P., McKee, M., Basu, S. & Stuckler, D. 2017. Impact of the North American Free Trade Agreement on high-fructose corn syrup supply in Canada: a natural experiment using synthetic control methods. Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ), 189(26): E881–E887. www.cmaj.ca/content/189/26/E881

95 Giuntella, O., Rieger, M. & Rotunno, L. 2020. Weight gains from trade in foods: evidence from Mexico. Journal of International Economics, 122: 103277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2019.103277

96 Abay, K.A., Ibrahim, H. & Breisinger, C. 2022. Food policies and obesity in low- and middle-income countries. World Development, 151: 105775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105775

97 Boysen, O., Boysen-Urban, K., Bradford, H. & Balié, J. 2019. Taxing highly processed foods: what could be the impacts on obesity and underweight in sub-Saharan Africa? World Development, 119: 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.03.006

98 Mazzocchi, M. 2017. Ex-post evidence on the effectiveness of policies targeted at promoting healthier diets. Trade Policy Technical Notes. Trade and Food Security No. 19. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i8191e/i8191e.pdf

99 Kareem, O.I. & Rau, M.L. 2018. Market access for Africa’s fruits and vegetables exports in the European Union: evidence from sanitary and phytosanitary measures. In A. Nicita & J. de Melo, eds. Non-tariff measures: economic assessment and policy options for development, pp. 327–369. Geneva, Switzerland, UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).

100 WTO, ITC (International Trade Centre) & UNCTAD. 2021. World Tariff Profiles 2021 – Special topic: non-tariff measures: estimating analytical indicators using UNCTAD’s Trade Analysis Information System (TRAINS). Geneva, Switzerland, WTO, ITC and UNCTAD. https://doi.org/10.30875/11c286b5-en

101 Cadot, O. & Gourdon, J. 2015. NTMs, preferential trade agreements, and prices: new evidence. CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP10798. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2655484

102 Cadot, O., Gourdon, J. & Van Tongeren, F. 2018. Estimating ad valorem equivalents of non-tariff measures. Combining price-based and quantity-based approaches. OECD Trade Policy Papers No. 215. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/f3cd5bdc-en

103 Gourdon, J., Stone, S. & van Tongeren, F. 2020. Non-tariff measures in agriculture. OECD Trade Policy Papers No. 147. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/81933f03-en

104 WTO. 1994. The results of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations: the legal texts. Geneva, Switzerland. www.wto.org/english/res_e/publications_e/legal_texts_e.htm

105 FAO. 2022. FAPDA - Food And Agriculture Policy Decision Analysis Tool. Rome. Cited 9 May 2022. http://fapda.apps.fao.org/fapda/#main.html

106 Sharma, R. 2011. Food export restrictions: review of the 2007-2010 experience and considerations for disciplining restrictive measures. FAO Commodity and Trade Policy Research Working Paper No.32. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/est/PUBLICATIONS/Comm_Working_Papers/EST-WP32.pdf

107 FAO. 2018. Review of agricultural trade policies in post-Soviet countries, 2016-2017. Rome. www.fao.org/3/CA0879EN/ca0879en.pdf

108 FAO. 2021. COVID-19: Agricultural trade and policy responses during the first wave of the pandemic in 2020. FAO support to the WTO negotiations at the 12th Ministerial Conference. Trade Policy Brief No. 37. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb5406en

109 FAO. 2017. Export restrictions in agriculture trade. Trade Policy Briefs No. 27. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i8006e.pdf

110 Guenette, J.-D. 2020. Price Controls: good intentions, bad outcomes. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 9212. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-9212

111 Matthews, A., Salvatici, L. & Scoppola, M. 2017. Trade impacts of agricultural support in the EU. IATRC Commissioned Paper No. 19. Saint Paul, USA, IATRC (International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium).

112 Krivonos, E. & Dawe, D. 2014. Policy responses to high food prices in Latin America and the Caribbean country: case studies. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i3909e/i3909e.pdf

113 FAO. 2015. Egypt: wheat sector review. FAO Investment Centre. Country Highlights Report No. 21. Rome, FAO and London, EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development). https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XF2017000329

114 UNCTAD & FAO. 2017. Commodities and Development Report 2017. Commodity markets, economic growth and development. New York, USA, and Geneva, Switzerland. www.fao.org/3/I7937EN/i7937en.pdf

115 Gómez, M.I., Barrett, C.B., Raney, T., Pinstrup-Andersen, P., Meerman, J., Croppenstedt, A., Lowder, S. et al. 2013. Post-Green Revolution food systems and the triple burden of malnutrition. ESA Working Paper No. 13-02. Rome. www.fao.org/3/CA2273EN/ca2273en.pdf

116 Alston, J.M., Sumner, D.A. & Vosti, S.A. 2008. Farm subsidies and obesity in the United States: national evidence and international comparisons. Food Policy, 33(6): 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.05.008

117 FAO. 2015. The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2015–16. Trade and food security: achieving a better balance between national priorities and the collective good. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i5090e/i5090e.pdf

118 Pingali, P.L. & Roger, P.A. 1995. Impact of pesticides on farmer health and the rice environment. Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0647-4

119 Rodríguez-Mireles, S., López-Valcárcel, B.G. & Serra-Majem, L. 2021. When industrial policies conflict with population health: potential impact of removing food subsidies on obesity rates. Value in Health, 24(3): 336–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2020.12.005

120 World Bank & IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2012. Global Monitoring Report 2012: Food prices, nutrition, and the Millennium Development Goals. Washington, DC, World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/6017

121 Kataki, P.K. 2002. Shifts in cropping system and its rffect on human nutrition: case study from India. Journal of Crop Production, 6(1–2): 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1300/J144v06n01_08

122 Siegel, K.R., Bullard, K.M.K., Imperatore, G., Kahn, H.S., Stein, A.D., Ali, M.K. & Narayan, K.M. 2016. Association of higher consumption of foods derived from subsidized commodities with adverse cardiometabolic risk among US adults. JAMA internal medicine, 176(8): 1124–1132. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.2410

123 Bouis, H.E. 2000. Improving human nutrition through agriculture: the role of international agricultural research. Conference summary and recommendations. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 21(4): 550–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/156482650002100441

124 Hawkes, C., Ruel, M.T., Salm, L., Sinclair, B. & Branca, F. 2020. Double-duty actions: seizing programme and policy opportunities to address malnutrition in all its forms. The Lancet, 395(10218): 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32506-1

125 O’Neill Hayes, T. & Kerska, K. 2021. PRIMER: agriculture subsidies and their influence on the composition of U.S. food supply and consumption. Washington, DC, American Action Forum.

126 World Bank. 2017. An overview of links between obesity and food systems. Implications for the food and agriculture global practice agenda. Food and agriculture global practice. Washington, DC.

127 Alagiyawanna, A., Townsend, N., Mytton, O., Scarborough, P., Roberts, N. & Rayner, M. 2015. Studying the consumption and health outcomes of fiscal interventions (taxes and subsidies) on food and beverages in countries of different income classifications; a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 15(887). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2201-8

128 IEG (Independent Evaluation Group). 2013. The World Bank Group and the global food crisis. An evaluation of the World Bank Group response. Washington, DC, World Bank.

129 CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research). 2021. Flagship 4: Social protection for agriculture and resilience. CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets. Montpellier, France. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134376

130 ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2013. Food security in Asia and the Pacific. Mandaluyong City, the Philippines. http://hdl.handle.net/11540/1435

131 Tiba, Z. 2011. Chapter 26. Targeting the most vulnerable: implementing input subsidies. In A. Prakash, ed. Safeguarding food security in volatile global markets, pp. 510–542. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i2107e/i2107e00.htm

132 Prakash, A. 2011. Safeguarding food security in volatile global markets. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i2107e/i2107e26.pdf

133 FAO. 2011. Guide for policy and programmatic actions at country level to address high food prices. FAO’s Initiative on Soaring Food Prices. Rome. www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ISFP/revisedISFP_guide_web.pdf

134 Takeshima, H. & Lee, H.L. 2012. Agricultural inputs subsidy and their developmental impact: conventional wisdom. Mozambique, Strategy Support Program, Policy Note 1. Washington, DC, IFPRI. http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/127220

135 World Bank. 2021. Needed: A Climate-Smart Food System That Can Feed 10 Billion. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 9 May 2022. www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/09/22/needed-a-climate-smart-food-system-that-can-feed-10-billion

136 Hemming, D.J., Chirwa, E.W., Dorward, A., Ruffhead, H.J., Hill, R., Osborn, J., Langer, L. et al. 2018. Agricultural input subsidies for improving productivity, farm income, consumer welfare and wider growth in low- and lower-middle-income countries: a systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1): 1–153. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2018.4

137 Asfaw, S., Cattaneo, A., Pallante, G. & Palma, A. 2017. Impacts of modifying Malawi’s farm input subsidy programme targeting. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 17-05. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/a-i7753e.pdf

138 Seabloom, E.W., Borer, E.T., Hobbie, S.E. & MacDougall, A.S. 2021. Soil nutrients increase long-term soil carbon gains threefold on retired farmland. Global Change Biology, 27(19): 4909–4920. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.15778

139 Lortie, C.J., Filazzola, A., Kelsey, R., Hart, A.K. & Butterfield, H.S. 2018. Better late than never: a synthesis of strategic land retirement and restoration in California. Ecosphere, 9(8): e02367. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.2367

140 Cain, Z. & Lovejoy, S. 2004. History and outlook for farm bill conservation programs. Choices. The magazine of food, farm and resource issues, 2004(4th quarter).

