الملاحظا ت
الفصل 1
1. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development, UNICEF, World Food Programme and World Health Organization. 2022. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
3. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Food Programme and World Health Organization. 2021. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
4. FAO. 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture 2017. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/I7658e/I7658e.pdf
5. Ambikapathi, R., Schneider, K.R., Davis, B., Herrero, M., Winters, P. & Fanzo, J.C. 2022. Global food systems transitions have enabled affordable diets but had less favourable outcomes for nutrition, environmental health, inclusion and equity. Nature Food, 3(9): 764–779.
6. Njuki, J., Eissler, S., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Bryan, E. & Quisumbing, A. 2022. A review of evidence on gender equality, women’s empowerment, and food systems. Global Food Security, 33: 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100622
7. Lecoutere, E., Katrina Kosec, Quisumbing, A., Elias, M., Bryan, E. & Puskur, R. 2022. Equality and empowerment by gender and intersecting social differentiation in agri-food systems: Setting the stage. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129704
8. Pyburn, R. & van Eerdewijk, A. 2021. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future. Washington, DC: IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915
9. Hillenbrand, E., Karim, N., Mohanraj, P. & Wu, D. 2015. Measuring gender-transformative change: A review of literature and promising practices. CARE USA. Working Paper.
10. Cole, S.M., Kantor, P., Sarapura, S. & Rajaratnam, S. 2014. Gender-transformative approaches to address inequalities in food, nutrition and economic outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems. Working Paper: AAS-2014-42. Penang, Malaysia, CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.
11. Quisumbing, A.R., Meinzen-Dick, R.S. & Malapit, H.J. 2019. Gender equality: Women’s empowerment for rural revitalization. In 2019 Global Food Policy Report. Chapter 5, Pp. 44-51. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293502_05
12. Johnson, N., Balagamwala, M., Pinkstaff, C., Theis, S., Meinzen-Dick, R. & Quisumbing, A. 2018. How do agricultural development projects empower women? Linking strategies with expected outcomes. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2):1-19.
13. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
الفصل 2
1. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11: Women in Agriculture – Closing the gender gap for development. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. Klasen, S. 2019. What explains uneven female labor force participation levels and trends in developing countries? The World Bank Research Observer, 34(2): 161–197.
3. See World Bank, World Development Indicators database. Labor force, female (% of total labor force) - South Asia. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS?locations=8S Accessed 15 December 2023.
4. Pyburn, R., Slavchevska, V., Kruijssen, F., Karam, A. & Steijn, C. 2022. Gender dynamics in agri-food value chains: from diagnostics to change. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Amsterdam, Netherlands (Kingdom of the), Royal Tropical Institute.
5. Palacios-López, A., Christiaensen, L. & Kilic, T. 2017. How much of the labor in African agriculture is provided by women? Food Policy, 67: 52–63.
6. Grace, D., Roesel, K., Kang’ethe, E., Bonfoh, B. & Theis, S. 2015. Gender roles and food safety in 20 informal livestock and fish value chains. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01489. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
7. Barrientos, S. 2014. Gendered global production networks: Analysis of cocoa–chocolate sourcing. Regional Studies, 48(5): 791–803.
8. Curry, G.N., Koczberski, G. & Inu, S.M. 2019. Women’s and men’s work: The production and marketing of fresh food and export crops in Papua New Guinea. Oceania, 89(2): 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/ocea.5222
9. Fröcklin, S., de la Torre-Castro, M., Lindström, L. & Jiddawi, N.S. 2013. Fish traders as key actors in fisheries: Gender and adaptive management. Ambio, 42(8): 951–962.
10. Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C.L. & van Asseldonk, I.J. 2018. Gender and aquaculture value chains. A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture, 493: 328–337.
11. O’Neill, E. D., Crona, B., Ferrer, A. J. G., Pomeroy, R. & Jiddawi, N. S. 2018. Who benefits from seafood trade? A comparison of social and market structures in small-scale fisheries. Ecology and Society, 23(3): 12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799136
12. Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A. & Chiuri, W. 2011. Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: does the choice of commodity matter? The European Journal of Development Research, 23(3): 426–443.
