Notas
Capítulo 1
1. FAO. 2011. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2010-11: Las mujeres en la agricultura. Cerrar la brecha de género en aras del desarrollo.. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf
2. FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO.
3. FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2021. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2021. Transformación de los sistemas alimentarios en aras de la seguridad alimentaria, una nutrición mejorada y dietas asequibles y saludables para todos. Roma, FAO.
4. FAO, FIDA, UNICEF, PMA y OMS. 2021. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2017. Fomentando la resiliencia en aras de la paz y la seguridad alimentaria. Roma, FAO.
5. Ambikapathi, R., Schneider, K.R., Davis, B., Herrero, M., Winters, P. y Fanzo, J.C. 2022. Global food systems transitions have enabled affordable diets but had less favourable outcomes for nutrition, environmental health, inclusion and equity. Nature Food, 3(9): 764–779.
6. Njuki, J., Eissler, S., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Bryan, E. y Quisumbing, A. 2022. A review of evidence on gender equality, women’s empowerment, and food systems. Global Food Security, 33: 100622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100622
7. Lecoutere, E., Katrina Kosec, Quisumbing, A., Elias, M., Bryan, E. y Puskur, R. 2022. Equality and empowerment by gender and intersecting social differentiation in agrifood systems: Setting the stage. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129704
8. Pyburn, R. y van Eerdewijk, A. 2021. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future. Washington, DC: IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915
9. Hillenbrand, E., Karim, N., Mohanraj, P. y Wu, D. 2015. Measuring gender-transformative change: A review of literature and promising practices. CARE EE. UU.. Working Paper.
10. Cole, S.M., Kantor, P., Sarapura, S. y Rajaratnam, S. 2014. Gender-transformative approaches to address inequalities in food, nutrition and economic outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems. Working Paper: AAS-2014-42. Penang, Malasia, Programa de Investigación del CGIAR en Sistemas Agrícolas Acuáticos.
11. Quisumbing, A.R., Meinzen-Dick, R.S. y Malapit, H.J. 2019. Gender equality: Women’s empowerment for rural revitalization. In 2019 Global Food Policy Report. Chapter 5, Pp. 44–51. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293502_05
12. Johnson, N., Balagamwala, M., Pinkstaff, C., Theis, S., Meinzen-Dick, R. y Quisumbing, A. 2018. How do agricultural development projects empower women? Linking strategies with expected outcomes. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2):1–19.
13. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resource, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
Capítulo 2
1. FAO. 2011. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2010–11: Las mujeres en la agricultura – Cerrar la brecha de género en aras del desarrollo. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i2050s/i2050s.pdf
2. Klasen, S. 2019. What explains uneven female labor force participation levels and trends in developing countries? The World Bank Research Observer, 34(2): 161–197.
3. Véase Banco Mundial, Base de datos de Indicadores del Desarrollo Mundial. Población activa, mujeres (% de la población activa total). https://datos.bancomundial.org/indicador/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS?locations=8S Consultado el 15 de diciembre de 2023.
4. Pyburn, R., Slavchevska, V., Kruijssen, F., Karam, A. y Steijn, C. 2022. Gender dynamics in agrifood value chains: from diagnostics to change. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Ámsterdam, Países Bajos (Reino de los), Royal Tropical Institute.
5. Palacios-López, A., Christiaensen, L. y Kilic, T. 2017. How much of the labor in African agriculture is provided by women? Food Policy, 67: 52–63.
6. Grace, D., Roesel, K., Kang’ethe, E., Bonfoh, B. y Theis, S. 2015. Gender roles and food safety in 20 informal livestock and fish value chains. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01489. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
7. Barrientos, S. 2014. Gendered global production networks: Analysis of cocoa–chocolate sourcing. Regional Studies, 48(5): 791–803.
8. Curry, G.N., Koczberski, G. y Inu, S.M. 2019. Women’s and men’s work: The production and marketing of fresh food and export crops in Papua New Guinea. Oceania, 89(2): 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1002/ocea.5222
9. Fröcklin, S., de la Torre-Castro, M., Lindström, L. y Jiddawi, N.S. 2013. Fish traders as key actors in fisheries: Gender and adaptive management. Ambio, 42(8): 951–962.
10. Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C.L. y van Asseldonk, I.J. 2018. Gender and aquaculture value chains. A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture, 493: 328–337.
11. O’Neill, E. D., Crona, B., Ferrer, A. J. G., Pomeroy, R. y Jiddawi, N. S. 2018. Who benefits from seafood trade? A comparison of social and market structures in small-scale fisheries. Ecology and Society, 23(3): 12. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799136
12. Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A. y Chiuri, W. 2011. Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and intra-household dynamics: does the choice of commodity matter? The European Journal of Development Research, 23(3): 426–443.
13. Sarku, R. 2016. Analyses of gender roles in the oil palm industry in Kwaebibirem District, Ghana. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(3): 187–198.
14. Chen, T. 2017. Impact of the shea nut industry on women’s empowerment in Burkina Faso: A multi-dimensional study focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions. Social Protection and Forestry Working Paper No. 3. Roma, FAO.
15. Kent, R. 2018. “Helping” or “appropriating”? Gender relations in shea nut production in northern Ghana. Society y Natural Resource, 31(3): 367–381.