141 Wimberly, M.C., Janssen, L.L., Hennessy, D.A., Luri, M., Chowdhury, N.M. & Feng, H. 2017. Cropland expansion and grassland loss in the eastern Dakotas: New insights from a farm-level survey. Land Use Policy, 63: 160–173. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0264837716310857

142 Olagunju, K.O., Patton, M. & Feng, S. 2020. Estimating the impact of decoupled payments on farm production in northern Ireland: an instrumental variable fixed effect approach. Sustainability, 12(8): 3222. www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/8/3222

143 Joshi, P.K., Gulati, A., Birthal, P.S. & Tewari, L. 2004. Agriculture diversification in South Asia patterns, determinants and policy implications. Economic and Political Weekly, 39(24): 2457–2467.

144 Schiavo, M. & Aubert, P.-M. 2020. For a successful protein transition: what measures are needed? Policy Brief No. 4, October 2020. Paris, IDDRI (Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales).

145 Alston, J.M. & Pardey, P.G. 2015. Agricultural R&D, food prices, poverty, and malnutrition redux. In D.E. Sahn, ed. The fight against hunger and malnutrition. The role of food, agriculture, and targeted policies, pp. 208–239. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198733201.003.0010

146 von der Goltz, J., Dar, A., Fishman, R., Mueller, N.D., Barnwal, P. & McCord, G.C. 2020. Health impacts of the green revolution: evidence from 600,000 births across the developing world. Journal of Health Economics, 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102373

147 OECD. 2018. How digital technologies are impacting the way we grow and distribute food. GFA 2018: Digital technologies in food and agriculture: reaping the benefits. Paper presented at the Global Forum on Agriculture, 14–15 May 2018, OECD Conference Centre, Paris. www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=TAD/CA/GF(2018)1&docLanguage=En

148 Walter, A., Finger, R., Huber, R. & Buchmann, N. 2017. Smart farming is key to developing sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(24): 6148–6150. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1707462114

149 Torero, M. 2021. Robotics and AI in food security and innovation: why they matter and how to harness their power. In S. von Braun, J., M. Archer, G.M. Reichberg & M. Sánchez Sorondo, eds. Robotics, AI, and humanity, pp. 99–107. Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-54173-6_8

150 OECD. 2019. Innovation, productivity and sustainability in food and agriculture. Main findings from country reviews and policy lessons. OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/c9c4ec1d-en

151 IFPRI. 2019. Global food policy report 2019. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/133129

152 Anderson, J.R. & Birner, R. 2020. Fruits and vegetables in international agricultural research: a case of neglect? In H.K. Biesalski, ed. Hidden hunger and the transformation of food systems. How to combat the double burden of malnutrition? World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, pp. 42–59. Basel, Germany, Karger Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1159/000507518

153 FAO. 2020. Fruit and vegetables – your dietary essentials. The International Year of Fruits and Vegetables, 2021, background paper. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb2395en

154 IRRI (International Rice Research Institute). 2019. Annual Report 2018. Statement by the Chair of the IRRI Board of Trustees for 2018. In: IRRI. Los Baños, the Philippines. Cited 10 May 2022. www.irri.org/ar2018-statement-chair-irri-board-trustees-2018

155 Jouanjean, M.-A. 2013. Targeting infrastructure development to foster agricultural trade and market integration in developing countries: an analytical review. London, ODI. https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/8557.pdf

156 Dercon, S. 2006. Economic reform, growth and the poor: Evidence from rural Ethiopia. Journal of Development Economics, 81(1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.05.008

157 Van Der Straeten, D., Bhullar, N.K., De Steur, H., Gruissem, W., MacKenzie, D., Pfeiffer, W., Qaim, M. et al. 2020. Multiplying the efficiency and impact of biofortification through metabolic engineering. Nature Communications, 11(5203). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19020-4

158 Fanzo, J., Marshall, Q., Dobermann, D., Wong, J., Merchan, R.I., Jaber, M.I., Souza, A. et al. 2015. Integration of nutrition into extension and advisory services: a synthesis of experiences, lessons, and recommendations. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 36(2): 120–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572115586783

159 Rowe, L.A. 2020. Addressing the fortification quality gap: a proposed way forward. Nutrients, 12(12): 3899. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123899

160 Osendarp, S.J.M., Martinez, H., Garrett, G.S., Neufeld, L.M., De-Regil, L.M., Vossenaar, M. & Darnton-Hill, I. 2018. Large-scale food fortification and biofortification in low- and middle-income countries: a review of programs, trends, challenges, and evidence gaps. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 39(2): 315–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572118774229

161 Sirdey, N. & Cirad Moisa, A.A. 2020. Food fortification and domestic small-scale food chains’ actors – The case of Burkina Faso. INSIDER, Lot 1, Task 1.4

162 FAO. 2022. Food inspection | Food safety and quality. In: FAO. Rome. Cited 10 May 2022. www.fao.org/food-safety/food-control-systems/official-controls/food-inspection

163 Hoffmann, V. & Jones, K. 2021. Improving food safety on the farm: Experimental evidence from Kenya on incentives and subsidies for technology adoption. World Development, 143: 105406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105406

164 OECD. 2021. Improving regulatory delivery in food safety. Mitigating old and new risks, and fostering recovery. Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/bf34907e-en

165 Tefft, J., Jonasova, M., Adjao, R. & Morgan, A. 2017. Food systems for an urbanizing world. Washington, DC, World Bank and Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/I8346EN/i8346en.pdf

166 World Bank. 2016. Future of food – shaping the global food system to deliver improved nutrition and health. Washington, DC. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/474831468186561685/future-of-food-shaping-the-global-food-system-to-deliver-improved-nutrition-and-health

167 Garris, A. 2021. Food safety investments in East Africa: analysis and recommendations (2021). In: Agrilinks. Cited 10 May 2022. www.agrilinks.org/post/food-safety-investments-east-africa-analysis-and-recommendations-2021

168 Jaffee, S., Henson, S., Unnevehr, L., Grace, D. & Cassou, E. 2019. The safe food imperative: accelerating progress in low- and middle-income countries. Agriculture and Food Series. Washington, DC, World Bank.

169 FAO & WHO. 2019. Food control system assessment tool: Dimension A – Inputs and resources. Food safety and quality series No. 7/2. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca5336en/ca5336en.pdf

170 FAO. 2022. Services and infrastructure for fresh fish retail | Food loss and waste in fish value chains. In: FAO. Rome. Cited 10 May 2022. www.fao.org/flw-in-fish-value-chains/value-chain/retail/fresh-fish-retail/services-infrastructure

171 ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2019. Dysfunctional horticulture value chains and the need for modern marketing infrastructure: the case of Viet Nam. Mandaluyong, the Philippines. www.adb.org/publications/dysfunctional-horticulture-value-chains-viet-nam

172 Johnson, D., Thilsted, S.H. & Belton, B. 2020. Dried fish in a COVID-19 world. In: WorldFish. Cited 10 May 2022. www.worldfishcenter.org/blog/dried-fish-covid-19-world

173 World Economic Forum. 2019. Innovation with a purpose: improving traceability in food value chains through technology innovations. Geneva, Switzerland. www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Traceability_in_food_value_chains_Digital.pdf

174 Reardon, T., Chen, K., Minten, B. & Adriano, L. 2012. The quiet revolution in staple food value chains: Enter the Dragon, the Elephant, and the Tiger. Mandaluyong, the Philippines, ADB. www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30063/quiet-revolution-staple-food-value-chains.pdf

175 Dijkxhoorn, Y., De, B., Piters, S., Brouwer, I., Hengsdijk, H. & Tichar, T. 2021. Enhancing fruit and vegetable consumption in low- and middle income countries through a food systems approach. The Hague, The Netherlands, Wageningen Economic Research. https://edepot.wur.nl/555408

176 Leavens, L. 2021. More than a few rotten tomatoes: is it time to shift the agenda on post-harvest losses? In: CGIAR (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research). Montpellier, France. Cited 10 May 2022. https://a4nh.cgiar.org/2021/11/03/more-than-a-few-rotten-tomatoes-is-it-time-to-shift-the-agenda-on-post-harvest-losses

177 Cattaneo, A., Sánchez, M. V., Torero, M. & Vos, R. 2021. Reducing food loss and waste: five challenges for policy and research. Food Policy, 98: 101974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101974

178 FAO. 2011. Chapter 25. Targeting the most vulnerable: emergency reserves and other instruments. In A. Prakash, ed. food security in volatile global markets, pp. 490–528. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i2107e/ i2107e00.htm

179 Glauber, J. & Sinha, T. 2021. Procuring food stocks under World Trade Organization farm subsidy rules. Winnipeg, Canada, IISD (International Institute for Sustainable Development). www.iisd.org/system/files/2021-08/food-stocks-wto-farm-subsidy-rules.pdf

180 WHO. 2021. Action framework for developing and implementing public food procurement and service policies for a healthy diet. Geneva, Switzerland.