13. Sarku, R. 2016. Analyses of gender roles in the oil palm industry in Kwaebibirem District, Ghana. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(3): 187–198.
14. Chen, T. 2017. Impact of the shea nut industry on women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso: A multi-dimensional study focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions. Social Protection and Forestry Working Paper No. 3. Rome, FAO.
15. Kent, R. 2018. “Helping” or “appropriating”? Gender relations in shea nut production in northern Ghana. Society & Natural Resources, 31(3): 367–381.
16. Fischer, E. & Qaim, M. 2012. Gender, agricultural commercialization, and collective action in Kenya. Food Security, 4, 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0199-7
17. Njiraini, G., Ngigi, M. & Baraké, E. 2018. Women in African agriculture: Integrating women into value chains to build a stronger sector. ZEF Working Paper Series 175. Bonn, Germany, Center for Development Research, University of Bonn. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3266365
18. Das, S., Delavallade, C., Fashogbon, A., Ogunleye, W. & Papineni, S. 2021. Occupational sex segregation in agriculture: Evidence on gender norms and socio-emotional skills in Nigeria. Policy Research Working Paper No. 9695. Washington, DC, World Bank Group.
19. World Bank. 2022. Breaking barriers: Female entrepreneurs who cross over to male-dominated sectors. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36940
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21. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2018. The Middle East and North Africa: Prospects and challenges. In: OECD & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027, pp. 67–107. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2018-5-en
22. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A., & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
23. Mayoux, L. 2012. Gender mainstreaming in value chain development: Experience with Gender Action Learning System in Uganda. Enterprise Development and Microfinance Journal, 23(4): 319–337.
24. Masamha, B., Uzokwe, V.N. & Thebe, V. 2018. Women’s empowerment in traditional food value chains at the micro-level: Evidence from cassava smallholder farming in Tanzania. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 42(1): 28–47.
25. de Brauw, A., Kramer, B. & Murphy, M. 2021. Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142: 105445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
26. Toruño Morales, I. 2013. Análisis financiero-económico de fincas con varias actividades productivas y el rol de la familia en la producción y toma de decisiones en el Centro Norte de Nicaragua. MSc Thesis. Turrialba, Costa Rica, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Escuela de Posgrado.
27. Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. & Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers 14. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en
28. Durr, J. 2018. Women in agricultural value chains: Unrecognized work and contributions to the Guatemalan economy. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2): 20–35.
29. Rubin, D., Boonabaana, B. & Manfre, C. 2019. Building an inclusive agriculture: Strengthening gender equality in agricultural value chains. In: A.R. Quisumbing, R.S. Meinzen-Dick & J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 83–96. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_06
30. Own calculations based on FAO. 2022. Mapping of territorial markets – Methodology and guidelines for participatory data collection. Second edition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9484en
31. World Bank. 2021. Opportunities for climate finance in the livestock sector: Removing obstacles and realizing potential. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35495
32. FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
33. FAO & United Nations Environment Programme. 2020. The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en
34. Adam, R., McDougall, C., Bevitt, K., Freed, S., Gomese, C., Johnson, A. & Lau, J. et al. 2022. Four pathways to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture: Insights from FISH research. Penang, Malaysia, WorldFish. https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/handle/20.500.12348/5108
35. Serra, R., Harris-Coble, L., Dickerson, A.J., Povedano, S.A. & Pinzon, S. 2018. Gender and livestock value chains annotated bibliography. Gainesville, Florida, USA, Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. https://tinyurl.com/2n6gfapn
36. Tavenner, K. & Crane, T.A. 2018. Gender power in Kenyan dairy: Cows, commodities, and commercialization. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9867-3
37. It is widely reported that two-thirds of the world’s 600 million poor livestock keepers are rural women. While there is likely some truth to this estimate, its origin is unclear according to MacVicar, I. 2020. Women livestock keepers. Fact Check 9. Livestock Data for Decisions. Edinburgh, UK, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/37437
38. Here we look at gender inequalities with respect to employment in the sector while in Chapter 3 we discuss gender issues in ownership and rights over livestock.