181 Crawford, I.M. 1997. Commodity marketing. In I.M. Crawford, ed. Agricultural and food marketing management, pp. 142–166. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/w3240e/w3240e06.htm

182 Acharya, S.S. 2003. Theme paper: agricultural marketing in Asia and the Pacific: issues and priorities. In FAO, ed. Proceedings of the mini roundtable meeting on agricultural marketing and food security. 1 to 2 November 2001. Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 95–110. Bangkok, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ad639e/ad639e05.htm

183 Coulter, J. & Onumah, G. 2002. The role of warehouse receipt systems in enhanced commodity marketing and rural livelihoods in Africa. Food Policy, 27(4): 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-9192(02)00018-0

184 HLPE (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition). 2017. Nutrition and Food Systems. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i7846e.pdf

185 Covic, N. & Hendriks, S.L. 2016. Achieving a nutrition revolution for Africa: the road to healthier diets and optimal nutrition. Washington, DC, IFPRI. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896295933

186 Kafle, K., Songsermsawas, T. & Winters, P. 2022. Agricultural value chain development in Nepal: understanding mechanisms for poverty reduction. Agricultural Economics, 53(3): 356–373. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/agec.12696

187 Van Campenhout, B., Minten, B. & Swinnen, J. 2019. Domestic versus export-led agricultural transformation: evidence from Uganda’s dairy value chain. IFPRI discussion paper. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133502

188 Banskota, N., Prasad, H.P., Upreti, S., Shah, K.K., Paudyal, B.R. & Paudel, S. 2020. Milk production and value chain in rural area of Nepal: a case from Gandaki river basin. Journal of Dairy Research & Technology, 3(022). https://doi.org/10.24966/DRT-9315/100022

189 FAO. 2022. NSP - Agricultural marketing institutions and value chains. In: FAO. Rome. Cited 10 May 2022. www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/theme/spi/scpi-home/framework/policies-for-scpi/agricultural-marketing-institutions-and-value-chains

190 IFPRI. 2021. Global food policy report 2021. Transforming food systems after COVID-19. Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293991

191 Hawkes, C. 2020. COVID-19 and the promise of food system innovation. In J. Swinnen & J. McDermott, eds. COVID-19 and global food security, pp. 129–131. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133762_29

192 Rossi, R. 2019. The EU fruit and vegetable sector: Main features, challenges and prospects. Strasbourg, France, EPRS (European Parliamentary Research Service). www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2019)635563

193 Kneafsey, M., Venn, L., Schmutz, U., Balázs, B., Trenchard, L., Eyden-Wood, T., Bos, E. et al. 2013. Short food supply chains and local food systems in the EU. A state of play of their socio-economic characteristics. Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies. Luxembourg, European Union. https://doi.org/10.2791/88784

194 Maundu, P. 2022. Kenya’s push to promote traditional food is good for nutrition and cultural heritage. In: The Conversation. Cited 23 May 2022. https://theconversation.com/kenyas-push-to-promote-traditional-food-is-good-for-nutrition-and-cultural-heritage-176384

195 Gee, E. 2022. Now under protection: traditional vegetables recognized by UNESCO in Kenya. In: Alliance Biodiversity - CIAT. Cited 23 May 2022. https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/traditional-vegetables-recognized-unesco-kenya

196 Baker, P., Machado, P., Santos, T., Sievert, K., Backholer, K., Hadjikakou, M., Russell, C. et al. 2020. Ultra-processed foods and the nutrition transition: Global, regional and national trends, food systems transformations and political economy drivers. Obesity Reviews, 21(12). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13126

197 Kelly, B., Vandevijvere, S., Ng, S.H., Adams, J., Allemandi, L., Bahena-Espina, L., Barquera, S. et al. 2019. Global benchmarking of children’s exposure to television advertising of unhealthy foods and beverages across 22 countries. Obesity Reviews, 20(S2): 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12840

198 OECD. 2021. Making better policies for food systems. Paris, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/ddfba4de-en

199 FAO. 2017. Transnational corporations, food systems and their impacts on diets in developing countries. Trade Policy Technical Notes No. 17. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i8192e.pdf

200 Dillman Carpentier, F.R., Correa, T., Reyes, M. & Taillie, L.S. 2020. Evaluating the impact of Chile’s marketing regulation of unhealthy foods and beverages: pre-school and adolescent children’s changes in exposure to food advertising on television. Public Health Nutrition, 23(4): 747–755. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019003355

201 WHO. 2010. Sixty-third World Health Assembly. WHA63/2010/REC/1. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA63-REC1/WHA63_REC1-en.pdf

202 Alderman, H., Gentilini, U. & Yemtsov, R. 2017. The 1.5 billion people question: food, vouchers, or cash transfers? Washington, DC, World Bank. www.worldbank.org/en/topic/safetynets/publication/food-vouchers-or-cash-transfers

203 FAO. 2015. Food and agriculture policy classification. Food and Agriculture Policy Decision Analysis (FAPDA). Rome. www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/fapda/docs/FAPDA_policy_classification_April2015.pdf

204 Black, A.P., Brimblecombe, J., Eyles, H., Morris, P., Vally, H. & O Dea, K. 2012. Food subsidy programs and the health and nutritional status of disadvantaged families in high income countries: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 12(1099). https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1099

205 India State-Level Disease Burden Initiative Malnutrition Collaborators. 2019. The burden of child and maternal malnutrition and trends in its indicators in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 1990–2017. The Lancet Child and Adolescent Health, 3(12): 855–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30273-1

206 Ecker, O., Al-Riffai, P., Breisinger, C. & El-Batrawy, R. 2016. Nutrition and economic development: Exploring Egypt’s exceptionalism and the role of food subsidies. Washington, DC, IFPRI. http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/9780896292383

207 Malaiarasan, U., Paramasivam, R. & Felix, K.T. 2021. Does food price subsidy affect dietary diversity? Evidence from south India. Margin: The Journal of Applied Economic Research, 15(2): 268–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973801021990397

208 FAO. 2015. Nutrition and Social Protection. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i4819e.pdf

209 Sabates-Wheeler, R. & Devereux, S. 2018. Social protection and the World Food Programme. Occasional Paper 25. Rome, WFP. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000073283/download/?_ga=2.19843256.1024435674.1652183435-1442718054.1652183435

210 WFP. 2019. Fill the Nutrient Gap: Bangladesh – concise report. Rome. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000114508/download

211 FAO. 2014. Women’s resilience to food price volatility: A policy response. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i3617e/i3617e.pdf

212 Chen, Q., Pei, C., Bai, Y. & Zhao, Q. 2019. Impacts of nutrition subsidies on diet diversity and nutritional outcomes of primary school students in rural northwestern China — do policy targets and incentives matter? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16): 2891. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162891

213 Cobiac, L.J., Tam, K., Veerman, L. & Blakely, T. 2017. Taxes and subsidies for improving diet and population health in Australia: a cost-effectiveness modelling study. PLOS Medicine, 14(2): e1002232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002232

214 WHO Regional Office for Europe. 2015. Using price policies to promote healthier diets. Copenhagen. www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/273662/Using-price-policies-to-promote-healthier-diets.pdf

215 Takeshima, H., Smart, J. & Diao, X. 2021. Public expenditure’s role in reducing poverty and improving food and nutrition security: Preliminary cross-country insights based on SPEED data. IFPRI Discussion Paper 02051. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134726

216 World Bank. 2015. The State of Social Safety Nets 2015. Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/22101

217 Olney, D.K., Gelli, A., Kumar, N., Alderman, H., Go, A., Raza, A., Owens, J. et al. 2021. Nutrition-sensitive social protection programs within food systems. IFPRI Discussion paper 02044. Rome, FAO and Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134593

218 UNICEF & National Institute of Population Studies. 2017. Complementary feeding practices in Pakistan: an in-depth analysis of PDHS 2012-13. Islamabad, UNICEF. www.unicef.org/pakistan/media/1496/file/Complementary

219 Swensson, L.F.J. 2018. Aligning policy and legal frameworks for supporting smallholder farming through public food procurement: the case of home-grown school feeding programmes. International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth (IPC-IG) Working Paper No. 177. Rome, FAO and Brasilia, UNDP. www.fao.org/3/CA2060EN/ca2060en.pdf

220 Ministerio de Desarrollo Social y Famila de Chile. 2021. Ministerio de Desarrollo Social y Familia y Elige Vivir Sano lanzan aplicación para comprar frutas y verduras de ferias libres a domicilio. In: Ministerio de Desarrollo Social y Familia. Santiago. Cited 4 March 2022. www.desarrollosocialyfamilia.gob.cl/noticias/ministerio-de-desarrollo-social-y-familia-y-elige-vivir-sano-lanzan-aplicacion-para-comprar-frutas-y

221 Shankar, B. 2017. The influence of agricultural, trade and food policies on diets. Trade Policy Technical Notes No. 18. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/a-i8190e.pdf

222 GLOPAN (Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition). 2021. Repurposing agriculture support to improve nutrition, health, and the environment. In: GLOPAN. London. Cited 5 May 2022. www.glopan.org/repurposing-agriculture-support-to-improve-nutrition-health-and-the-environment

223 Sánchez, M. V., Cicowiez, M. & Ortega, A. 2022. Prioritizing public investment in agriculture for post-COVID-19 recovery: A sectoral ranking for Mexico. Food Policy, 109: 102251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102251

224 Mamun, A., Martin, W. & Tokgoz, S. 2021. Reforming agricultural support for improved environmental outcomes. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 43(4): 1520–1549. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13141

225 Laborde, D., Mamun, A., Martin, W., Piñeiro, V. & Vos, R. 2021. Agricultural subsidies and global greenhouse gas emissions. Nature Communications, 12(1): 2601. http://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22703-1

226 Gautam, M., Laborde, D., Mamun, A., Martin, W., Piñeiro, V. & Vos, R. 2022. Repurposing agricultural policies and support: options to transform agriculture and food systems to better serve the health of people, economies, and the planet. Washington, DC, World Bank and IFPRI. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36875

227 Springmann, M. & Freund, F. 2022. Options for reforming agricultural subsidies from health, climate, and economic perspectives. Nature Communications, 13(1): 82. www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27645-2

228 Springmann, M., Flynn, D.J., Kelly, N., Thomas, S.M., Freund, F. & Webb, P. 2021. Repurposing agriculture support to improve nutrition, health, and the environment. London, GLOPAN. www.glopan.org/resources-documents/repurposing_agricultural_support

229 Laborde, D., Mamun, A., Martin, W.J., Pineiro, V. & Vos, R. 2020. Modeling the impacts of agricultural support policies on emissions from agriculture. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01954. Washnigton, DC, IFPRI.

230 Glauber, J. & Laborde, D. (forthcoming). Repurposing food and agricultural policies to deliver affordable healthy diets, sustainably and inclusively: what is at stake? Background paper to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-05. Rome, FAO.

231 UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2019. Median age of population. New York, USA. https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population

232 IMF. 2021. World Economic Outlook Database, October 2021 Edition. In: IMF. Washington, DC. Cited 5 May 2022. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October

233 Sánchez, M. V., Cicowiez, M. & Pereira Fontes, F. 2022. Productive public investment in agriculture for economic recovery with rural well-being: an analysis of prospective scenarios for Uganda. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Technical Study No. 16. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb8730en

234 Sánchez, M. V. & Cicowiez, M. 2022. Optimising policies to achieve agricultural transformation objectives: an application for Ethiopia. Journal of Applied Economics, 25(1): 765–783. https://doi.org/10.1080/15140326.2022.2056407

235 Sánchez, M. V. & Cicowiez, M. (forthcoming). Repurposing agriculture’s public budget to align healthy diets affordability and agricultural transformation objectives in Ethiopia. Background paper for The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO Agricultural Development Economics Working Paper 22-04. Rome, FAO.

236 FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010-11. Women in agriculture: closing the gap for development. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf

237 WHO. (forthcoming). Policy brief: Reformulation of foods and beverages for healthier diets. Geneva, Switzerland.

238 WHO. 2022. Global database on the Implementation of Nutrition Action (GINA). In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 5 May 2022. https://extranet.who.int/nutrition/gina/en/home

239 Vesper, H.W., Kuiper, H.C., Mirel, L.B., Johnson, C.L. & Pirkle, J.L. 2012. Levels of plasma trans-fatty acids in non-hispanic white adults in the United States in 2000 and 2009. JAMA, 307(6): 562. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2012.112

240 Zhang, Z., Gillespie, C. & Yang, Q. 2017. Plasma trans-fatty acid concentrations continue to be associated with metabolic syndrome among US adults after reductions in trans-fatty acid intake. Nutrition Research, 43: 51–59. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0271531716307436

241 Brandt, E.J., Myerson, R., Perraillon, M.C. & Polonsky, T.S. 2017. Hospital admissions for myocardial infarction and stroke before and after the trans-fatty acid restrictions in New York. JAMA cardiology, 2(6): 627–634. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28403435

242 Restrepo, B.J. & Rieger, M. 2016. Denmark’s policy on artificial trans fat and cardiovascular disease. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(1): 69–76. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26319518

243 Restrepo, B.J. & Rieger, M. 2016. Trans fat and cardiovascular disease mortality: evidence from bans in restaurants in New York. Journal of Health Economics, 45: 176–96. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26620830

244 Downs, S.M., Thow, A.M. & Leeder, S.R. 2013. The effectiveness of policies for reducing dietary trans fat: a systematic review of the evidence. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 91(4): 262-269H. www.who.int/entity/bulletin/volumes/91/4/12-111468.pdf

245 Downs, S.M., Thow, A.M., Ghosh-Jerath, S. & Leeder, S.R. 2015. Identifying the barriers and opportunities for enhanced coherence between agriculture and public health policies: improving the fat supply in India. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 54(6): 603–624. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03670244. 2015.1017759

246 WHO. 2021. Countdown to 2023: WHO report on global trans fat elimination 2021. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031876

247 Santos, J.A., Sparks, E., Thout, S.R., McKenzie, B., Trieu, K., Hoek, A., Johnson, C. et al. 2019. The Science of Salt: A global review on changes in sodium levels in foods. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 21(8): 1043–1056. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jch.13628

248 Santos, J.A., McKenzie, B., Rosewarne, E., Hogendorf, M., Trieu, K., Woodward, M., Cobb, L.K. et al. 2021. Strengthening knowledge to practice on effective salt reduction interventions in low- and middle-income countries. Current Nutrition Reports, 10(3): 211–225. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13668-021-00365-1

249 WHO. 2021. WHO global sodium benchmarks for different food categories. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/341081/9789240025097-eng.pdf

250 GLOPAN. 2015. Biofortification: an agricultural investment for nutrition. Policy Brief N. 1. London. www.glopan.org/biofortification

251 Mkambula, P., Birol, E., Friesen, V.M., Munyua, H.M., Alberts, D., Aytekin, D., Mudyahoto, B. et al. 2022. Transforming food systems to deliver nutritious foods: the vital roles of fortification and biofortification. Geneva, Switzerland, GAIN and HarvestPlus. www.gainhealth.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/GAIN-Discussion-Paper-Series-10-Transforming-food-systems-to-deliver-nutritious-foods-the-vital-roles-of-fortification-and-biofortification.pdf

252 WHO. 2009. Recommendations on wheat and maize flour fortification meeting report: interim consensus statement. Geneva, Switzerland.

253 WHO. 2016. Guideline: fortification of maize, flour and corn meal with vitamins and minerals. Geneva, Switzerland, Switzerland.

254 WHO. 2018. Guideline: fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals as a public health startegy. Geneva, Switzerland.

255 WHO & FAO. 2006. Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO and Rome, FAO. www.unscn.org/layout/modules/resources/files/fortification_eng.pdf

256 WHO. 2014. Guideline: fortification of food-grade salt with iodine for the prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders. Geneva, Switzerland.

257 WHO. 2022. Food fortification. In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 18 May 2022. www.who.int/health-topics/food-fortification#tab=tab_1

258 WHO. 2019. Guiding principles and framework manual for front-of-pack labelling for promoting healthy diet. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/nutrition/publications/policies/guidingprinciples-labelling-promoting-healthydiet.pdf?ua=1

259 WHO. (forthcoming). Protecting children from the harmful impact of food marketing: policy brief. Geneva, Switzerland.

260 WHO. (forthcoming). Policy brief: nutrition labelling. Geneva, Switzerland.

261 WHO. 2022. Scope and impact of digital marketing strategies for promoting breastmilk substitutes. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240046085

262 WHO. 2010. Set of recommendations on the marketing of foods and non-alcoholic beverages to children. Geneva, Switzerland.

263 WHO. 1981. International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. Geneva, Switzerland.

264 World Health Assembly. 2016. Ending inappropriate promotion of foods for infants and young children. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/WHA69/A69_R9-en.pdf

265 WHO. 2022. Marketing of breast-milk substitutes: national implementation of the International Code. Status Report 2022. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240048799

266 Campos, S., Doxey, J. & Hammond, D. 2011. Nutrition labels on pre-packaged foods: a systematic review. Public Health Nutrition, 14(8): 1496–1506. www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1368980010003290/type/journal_article

267 Drichoutis, A.C. & Nayga, R.M. 2006. Consumers’ use of nutritional labels: a review of research studies and issues. Academy of Marketing Science Review, 2006(9): 1–26.

268 Volkova, E. & Ni Mhurchu, C. 2015. The influence of nutrition labeling and point-of-purchase information on food behaviours. Current Obesity Reports, 4(1): 19–29. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13679-014-0135-6

269 Shangguan, S., Afshin, A., Shulkin, M., Ma, W., Marsden, D., Smith, J., Saheb-Kashaf, M. et al. 2019. A meta-analysis of food labeling effects on consumer diet behaviors and industry practices. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 56(2): 300–314. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30573335

270 Anastasiou, K., Miller, M. & Dickinson, K. 2019. The relationship between food label use and dietary intake in adults: a systematic review. Appetite, 138: 280–291. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195666318312807

271 Cowburn, G. & Stockley, L. 2005. Consumer understanding and use of nutrition labelling: a systematic review. Public Health Nutrition, 8(1): 21–28. www.ingentaselect.com/rpsv/cgi-bin/cgi?ini=xref&body=linker&reqdoi=10.1079/PHN2005666

272 Hawley, K.L., Roberto, C.A., Bragg, M.A., Liu, P.J., Schwartz, M.B. & Brownell, K.D. 2013. The science on front-of-package food labels. Public Health Nutrition, 16(3): 430–439. www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1368980012000754/type/journal_article

273 Mhurchu, C.N. & Gorton, D. 2007. Nutrition labels and claims in New Zealand and Australia: a review of use and understanding. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31(2): 105–112. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1753-6405.2007.00026.x

274 WHO. 2017. Tackling NCDs: ‘Best buys’ and other recommended interventions for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases. Geneva, Switzerland.