39. Hovorka, A. J. 2012. Women/chickens vs. men/cattle: Insights on gender–species intersectionality. Geoforum, 43(4): 875–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.02.005
40. Hillesland, M., Doss, C. & Slavchevska, V. 2021. Who claims the rights to livestock? Exploring gender patterns of asset holdings in smallholder households in Uganda. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2098. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134962
41. Alemayehu, T., Bruno, J., Fasil, G. & Dessie, T. 2018. Socio-economic, marketing and gender aspects of village chicken production in the tropics: A review of literature. ILRI Project Report. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute.
42. FAO. 2012. Invisible guardians – Women manage livestock diversity. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 174. Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/i3018e/i3018e00.pdf
43. Njuki, J. & Sanginga, P.C. 2013. Women, livestock ownership and markets. Bridging the gender gap in Eastern and Southern Africa. London, Earthscan Routledge.
44. Omondi, I., Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Loriba, A., Kariuki, E. & Baltenweck, I . 2022. Women’s empowerment and livestock vaccination: Evidence from Peste des Petits Ruminants vaccination interventions in northern Ghana. Animals, 12(6): 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12060717
45. Serra, R., Ludgate, N., Dowhaniuk, K.F., McKune, S.L. & Russo, S. 2022. Beyond the gender of the livestock holder: Learnings from intersectional analyses of PPR vaccine value chains in Nepal, Senegal, and Uganda. Animals, 12(3): 241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030241
46. Flintan, F.E. 2021. Pastoral women, tenure and governance. ILRI Research Report 92. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134947
47. Ravichandran, T., Farnworth, C.R. & Galiè, A. 2021. Empowering women in dairy cooperatives in Bihar and Telangana, India: A gender and caste analysis. Agri-Gender: Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 6(1): 27–42. https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.612021.3
48. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R. et al. 2023. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
49. This section draws extensively from FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
50. FAO, Duke University & WorldFish, forthcoming, cited in FAO. 2022. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Towards blue transformation. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
51. UN Women. 2020. Women’s economic empowerment in fisheries in the blue economy of the Indian Ocean rim: A baseline report. New York, USA, UN Women.
52. Kleiber, D., Harris, L.M. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2015. Gender and small-scale fisheries: A case for counting women and beyond. Fish and Fisheries, 16(4): 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12075.
53. Furkon, M., Nessa. N. & Ambo-Rappe, R. 2019. Invertebrate gleaning: forgotten fisheries. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 253: 012029. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/253/1/012029
54. Farnworth, C.R., Kantor, P., Kruijssen, F., Longley, C. & Colverson, K.E. 2015. Gender integration in livestock and fisheries value chains: Emerging good practices from analysis to action. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 11(3–4): 262–279.
55. Brugere, C. & Williams, M. 2017. Women in aquaculture. In: Gender in aquaculture and fisheries for the Asian Fisheries Society. Cited 10 March 2023. https://genderaquafish.org/portfolio/women-in-aquaculture/
56. Lippe, R.S., Schweinle, J., Cui, S., Gurbuzer, Y., Katajamäki, W., Villarreal-Fuentes, M. & Walter, S. 2022. Contribution of the forest sector to total employment in national economies: Estimating the number of people employed in the forest sector. Rome, FAO and Geneva, Switzerland, ILO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2438en
57. Müller, J.G., Boubacar, R. & Guimbo, I.D. 2015. The ‘how’ and ‘why’ of including gender and age in ethnobotanical research and community-based resource management. Ambio, 44(1): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0517-8
58. Kimanzu, N., Schulte-Herbrüggen, B., Clendenning, J. Chiwona-Karltun, L., Krogseng, K. & Petrokofsky, G. 2021. What is the evidence base linking gender with access to forests and use of forest resources for food security in low- and middle-income countries? A systematic evidence map. Forests, 12(8): 1096. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081096
59. Sunderland, T., Achdiawan, R., Angelsen, A., Babigumira, R., Ickowitz, A., Paumgarten, F., Reyes-García, V. & Shively, G. 2014. Challenging perceptions about men, women, and forest product use: A global comparative study. World Development, 64: S56–S66.