275 Batis, C., Rivera, J.A., Popkin, B.M. & Taillie, L.S. 2016. First-year evaluation of Mexico’s tax on nonessential energy-dense foods: an observational study. PLOS Medicine, 13(7): e1002057. https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002057

276 Eykelenboom, M., van Stralen, M.M., Olthof, M.R., Schoonmade, L.J., Steenhuis, I.H.M. & Renders, C.M. 2019. Political and public acceptability of a sugar-sweetened beverages tax: a mixed-method systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16(1): 78. https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12966-019-0843-0

277 Nipers, A., Upite, I., Pilvere, I., Stalgiene, A. & Viira, A.-H. 2019. Effect of VAT rate reduction for fruits and vegetables on prices in Latvia: ex-post analysis. Agraarteadus: Journal of Agricultural Science, 30(1): 25–31.

278 Healthy Food Policy Project. 2022. Municipal policy options for healthy food access in stores and restaurants. Cited 9 May 2022. https://healthyfoodpolicyproject.org/key-issues/municipal-policy-options-for-healthy-food-access-in-stores-and-restaurants

279 WHO. 2021. Increasing access to healthy food in schools. Geneva, Switzerland. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/urban-health-documents/lima_healthy-food-wcd-2021.pdf?sfvrsn=cc68950b_5

280 WCRF (World Cancer Research Fund International). 2022. Planning restrictions on food outlets. In: NOURISHING Database. London. Cited 9 May 2022. https://policydatabase.wcrf.org/level_one?page=nourishing-level-one#step2=5%23step3=340

281 Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. 2008. Special Act on Safety Management of Children’s Dietary Lifestyle. Act No. 12391. Cheongju, South Korea.

282 New York City Economic Development Corporation. 2015. FRESH Impact Report. New York, USA. https://healthyfoodretailnyc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/FRESH-Food-Retail-Expansion-to-Support-Health-Program-Impact-Report.pdf

283 Mikkelsen, B.E. & Madsen, B.B. 2021. Sustainable and healthy sourcing of food for the public plate: lessons learned in Denmark. In FAO, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT & Editora da UFRGS, eds. Public food procurement for sustainable food systems and healthy diets - Volume 2, pp. 82–98. Rome, FAO; Bioversity International. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb7969en

284 European Commission. 2020. Procuring healthy and sustainable vegetables for Vienna’s nursing homes. GPP in practice, Issue No 99. Brussels. https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/news_alert/Issue_99_Case_Study_187_Vienna.pdf

285 European Commision. 2014. Procurement of 100% organic, seasonal food. Municipality of Copenhagen, Denmark. GPP In practice, N. 47. Brussels. https://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/news_alert/Issue47_Case_Study97_Copenhagen.pdf

286 Valencia, V., Wittman, H. & Blesh, J. 2019. Structuring markets for resilient farming systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39(2): 25. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13593-019-0572-4

287 Quezon City Government. 2021. QC first LGU to implement healthy food procurement. In: Quezon City Government Official Website. Cited 9 May 2022. https://quezoncity.gov.ph/qc-first-lgu-to-implement-healthy-food-procurement-policy/

288 Oxford Policy Management. 2017. Shock-Responsive Social Protection Systems Research: Literature review (2nd Edition). Oxford, UK. www.opml.co.uk/sites/default/files/Shock_responsive_social_protection_Literature review_EN.pdf

289 Devereux, S. 2021. Social protection responses to COVID-19 in Africa. Global Social Policy, 21(3): 421–447. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14680181211021260

290 Cejudo, G.M., Michel, C.L. & de los Cobos, P. 2021. Policy responses to the pandemic for COVID-19 in Latin America and the Caribbean: the use of cash transfer programs and social protection information systems. Policy Documents Series - UNDP LAC C19 PDS N. 24. New York, USA, UNDP.

291 Marzi, M. 2021. Towards shock-responsive social protection: estimates from the COVID- 19 microsimulation in Sierra Leone. Shock-responsive social protection responses during COVID-19. Oxford, UK, Oxford Policy Management.

292 Yusuf, Y., Marzi, M., Seyfert, K. & Doyle, A. 2021. Towards shock-responsive social protection: lessons from the COVID-19 response in Sierra Leone. Shock-responsive social protection responses during COVID-19. Oxford, UK, Oxford Policy Management.

293 Sadoulet, E., Janvry, A. de & Davis, B. 2001. Cash transfer programs with income multipliers: PROCAMPO in Mexico. World Development, 29(6): 1043–1056. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305750X01000183

294 Lambert, F. & Park, H. 2019. Income inequality and government transfers in Mexico. IMF Working Papers - WP/19/148. Washington, DC, IMF.

295 Martini, R. 2007. The role of compensation in policy reform. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers N. 5. Paris, OECD.

296 WFP. 2021. The role of food security and nutrition-sensitive social protection in bridging the humanitarian-development divide in the Southern African Region. Rome. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000129083/download

297 Presidencia de la República Dominicana. 2021. Palabras del presidente Abinader durante la extensión del programa ‘Quédate en casa’ y creación de ‘Supérate’. In: Presidencia de la República Dominicana. Santo Domingo. Cited 9 May 2022. https://presidencia.gob.do/discursos/palabras-del-presidente-abinader-durante-la-extension-del-programa-quedate-en-casa-y

298 WFP. 2015. Lesotho Development School Meals Programme. In: WFP. Rome. Cited 9 May 2022. www.wfp.org/operations/200199-lesotho-development-school-meals-programme

299 Food Systems Summit Community. 2021. Social Protection for Food Systems Transformation Consortium. Cited 9 May 2022. https://foodsystems.community/social-protection-for-food-systems-transformation-consortium-2

300 FAO. 2010. Sustainable diets and biodiversity: directions and solutions for policy, research and action. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-i3004e.pdf

301 IFAD & Bioversity International. 2021. How to do – Promote neglected and underutilized species for domestic markets. Nutrition-sensitive Agriculture - Note no. 3. Rome, IFAD. www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/43559125/HTDN_NUS_3.pdf/297d93eb-330b-19a1-4804-c31d49e9fd37?t=1629384619783

302 Montgomery, D.R., Biklé, A., Archuleta, R., Brown, P. & Jordan, J. 2022. Soil health and nutrient density: preliminary comparison of regenerative and conventional farming. PeerJ, 10: e12848. https://peerj.com/articles/12848

303 IFAD. 2021. Rural Development Report 2021. Transforming food systems for rural prosperity. Rome. www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/43704363/rdr2021.pdf/d3c85b6a-229a-c6f1-75e2-a67bb8b505b2?t=1631621454882

304 Chiriac, D., Naran, B. & Falconer, A. 2020. Examining the climate finance gap for small-scale agriculture. Rome, CPI and IFAD. www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/42157470/climate-finance-gap_smallscale_agr.pdf/34b2e25b-7572-b31d-6d0c-d5ea5ea8f96f

305 Cavatassi, R. & Gemessa, S.A. 2021. Impact assessment report: Economic Inclusion Programme for Families and Rural Communities in the Territory of Plurinational State of Bolivia. Rome, IFAD.

306 Boukaka, S., Azzarri, C., Haile, B., Yasser, R., Garbero, A. & Cavatassi, R. 2022. Impact assessment report: Programme to Reduce Vulnerability in Coastal Fishing Areas, Djibouti. Rome, IFAD.

307 Arslan, A., Cavatassi, R., Gemessa, S.A. & Maggio, G. 2022. Impact assessment report: Pro-Poor Value Chain Development in the Maputo and Limpopo Corridors, Mozambique. Rome, IFAD.

308 Cavatassi, R. & Gemessa, S.A. 2022. Impact assessment report: Livestock and Pasture Development Project II, Tajikistan. Rome, IFAD.

309 Afonina, M., Bohn, S., Hamad, M., Marti, A. & Pasha, A. 2021. Impact assessment report: Viet Nam and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Mekong Delta in Ben Tre and Tra Vinh Provinces, Viet Nam. Rome, IFAD.

310 WHO. 2021. Food systems delivering better health: a new narrative to guide policy and practice for better human, ecosystem and animal health and well-being. Executive summary. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031814

311 WHO. 2019. Essential nutrition actions: mainstreaming nutrition through the life-course. Geneva, Switzerland.

312 World Bank. 2021. Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate). In: World Bank – Databank. Washington, DC. Cited 9 May 2022. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS

313 Boedeker, W., Watts, M., Clausing, P. & Marquez, E. 2020. The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 20(1): 1875. https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0

314 WHO. 2017. One Health. In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 9 May 2022. www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/one-health

315 Häsler, B., Bazeyo, W., Byrne, A.W., Hernandez-Jover, M., More, S.J., Rüegg, S.R., Schwarzmann, O. et al. 2020. Reflecting on One Health in action during the COVID-19 response. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2020.578649/full

316 FAO & WHO. 2020. Code of practice for fish and fishery products. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb0658en

317 Place, F.M., Stoian, D. & Minot, N. 2022. COVID-19, agricultural production, and food value chains. In J. McDermott & J. Swinnen, eds. COVID-19 and global food security: two years later, pp. 73–81. Washnigton, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/135009

318 Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Reardon, T. & Belton, B. 2021. “Essential non-essentials”: COVID-19 policy missteps in Nigeria rooted in persistent myths about African food supply chains. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 43(1): 205–224. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aepp.13139

319 Chowdhury, M.A.F., Meo, M.S., Uddin, A. & Haque, M.M. 2021. Asymmetric effect of energy price on commodity price: New evidence from NARDL and time frequency wavelet approaches. Energy, 231: 120934. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544221011828

320 FAO. 2022. FAO Food Price Index. In: World Food Situation. Rome. Cited 10 May 2022. www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex/en/

321 Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Guizzardi, D., Monforti-Ferrario, F., Tubiello, F.N. & Leip, A. 2021. Food systems are responsible for a third of global anthropogenic GHG emissions. Nature Food, 2(3): 198–209. www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00225-9

322 IEA (International Energy Agency), IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency), UNSD (United Nations Statistics Division), World Bank & WHO. 2021. Tracking SDG7: The Energy Progress Report. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/data/files/download-documents/2021_tracking_sdg7_report.pdf

323 FAO. 2011. ‘Energy-smart’ food for people and climate. Issue paper. Rome. www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/es/c/285125

324 Mercier, S., Mondor, M., McCarthy, U., Villeneuve, S., Alvarez, G. & Uysal, I. 2019. Optimized cold chain to save food. In C.M. Galanakis, ed. Saving Food, pp. 203–226. London, Elsevier. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128153574000079

325 Han, J.-W., Zuo, M., Zhu, W.-Y., Zuo, J.-H., Lü, E.-L. & Yang, X.-T. 2021. A comprehensive review of cold chain logistics for fresh agricultural products: Current status, challenges, and future trends. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 109: 536–551. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924224421000728

326 IEA. 2021. Net Zero by 2050: a roadmap for the global energy sector. Paris. www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050

327 FAO. 2017. Strengthening sector policies for better food security and nutrition results: political economy analysis. Policy Guidance Note 8. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i7212en/I7212EN.pdf

328 North, D.C. 1991. Institutions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(1): 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.5.1.97

329 Bojić, D., Clark, M. & Urban, K. (forthcoming). Focus on governance for more effective policy and technical support. Governance and policy support framework paper. Rome, FAO.

330 FAO. 2013. Reviewed Strategic Framework. FAO Conference – Thirty-eight Session. Rome, 15 - 22 June 2013. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/027/mg015e.pdf

331 Booth, A., Barnes, A., Laar, A., Akparibo, R., Graham, F., Bash, K., Asiki, G. et al. 2021. Policy action within urban African food systems to promote healthy food consumption: a realist synthesis in Ghana and Kenya. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10: 828–844. www.ijhpm.com/article_4011.html

332 Booth, D. 2014. Agricultural policy choice. Interests, ideas and the scope for reform. IIED Working Pape. London, IIED (International Institute for Environment and Development). https://pubs.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/14634IIED.pdf

333 Swinnen, J. 2021. The political economy of agricultural and food policies. In K. Otsuka & S. Fan, eds. Agricultural development: New perspectives in a changing world, pp. 471–502. Washnigton, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/134122

334 Fałkowski, J. & Olper, A. 2014. Political competition and policy choices: the evidence from agricultural protection. Agricultural Economics, 45(2): 143–158. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/agec.12018

335 Baker, P., Brown, A.D., Wingrove, K., Allender, S., Walls, H., Cullerton, K., Lee, A. et al. 2019. Generating political commitment for ending malnutrition in all its forms: A system dynamics approach for strengthening nutrition actor networks. Obesity Reviews, 20(S2): 30–44. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12871

336 European Commission. 2021. Common Agricultural Policy: key graphs & figures. Brussels. https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/food-farming-fisheries/farming/documents/cap-expenditure-graph1_en.pdf

337 Dengerink, J., Dirks, F., Likoko, E. & Guijt, J. 2021. One size doesn’t fit all: regional differences in priorities for food system transformation. Food Security, 13(6): 1455–1466. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12571-021-01222-3

338 Hawkes, C. 2006. Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases. Globalization and Health, 2(1): 4. https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1744-8603-2-4

339 Thow, A.M., Greenberg, S., Hara, M., Friel, S., DuToit, A. & Sanders, D. 2018. Improving policy coherence for food security and nutrition in South Africa: a qualitative policy analysis. Food Security, 10(4): 1105–1130. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12571-018-0813-4

340 UNSCN. 2016. Enhancing coherence between trade policy and nutrition action: implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. Rome. www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/document/ExSumm1-EN-WEBok.pdf

341 Thow, A.M., Snowdon, W., Schultz, J.T., Leeder, S., Vivili, P. & Swinburn, B.A. 2011. The role of policy in improving diets: experiences from the Pacific Obesity Prevention in Communities food policy project. Obesity Reviews, 12: 68–74. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00910.x

342 Branca, F., Demaio, A., Udomkesmalee, E., Baker, P., Aguayo, V.M., Barquera, S., Dain, K. et al. 2020. A new nutrition manifesto for a new nutrition reality. The Lancet, 395(10217): 8–10. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S014067361932690X

343 Gillespie, S., Haddad, L., Mannar, V., Menon, P. & Nisbett, N. 2013. The politics of reducing malnutrition: building commitment and accelerating progress. The Lancet, 382(9891): 552–569. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673613608429

344 Du, M., Tugendhaft, A., Erzse, A. & Hofman, K.J. 2018. Sugar-sweetened beverage taxes: industry response and tactics. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 91(2): 185–190. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29955223

345 Milsom, P., Smith, R., Modisenyane, S.M. & Walls, H. 2021. Do international trade and investment agreements generate regulatory chill in public health policymaking? A case study of nutrition and alcohol policy in South Africa. Globalization and Health, 17(1): 104. https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-021-00757-6

346 Baker, P., Zambrano, P., Mathisen, R., Singh-Vergeire, M.R., Escober, A.E., Mialon, M., Lawrence, M. et al. 2021. Breastfeeding, first-food systems and corporate power: a case study on the market and political practices of the transnational baby food industry and public health resistance in the Philippines. Globalization and Health, 17(1): 125. https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-021-00774-5

347 Russ, K., Baker, P., Byrd, M., Kang, M., Siregar, R.N., Zahid, H. & McCoy, D. 2021. What you don’t know about the codex can hurt you: how trade policy trumps global health governance in infant and young child nutrition. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10: 983–997. www.ijhpm.com/article_4101.html

348 Mialon, M., Gaitan Charry, D.A., Cediel, G., Crosbie, E., Scagliusi, F.B. & Perez Tamayo, E.M. 2021. ‘I had never seen so many lobbyists’: food industry political practices during the development of a new nutrition front-of-pack labelling system in Colombia. Public Health Nutrition, 24(9): 2737–2745. www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1368980020002268/type/journal_article

349 Garton, K., Thow, A.M. & Swinburn, B. 2021. International trade and investment agreements as barriers to food environment regulation for public health nutrition: a realist review. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10: 745–765. www.ijhpm.com/article_3933.html

350 Thow, A.M., Jones, A., Schneider, C.H. & Labonté, R. 2019. Global governance of Front-of-Pack nutrition labelling: a qualitative analysis. Nutrients, 11(2): 268. www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/2/268

351 Lauber, K., Ralston, R., Mialon, M., Carriedo, A. & Gilmore, A.B. 2020. Non-communicable disease governance in the era of the sustainable development goals: a qualitative analysis of food industry framing in WHO consultations. Globalization and Health, 16(1): 76. https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-020-00611-1

352 Reardon, T., Timmer, C.P. & Minten, B. 2012. Supermarket revolution in Asia and emerging development strategies to include small farmers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(31): 12332–12337. https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1003160108

353 Walkenhorst, P. 2008. The geography of foreign direct investment in Poland’s food industry. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52(3): 71–86. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2001.tb00939.x

354 Pulker, C.E., Trapp, G.S.A., Scott, J.A. & Pollard, C.M. 2018. What are the position and power of supermarkets in the Australian food system, and the implications for public health? A systematic scoping review. Obesity Reviews, 19(2): 198–218. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12635

355 Blanchard, T. & Lyson, T. 2009. Retail concentration, food deserts, and food disadvantaged communities. In C.C. Hinrichs & T.A. Lyson, eds. Remaking the North American food system: strategies for sustainability, pp. 201–215. Lincoln, USA, University of Nebraska Press.