60. World Bank. 2021. Harnessing forests as pathways to prosperity in Liberia. Policy Note. Washington, DC.
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65. Ingram, V., Schure, J., Tieguhong, J.C., Ndoye, O., Awono, A. & Iponga, D.M. 2014. Gender implications of forest product value chains in the Congo basin. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 23(1–2): 67–86.
66. Martini, E., Tarigan, J., Purnomosidhi, P., Prahmono, A., Surgana, M., Setiawan, A., Megawati et al. 2012. Agroforestry and Forestry in Sulawesi Series: agroforestry extension needs at the community level in AgFor project sites in South and Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Working paper 159. Bogor, Indonesia, World Agroforestry Center Southeast Asia Regional Program.
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68. Davis, K., Franzel, S. & Spielman, D.J. 2019. Extension options for better livelihoods and poverty reduction: A selected review 2012–2015 [version 1; not peer reviewed]. Gates Open Research, 3: 386. https://doi.org/10.21955/gatesopenres.1115095.1
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72. Fabry, A., Van den Broeck, G. & Maertens, M. 2022. Decent work in global food value chains: Evidence from Senegal. World Development, 152: 105790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105790
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75. Christian, M.M, Evers, B.J. & Barrientos, S. 2013. Women in value chains: Making a difference. capturing the gains. Revised Summit Briefing, No. 6.3, February 2013. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2265832
76. Wijers, G.D. 2019. Inequality regimes in Indonesian dairy cooperatives: understanding institutional barriers to gender equality. Agriculture and Human Values, 36(2): 167–181.
77. Nordhagen, S. 2020. Supporting gender equity through food system businesses in lower-income countries. GAIN Working Paper No. 11. Geneva, Switzerland, Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition. https://tinyurl.com/2o6gm4qk
78. Hardy, M. & Kagy, G. 2018. Mind the (profit) gap: Why are female enterprise owners earning less than men? AEA Papers and Proceedings, 108: 252–255.
79. Islam, A. M., Gaddis, I., Palacios López, A. & Amin, M. 2020. The labor productivity gap between formal businesses run by women and men. Feminist Economics, 26(4): 228–258.
80. Rijkers, B. & Costa, R. 2012. Gender and rural non-farm entrepreneurship. World Development, 40(12): 2411–2426.
81. Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. & Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers 14. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en
82. Campos, F.M.L., Coleman, R.D., Conconi, A., Donald, A.A., Gassier, M., Goldstein, M.P., Chavez, Z.L., et al., 2019. Profiting from parity: Unlocking the potential of women’s businesses in Africa. Washington, DC, World Bank Group.
83. Ferrant, G., Pesando, L.M. & Nowacka, K. 2014. Unpaid care work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. OECD Issues Paper. Paris, OECD Publishing.
84. Jayachandran, S. 2021. Social norms as a barrier to women’s employment in developing countries. IMF Economic Review, 69(3): 576–595.
85. Ali, D., Bowen, D., Deininger, K. & Duponchel, M. 2016. Investigating the gender gap in agricultural productivity: Evidence from Uganda. World Development, 87: 152–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.006
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90. Geere, J.A. & Cortobius, M. 2017. Who carries the weight of water? Fetching water in rural and urban areas and the implications for water security. Water Alternatives, 10(2): 513–540.
91. This is based on an analysis using data from 61 demographic and health and multiple indicator cluster surveys.
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94. Koolwal, G. & Van de Walle, D. 2013. Access to water, women’s work, and child outcomes. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61(2): 369–405.
95. Hemson, D. 2007. ‘The toughest of chores’: policy and practice in children collecting water in South Africa. Policy Futures in Education, 5(3): 315–326.
96. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. & Foster, W. (forthcoming). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
97. Piedrahita, N., Costa, V. & Mane, E. (forthcoming). Gender gap in agricultural labour productivity: A cross country comparison. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
98. Benali, M., Slavchevska, V., Davis, B., Piedrahita, N., Sitko, N., Nico, G. & Azzari, C. (forthcoming). Gender pay gaps among agriculture and non-agriculture wage workers: a cross-country examination. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
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100. Hicks, J.H., Kleemans, M., Li, N.Y. & Miguel, E. 2017. Reevaluating agricultural productivity gaps with longitudinal microdata. NBER Working Paper 23253. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research.
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104. Due to constraints with the data, this study includes all non-agricultural wage employment, including beyond the agrifood system.
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الفصل 3
1. Kosec, K., Hidrobo, M., Gartaula, H., Van Campenhout, B. & Carrillo, L. 2023. Making complementary agricultural resources, technologies, and services more gender-responsive. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129706
2. Doss, C. & Mika, H. 2021. This land is her land: A comparative analysis of gender, institutions, and landownership. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2089. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134943
3. United Nations Children’s Fund. 2023. Girls’ education: Gender equality in education benefits every child. In: UNICEF. New York, USA. Cited 1 February 2023. https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education
4. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https://tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
5. Figure 5. UNESCO. 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https:// tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
6. FAO. 2012. Voluntary Guidelines on the responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security. Rome. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5322b79e4.html
7. This section mainly draws on the country reports for SDG 5.a.1 and 5.a.2, for which FAO is a custodian agency.
8. The information presented in this section is based on the country reports for SDG Indicator 5.a.2. Since the country reports provide one data point in terms of time, additional publicly available sources regarding laws and legal reforms from before 2010 and after submission of the country reports were consulted to identify changes in law since the State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11 report.
9. Different marital property regimes can be identified as: i) separation of property: all types of assets acquired before or during marriage remain separate property; ii) partial community of property: assets acquired during the marriage become common property, but assets acquired before marriage and through inheritance remain separate property; iii) absolute community of property: all assets acquired before or during marriage become common property; and iv) deferred partial or full community of property regime: some or all property that the husband or wife acquires before and during marriage remains the property of the person who acquired it, but if the marriage dissolves, the assets are divided (Almodóvar-Reteguis, N., Kushnir, K. & Meilland, T. 2011. Mapping the legal gender gap in using property and building credit. Women, Business and the Law Topic Note. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/48s6w3e8) Reports on SDG Indicator 5.a.2 show that most countries have a prevalent marital regime in place, whereas other countries provide for several optional regimes or fail to regulate the effects of marriage. Often the default marital property regime overlaps with other regimes relevant to land or property acquisition, such as customary or religious law.
10.Exceptions include Kenya. Matrimonial Property Act, 2013, Kenya. Marriage Act, 2014, and Gabon. Loi N° 004/2021 du 15/09/2021 portant modification de certaines dispositions de la loi portant Code Civil, 2021.
11. Interesting examples are Mali and Senegal, that establish equal inheritance rights for women and men as the rule, unless a person explicitly chooses the (customary or) Muslim regime that does not recognize equality (respectively Mali. Loi N°2011 – 087 portant Code des personnes et de la famille, 2011 and Senegal. Loi N° 72–61 portant Code de la famille, 1972).
12. Kenya. Land registration Act, Cap. 300, 2012.
13. Bolivia (Plurinational State Of). Ley Nº 3545 – Modifica la Ley Nº 1715, Servicio Nacional de Reforma Agraria, 2006.
14. Dominican Republic. Ley Nº 55 – Modifica la Ley Nº 5.879 de 1962 sobre Reforma Agraria, 1997.
15. Nepal. Financial Bills 2020 for the following Provinces: 1, 2, Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali and Sudur Paschim.
16. Thailand. Regulations of the Department of Lands Regarding the registration of spouse’s signature and dividing property between spouses in land and other immovable properties, B.E. 2553, 2010.