356 Minten, B., Reardon, T. & Sutradhar, R. 2010. Food prices and modern retail: the case of Delhi. World Development, 38(12): 1775–1787. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305750X10000884

357 FAO & GAIN (Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition). 2018. Leveraging small and medium enterprises to improve nutrition. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/publications/card/es/c/CA2880EN/

358 Santacoloma, P. & Anta, M. 2020. The role of small-and medium-sized enterprises in addressing the nutrition challenge: reflections from project implementation in Ghana, Kenya and Viet Nam. Policy in Focus, 18(1): 19–21.

359 de Janvry, A., Fafchamps, M. & Sadoulet, E. 1991. Peasant household behaviour with missing markets: some paradoxes explained. The Economic Journal, 101(409): 1400. https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/101/409/1400-1417/5188354

360 Key, N., Sadoulet, E. & Janvry, A. De. 2000. Transactions costs and agricultural household supply response. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 82(2): 245–259. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0002-9092.00022

361 Ajwang, F. 2020. Relational contracts and smallholder farmers’ entry, stay and exit, in Kenyan fresh fruits and vegetables export value chain. The Journal of Development Studies, 56(4): 782–797. www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2019.1618451

362 AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa). 2019. Africa Agriculture Status Report: The Hidden Middle: a quiet revolution in the private sector driving agricultural transformation (Issue 7). Nairobi. https://agra.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/AASR2019-The-Hidden-Middleweb.pdf

363 Arslan, A., Higgins, D., Egger, E.-M. & Zucchini, E. 2020. Impact assessment report for the Strengthening Local Development in the Highlands and High Rainforest Areas Project, Peru. Rome, IFAD.

364 Steiner, S., Arslan, A. & Paolantonio, A. 2022. Impact assessment report: Inclusive Rural Development Program (PRODERI), Argentina. Rome, IFAD.

365 Kern, J., Munoz, A., Richert, K. & Weiss, A. 2021. Impact assessment report: Productive Partnerships in Agriculture Project, Papua New Guinea. Rome, IFAD.

366 Arslan, A., Chiarella, C. & Songsermsawas, T. 2022. Impact assessment report: Rural Development Programme – Phase II, Solomon Islands. Rome, IFAD.

367 Rossi, A., Bui, S. & Marsden, T. 2019. Redefining power relations in agrifood systems. Journal of Rural Studies, 68: 147–158. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0743016718304273

368 De Schutter, O. 2017. The political economy of food systems reform. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 44(4): 705–731. http://academic.oup.com/erae/article/44/4/705/3814333/The-political-economy-of-food-systems-reform

369 Ortiz, R. & Peris, J. 2022. The role of farmers’ umbrella organizations in building transformative capacity around grassroots innovations in rural agri-food systems in Guatemala. Sustainability, 14(5): 2695. www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/5/2695

370 Fernandez-Wulff, P. 2019. Collective agency in the making: how social innovations in the food system practice democracy beyond consumption. Politics and Governance, 7(4): 81–93. www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/2111

371 World Bank. 2008. The political economy of policy reform: issues and implications for policy dialogue and development operations. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/7782/442880ESW0whit1Box0338899B01PUBLIC1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

372 Brinkerhoff, D.W. 2000. Democratic governance and sectoral policy reform: tracing linkages and exploring synergies. World Development, 28(4): 601–615. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305750X99001473

373 WHO. 2017. Safeguarding against possible conflicts of interest in nutrition programmes: approach for the prevention and management of conflicts of interest in the policy development and implementation of nutrition programmes at country level. Executive Board 142nd session. 4 December 2017, Provisional agenda item 4.6. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274165/B142_23-en.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

374 PAHO. 2021. Preventing and managing conflicts of interest in country-level nutrition programs: a roadmap for implementing the World Health Organization’s Draft Approach in the Americas. Washington, DC. https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/55055/PAHONMHRF210014_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

375 SUN Movement. 2022. SUN (Scaling Up Nutrition). Cited 10 May 2022. https://scalingupnutrition.org

376 Michéle, L., Prato, S., Rundall, P. & Valente, F. 2019. When the SUN casts a shadow. The human rights risks of multi-stakeholder partnerships: the case of Scaling up Nutrition (SUN). Geneva, Switzerland, FIAN International, IBFAN (International Baby Food Action Network) and SID (Society for International Development). www.fian.org/files/files/WhenTheSunCastsAShadow_En.pdf

377 Parsons, K. 2021. How connected is national food policy in England? Mapping cross-government work on food system issues. Rethinking Food Governance 2. London, Food Research Collaboration.

378 Ribeiro de Castro, I.R. 2019. A extinção do Conselho Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional e a agenda de alimentação e nutrição. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 35(2). www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-311X2019000200101&tlng=pt

379 Garton, K., Thow, A.M. & Swinburn, B. 2020. International trade and investment agreements as carriers to food environment regulation for public health nutrition: a realist review. International Journal of Health Policy and Management. www.ijhpm.com/article_3933.html

380 IPES-Food (International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems). 2017. Unravelling the food–health nexus: addressing practices, political economy, and power relations to build healthier food systems. Brussels, The Global Alliance for the Future of Food and IPES-Food. www.ipes-food.org/_img/upload/files/Health_FullReport(1).pdf

381 Sánchez, M. V. 2018. Climate impact assessments with a lens on inequality. The Journal of Environment & Development, 27(3): 267–298. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1070496518774098

382 Blay-Palmer, A., Conaré, D., Meter, K. & Di Battista, A. 2019. Sustainable food system assessment: lessons from global practice. In A. Blay-Palmer, D. Conaré, K. Meter, A. Di Battista & C. Johnston, eds. Sustainable food system assessment, pp. 1–17. London, Routledge. www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429801396

383 Walls, H., Nisbett, N., Laar, A., Drimie, S., Zaidi, S. & Harris, J. 2020. Addressing malnutrition: the importance of political economy analysis of power. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 10: 809–816. www.ijhpm.com/article_3986.html

384 New York City Government. 2022. Food metrics report. In: New York City Government. New York, USA. Cited 18 March 2022. www1.nyc.gov/site/foodpolicy/reports-and-data/food-metrics-report.page

385 Freudenberg, N., Willingham, C. & Cohen, N. 2018. The role of metrics in food policy: lessons from a decade of experience in New York City. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 8(Suppl. 2): 191–209. www.foodsystemsjournal.org/index.php/fsj/article/view/636

386 Food Systems Summit 2021 Community. 2021. Commitments registry: Commitments to action. Cited 10 May 2022. https://foodsystems.community/commitments-registry/

387 WHO. 2022. The Coalition of Action on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems for Children and All (HDSFS). In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 31 May 2022. www.who.int/initiatives/food-systems-for-health/the-coalition-of-action-on-healthy-diets-from-sustainable-food-systems-for-children-and-all

388 Development Initiatives. 2022. The Nutrition Accountability Framework: summary of N4G commitments. Bristol, UK. https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/nutritionlibrary/events/2022/gnr-summary-of-n4g-commintments-presentation.pdf?sfvrsn=84177b74_7

389 Carden, F., Beintema, N.M., Admassie, A., Katera, L., Mboghoina, T. & Onyekwena, C. 2019. Informing policy with agricultural RD evidence: An ASTI pilot project in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Tanzania. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01850. Washington, DC, IFPRI. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/133373

390 Swinburn, B., Sacks, G., Vandevijvere, S., Kumanyika, S., Lobstein, T., Neal, B., Barquera, S. et al. 2013. INFORMAS (International Network for Food and Obesity/non-communicable diseases Research, Monitoring and Action Support): overview and key principles. Obesity Reviews, 14: 1–12. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.12087

391 FAO. 2013. Monitoring African Food and Agricultural Policies (MAFAP). Lessons learned report. Rome. www.fao.org/3/at150e/at150e.pdf

392 CARE International. 2014. Participatory Monitoring, Evaluation, Reflection and Learning for Community-based Adaptation: PMERL. A revised manual for local practitioners. Geneva, Switzerland. https://careclimatechange.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2014_PMERL.pdf

393 Clapp, J. 2021. The problem with growing corporate concentration and power in the global food system. Nature Food, 2(6): 404–408. www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00297-7

394 Climate Policy Initiative. 2021. Preview: global landscape of climate finance 2021. www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Global-Landscape-of-Climate-Finance-2021.pdf

395 United Nations Food Systems Summit. 2021. The coalition to repurpose public support to food and agriculture. In: United Nations Food Systems Summit 2021. Cited 5 May 2022. https://foodsystems.community/coalitions/the-coalition-to-repurpose-public-support-to-food-and-agriculture

396 FAO. 1996. Methodology for assessing food inadequacy in developing countries. In FAO, ed. The Sixth World Food Survey, pp. 114–143. Rome. www.fao.org/3/w0931e/w0931e.pdf

397 FAO. 2014. Advances in hunger measurement: traditional FAO methods and recent innovations. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper 14-04. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4060e/i4060e.pdf

398 UNDESA. 2019. World Population Prospects. In: UNDESA. New York, USA. Cited 25 May 2022. https://population.un.org/wpp

399 FAO. 2002. Summary of proceedings: measurement and assessment of food deprivation and undernutrition. International Scientific Symposium, 26–28 June 2002. Rome. www.fao.org/3/a-y4250e.pdf

400 Wanner, N., Cafiero, C., Troubat, N. & Conforti, P. 2014. Refinements to the FAO methodology for estimating the prevalence of undernourishment indicator. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper Series ESS / 14-05. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i4046e/i4046e.pdf

401 UNICEF, WHO & World Bank. 2021. Technical Notes from the background document for country consultations on the 2021 edition of the UNICEF-WHO-World Bank Joint Malnutrition Estimates – SDG Indicators 2.2.1 on stunting, 2.2.2a on wasting and 2.2.2b on overweight. New York, USA, UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/resources/jme-2021-country-consultations

402 UNICEF. 2021. Infant and young child feeding. In: UNICEF. New York, USA. Cited 25 May 2022. https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/infant-and-young-child-feeding

403 UNICEF & WHO. 2019. UNICEF-WHO Low birthweight estimates: Levels and trends 2000–2015. New global, regional and national estimates of low birthweight. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. www.unicef.org/reports/UNICEF-WHO-low-birthweight-estimates-2019

404 Blencowe, H., Krasevec, J., de Onis, M., Black, R.E., An, X., Stevens, G.A., Borghi, E. et al. 2019. National, regional, and worldwide estimates of low birthweight in 2015, with trends from 2000: a systematic analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 7(7): e849–e860. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2214109X18305655

405 Blanc, A.K. & Wardlaw, T. 2005. Monitoring low birth weight: An evaluation of international estimates and an updated estimation procedure. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 83(3): 178–185.