17. The most recent example is Sierra Leone where important reforms were introduced in 2022 (Sierra Leone. The Customary Land Rights Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The National Land Commission Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Act, 2022). These are not yet reflected in the results reported in this publication.
18.General recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women covers the use of temporary special measures (TSM) as a mechanism to address gender disparities and to accelerate progress towards de facto equality between men and women. TSM which are often also referred to as affirmative action or positive discrimination measures, include legislative, executive, administrative and regulatory instruments, as well as the (re)allocation of resources, preferential treatment and quota systems (para. 22). (UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), General recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, on temporary special measures, 2004. https://www.refworld.org/docid/453882a7e0.html).
19. Bayisenge, J., Höjer, S. & Espling, M. 2015. Women’s land rights in the context of the land tenure reform in Rwanda – the experiences of policy implementers. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 9(1): 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.985496
20. Deininger, K., Goyal, A. & Nagarajan, H. 2013. Women’s inheritance rights and intergenerational transmission of resources in India. Journal of Human Resources, 48(1): 114–141.
21. Gaddis, I., Lahoti, R. & Swaminathan, H. 2022. Women’s legal rights and gender gaps in property ownership in developing countries. Population and Development Review, 48(2): 331–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12493
22. This finding is based on analysis of a sample of 28 countries for which there is information on the number of protections of women’s rights in the law (based on SDG 5.a.2) and estimates of the gender gap in land ownership among the agricultural populations (expressed as a percentage of men’s ownership).
23. Prindex. 2020. Women’s perceptions of tenure security: Evidence from 140 countries. London. https://prindex.net/reports/womens-perceptions-tenure-security-evidence-140-countries/. The Prindex surveys, implemented in 140 countries worldwide, asked women and men to imagine how likely or unlikely it was they lost the right to all or part of their property against their will in the next five years. Married women and men were also asked if they worried about losing property in the case of divorce or spousal death. In all countries these questions were asked with respect to the main property, which is the home, and another property. The analysis provided here focuses on a subsample of 70 middle- and low-income countries and on responses that are relevant to agriculture.
24.The index asks individuals a variety of questions which mix concerns over access to water, and the availability of water for specific domestic tasks. It does not ask about access to water for productive purposes, nor does it inquire about who in the household is responsible for domestic tasks or water collection activities (Northwestern University. n.d. The HWISE scale. Evanston, IL, USA. https://doi.org/10.21985/n2-1g6s-6a43).
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54. Comparison with results observed at household level is limited due to the availability of data.
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63. Mkandawire, E., Mentz-Coetzee, M., Mangheni, M.N. & Barusi, E. 2021. Enhancing the Glopan food systems framework by integrating gender: Relevance for women in African agriculture. Sustainability, 13(15): 8564. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158564
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70. In addition to legislation forbidding gender discrimination, temporary special measures give preference to women until de facto gender equality has been achieved. (Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Rome, FAO). Assessing the impact of such temporary special measures on gender equality has not been done systematically, but such measures are a promising tool for redressing long-standing discrimination and exclusion of women. Repositories such as GenderLex, a soon-to-be-launched subset of FAO’s FAOLEX (https://www.fao.org/faolex/en/), can facilitate such systematic assessments. GenderLex contains close to 500 measures extracted from 1 500 legal and documents that provide for temporary special measures in the field of food, agriculture and natural resource management, covering all countries and regions in the world.
71. Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Rome, FAO.
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75. Howland, F., Acosta, M., Muriel, J. & Le Coq, J.-F. 2021. Examining the barriers to gender integration in agriculture, climate change, food security, and nutrition policies: Guatemalan and Honduran perspectives. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.664253
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81. Acosta, M., van Bommel, S., van Wessel, M., Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. & Feindt, P.H. 2019. Discursive translations of gender mainstreaming norms: The case of agricultural and climate change policies in Uganda. Women’s Studies International Forum, 74: 9–19.