406 WHO. 2022. Global Health Observatory (GHO) data repository. In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 28 April 2022. https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main

407 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2016. Trends in adult body-mass index in 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: A pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19.2 million participants. The Lancet, 387(10026): 1377–1396. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30054-X

408 WHO. 2019. Nutrition Landscape Information System (NLIS) country profile indicators: interpretation guide. Geneva, Switzerland. www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241516952

409 IMF. 2022. World Economic Outlook Database, April 2022 Edition. In: IMF. Washington, DC. Cited 5 May 2022. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April

410 Laborde, D. & Torero, M. (forthcoming). Modelling actions for transforming agrifood systems. In J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L. Fresco & M. Hassan, eds. Science and innovations for food systems transformation. Springer.

411 WHO & UNICEF. 2017. Methodology for monitoring progress towards the global nutrition targets for 2025. Technical report by the WHO-UNICEF Technical Expert Advisory Group on Nutrition Monitoring (TEAM). Geneva, Switzerland, WHO and New York, USA, UNICEF.

412 World Bank. 2021. International Comparison Program (ICP). In: World Bank. Washington, DC. Cited 6 May 2022. www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp

413 Government of Bermuda. 2022. The Consumer Price Index. Cited 20 May 2022. www.gov.bm/bermuda-business-statistics

414 Bai, Y., Ebel, A., Herforth, A. & Masters, W.A. (forthcoming). Methodology to update costs and affordability of healthy diets in the gap years of the International Comparison Program. Rome, FAO.

415 Ag-Incentives. (forthcoming). Ag-Incentives. Washington, DC. Cited 5 May 2022. http://ag-incentives.org

416 World Bank. 2022. UNCTAD - Trade Analysis Information System (TRAINS). In: Databank. Washington, DC. Cited 5 May 2022. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/unctad-%5E-trade-analysis-information-system-(trains)

417 Monteiro, C.A., Cannon, G., Lawrence, M., Laura Da Costa Louzada, M. & Machado, P.P. 2019. Ultra-processed foods, diet quality, and health using the NOVA classification system. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca5644en/ca5644en.pdf

418 Nardocci, M., Leclerc, B.S., Louzada, M.L., Monteiro, C.A., Batal, M. & Moubarac, J.C. 2019. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 110(1): 4–14. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-018-0130-x

419 Louzada, M.L. da C., Baraldi, L.G., Steele, E.M., Martins, A.P.B., Canella, D.S., Moubarac, J.C., Levy, R.B. et al. 2015. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and obesity in Brazilian adolescents and adults. Preventive Medicine, 81: 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.018

420 Menza, V. & Probart, C. 2013. Eating well for good health. Lessons on nutrition and healthy diets. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i3261e/i3261e.pdf

421 Slavin, J.L. & Lloyd, B. 2012. Health benefits of fruits and vegetables. Advances in Nutrition, 3(4): 506–516. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.002154

422 WHO. 2003. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation, Geneva, 28 January - 1 February 2002. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42665

423 Agard, J., Schipper, E.L.F., Birkmann, J., Campos, M., Dubeux, C., Nojiri, Y., Olsoon, L. et al. 2014. Glossary. In IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), ed. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 1757–1776. Cambridge, UK and New York, USA, Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-AnnexII_FINAL.pdf

424 IPCC. 2012. The risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. C.B. Field, V. Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, et al., eds. A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, USA, Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/SREX_Full_Report-1.pdf

425 Chambers, R. & Conway, G.R. 1992. Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. Institute of Development Studies (IDS). www.ids.ac.uk/publications/sustainable-rural-livelihoods-practical-concepts-for-the-21st-century

426 Dercon, S., Hoddinott, J. & Woldehanna, T. 2005. Shocks and consumption in 15 Ethiopian villages, 1999–2004. Journal of African Economies, 14(4): 559–585. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/eji022

427 WFP. 2009. Comprehensive Food Security & Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) Guidelines - First Edition, 2009. Rome. www.wfp.org/publications/comprehensive-food-security-and-vulnerability-analysis-cfsva-guidelines-first-edition

428 FAO. 2016. Managing climate risk using climate-smart agriculture. Rome.

429 WTO. 2022. Glossary on agriculture. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 23 May 2022. www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/glossary_e/glossbysubject_e.htm

430 HLPE. 2020. Food security and nutrition: building a global narrative towards 2030. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome.

431 OECD. 2016. States of Fragility 2016: understanding violence. Paris. www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/states-of-fragility-2016_9789264267213-en

432 United Nations General Assembly. 2016. Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction. Seventy-first session, Agenda item 19 (c), A/71/644. New York, USA. www.undrr.org/publication/report-open-ended-intergovernmental-expert-working-group-indicators-and-terminology-0

433 FAO. 2015. Guidelines on the collection of information on food processing through food consumption surveys. Rome. www.fao.org/3/i4690e/I4690E.pdf

434 UNCTAD. 2010. Non-tariff measures: evidence from selected developing countries and future research agenda. Developing countries in international trade studies. New York, USA and Geneva, Switzerland, United Nations. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditctab20093_en.pdf

435 WHO. 2022. Child growth standards. In: WHO. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 2 June 2022. www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards

436 United Nations. 2017. Report of the High-Level Committee on Programmes at its thirty-fourth session. Annex III. CEB/2017/6 (6 November 2017). New York, USA. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3844899

437 OECD. 2014. Tariff. In: Glossary of Statistical Terms. Brussels. Cited 23 May 2022. https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2647

438 AMS (American Meteorological Society). 2015. Weather - Glossary of Meteorology. In: AMS. Boston, USA. Cited 26 May 2021. https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Weather

439 OECD. 2002. Distortion. In: Glossary of Statistical Terms. Geneva, Switzerland. https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=5005

440 WTO. 2022. Glossary. Geneva, Switzerland. Cited 23 May 2022. www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/glossary_e/glossary_e.htm

441 Vollaro, M., Raggi, M. & Viaggi, D. 2021. Public R&D and European agriculture: impact on productivity and return on R&D expenditure. Bio-based and Applied Economics, 10(1): 73–86. https://oaj.fupress.net/index.php/bae/article/view/9928

442 Pardey, P.G., Andrade, R.S., Hurley, T.M., Rao, X. & Liebenberg, F.G. 2016. Returns to food and agricultural R&D investments in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1975–2014. Food Policy, 65: 1–8. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0306919216303761

443 Steensland, A. 2021. 2021 Global Agricultural Productivity Report: Climate for sustainable agricultural growth. T. Thompson, ed. Blacksburg, USA, Virginia Tech College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.

444 UNICEF. 2019. Programme guidance: strengthening shock responsive social protection systems. New York, USA.

445 WHO. 2022. Draft WHO Global Strategy for Food Safety 2022-2030. Geneva, Switzerland.

446 Wakeland, W., Cholette, S. & Venkat, K. 2012. Food transportation issues and reducing carbon footprint. In J.I. Boye & Y. Arcand, eds. Green technologies in food production and processing, pp. 211–236. Cham, Switzerland, Springer. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4614-1587-9_9

447 Independent Group of Scientists appointed by the Secretary-General. 2019. Global Sustainable Development Report 2019: the future is now – science for achieving sustainable development. New York, USA, United Nations. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf

448 WCO (World Customs Organization). 2022. What is the Harmonized System (HS)? In: WCO. Brussels. Cited 5 May 2022. www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/nomenclature/overview/what-is-the-harmonized-system.aspx

449 IPC Global Partners. 2019. Technical Manual Version 3.0. Evidence and standards for better food security and nutrition decisions. Rome.

450 Menza, V. & Probart, C. 2013. Eating well for good health. Lessons on nutrition and healthy diets. Rome, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i3261e/i3261e.pdf

451 OECD. 2022. Agricultural support. In: OECD Data. Paris. Cited 26 May 2022. https://data.oecd.org/agrpolicy/agricultural-support.htm