82. Dlamini, C. & Samboko, P. 2016. Towards gender mainstreaming in agricuture, natural resources management and climate change programmes in Zambia. Working Paper No. 108. Lusaka, Zambia, Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute. http://www.iapri.org.zm/images/WorkingPapers/wp108_rev.pdf
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85. Acosta, M., Wessel, M. van, Bommel, S. van, Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. & Feindt, P.H. 2020. The power of narratives: Explaining inaction on gender mainstreaming in Uganda’s climate change policy. Development Policy Review, 38(5): 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12458
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الفصل 5
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158. Jasper, P., Nikitin, D., Brockerhoff, S., Jahan, F. & Ahsan, T. 2016. Longitudinal monitoring and independent impact assessment of CLP-2. Final evaluation report – volume 1. Oxford, UK, e_Pact.
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162.The description of these programmes can be found at World Bank. 2023. Living Standards Measurement Study – Programs. In: The World Bank. Washington, DC, USA. Cited 17 March 2023. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/lsms/initiatives
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164. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A. & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
165. FAO & Intake. 2022. Global report on the state of dietary data. Rome, FAO, and Washington, DC, USA, Intake – Center for Dietary Assessment. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb8679en
166. McDougall, C., Badstue, L., Mulema, A., Fischer, G., Najjar, D., Pyburn, R., Elias, M., Joshi, D. & Vos, A. 2021. Toward structural change: Gender transformative approaches. In: R. Pyburn & A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 365–401. Washington, DC, USA, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_10
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168. Berretta, M., Kupfer, M., Lane, C. & Shisler, S. 2022. Rapid evidence assessment on women’s empowerment interventions within the food system. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1754233/v1
169. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Myers, E., Seymour, G. & Twyman, J. 2023 . Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
170.The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Development Assistance Committee offers three markers of gender intention: Principal: Gender equality is the main objective of the project and is fundamental is its design and expected results; Significant: Gender equality is an important and deliberate objective but is not the principal reason for undertaking the project; and Not targeted: The project has been screened but has not been found to target gender equality.
171.Data for multilateral institutions is not disaggregated by sector.
172.Over 80 percent of the estimated 570 million farms worldwide are smallholder farms of less than 2 hectares (Lowder, S.K., Sánchez, M.V. & Bertini, R. 2021. Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142: 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455) and these are the types of households that investments by the International Fund for Agricultural Development target. We assume that half of smallholders are reached by gender mainstreaming interventions and the other half are reached by interventions treating gender as fundamental.
مسرد المصطلحات
1. Definitions were retrieved and/or adapted from FAO, the UN Women Training Centre eLearning Campus Gender Equality Glossary, and the Glossary of Terms from the CGIAR GENDER platform Background Papers prepared for this report (unless otherwise noted).
2. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
3. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) & World Food Programme (WFP). 2022. Guide to formulating gendered social norms indicators in the context of food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0673en
الملحق 1
1. International Labour Organization. 2023. ILOSTAT. In: International Labour Organization. Cited 25 January 2023. https://ilostat.ilo.org/
2. Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. FAO Statistics Working Paper Series, No. 23–34. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4337en
الملحق 4
1. Cavatassi, R., Mabiso, A. & Brueckmann, P. 2019. Impact assessment report: Republic of Indonesia, Coastal Community Development Project. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development. https://tinyurl.com/2p8zn2f
2. IFAD. 2022. IFAD11 impact assessment report. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/5y5px5ak
3. The mean effect sizes from the meta-analyses are validated by estimating impacts using the pooled household-level data. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) re-runs analyses by combining all individual micro-level impact assessment data together and running a pooled data analysis, which controls for country-/project-level unobserved characteristics that may influence impacts. The data, programmes, and other details of the computations sufficient to permit replication along with their revisions are encrypted and anonymized (Arslan A. & Cavatassi, R. 2022. IFAD’s methods for impact assessments, a summary note, IFAD, Rome).
4. This is done using decision-making power over income and/or resources attributed to women only or jointly with men. Projects whose value of this variable is at least equal to the aggregated mean value are considered to empower women, as opposed to the rest of the projects.