16. Fischer, E. y Qaim, M. 2012. Gender, agricultural commercialization, and collective action in Kenya. Food Security, 4, 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0199-7
17. Njiraini, G., Ngigi, M. y Baraké, E. 2018. Women in African agriculture: Integrating women into value chains to build a stronger sector. ZEF Working Paper Series 175. Bonn, Alemania, Center for Development Research, Universidad de Bonn. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3266365
18. Das, S., Delavallade, C., Fashogbon, A., Ogunleye, W. y Papineni, S. 2021. Occupational sex segregation in agriculture: Evidence on gender norms and socio-emotional skills in Nigeria. Policy Research Working Paper No. 9695. Washington, DC, World Bank Group.
19. Banco Mundial. 2022. Breaking barriers: Female entrepreneurs who cross over to male-dominated sectors. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36940
20. World Bank Group. 2019. Women, Business and the Law 2019: A decade of reform. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31327
21. Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE). 2018. The Middle East and North Africa: Prospects and challenges. En: OCDE y Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027, pp. 67–107. París, OCDE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2018-5-en
22. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A., y de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
23. Mayoux, L. 2012. Gender mainstreaming in value chain development: Experience with Gender Action Learning System in Uganda. Enterprise Development and Microfinance Journal, 23(4): 319–337.
24. Masamha, B., Uzokwe, V.N. y Thebe, V. 2018. Women’s empowerment in traditional food value chains at the micro-level: Evidence from cassava smallholder farming in Tanzania. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 42(1): 28–47.
25. de Brauw, A., Kramer, B. y Murphy, M. 2021. Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142: 105445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
26. Toruño Morales, I. 2013. Análisis financiero-económico de fincas con varias actividades productivas y el rol de la familia en la producción y toma de decisiones en el Centro Norte de Nicaragua. MSc Thesis. Turrialba, Costa Rica, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza, Escuela de Posgrado.
27. Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. y Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers 14. París, OCDE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en
28. Durr, J. 2018. Women in agricultural value chains: Unrecognized work and contributions to the Guatemalan economy. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 3(2): 20–35.
29. Rubin, D., Boonabaana, B. y Manfre, C. 2019. Building an inclusive agriculture: Strengthening gender equality in agricultural value chains. En: A.R. Quisumbing, R.S. Meinzen-Dick y J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 83–96. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_06
30. Cálculos propios basados en FAO. 2022. Mapeo de los mercados territoriales – Metodología y directrices para la recopilación participativa de datos. Segunda edición. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9484en
31. Banco Mundial. 2021. Opportunities for climate finance in the livestock sector: Removing obstacles and realizing potential. Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35495
32. FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2022. Hacia la transformación azul. Roma. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC0461ES
33. FAO y Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente. 2020. El estado de los bosques del mundo 2020. Los bosques, la biodiversidad y las personas. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CA8642ES
34. Adam, R., McDougall, C., Bevitt, K., Freed, S., Gomese, C., Johnson, A. y Lau, J. et al. 2022. Four pathways to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture: Insights from FISH research. Penang, Malasia, WorldFish. https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/handle/20.500.12348/5108
35. Serra, R., Harris-Coble, L., Dickerson, A.J., Povedano, S.A. y Pinzon, S. 2018. Gender and livestock value chains annotated bibliography. Gainesville, Florida, EE. UU., Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. https://tinyurl.com/2n6gfapn
36. Tavenner, K. y Crane, T.A. 2018. Gender power in Kenyan dairy: Cows, commodities, and commercialization. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9867-3
37. Se dice que dos tercios de los 600 millones de ganaderos pobres del mundo son mujeres rurales. Aunque es probable que esta estimación tenga algo de cierto, su origen no está claro según MacVicar, I. 2020. Women livestock keepers. Fact Check 9. Livestock Data for Decisions. Edinburgh, Reino Unido, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/37437
38. Aquí nos ocupamos de las desigualdades de género con respecto al empleo en el sector, mientras que en el Capítulo 3 tratamos las cuestiones de género en la propiedad y los derechos sobre el ganado.
39. Hovorka, A. J. 2012. Women/chickens vs. men/cattle: Insights on gender–species intersectionality. Geoforum, 43(4): 875–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.02.005
40. Hillesland, M., Doss, C. y Slavchevska, V. 2021. Who claims the rights to livestock? Exploring gender patterns of asset holdings in smallholder households in Uganda. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2098. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134962
41. Alemayehu, T., Bruno, J., Fasil, G. y Dessie, T. 2018. Socio-economic, marketing and gender aspects of village chicken production in the tropics: A review of literature. ILRI Project Report. Nairobi, Kenya, Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Pecuarias.
42. FAO. 2012. Invisible guardians – Women manage livestock diversity. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 174. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i3018e/i3018e00.pdf
43. Njuki, J. y Sanginga, P.C. 2013. Women, livestock ownership and markets. Bridging the gender gap in Eastern and Southern Africa. Londres, Earthscan Routledge.
44. Omondi, I., Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Loriba, A., Kariuki, E. y Baltenweck, I. 2022. Women’s empowerment and livestock vaccination: Evidence from Peste des Petits Ruminants vaccination interventions in northern Ghana. Animals, 12(6): 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12060717
45. Serra, R., Ludgate, N., Dowhaniuk, K.F., McKune, S.L. y Russo, S. 2022. Beyond the gender of the livestock holder: Learnings from intersectional analyses of PPR vaccine value chains in Nepal, Senegal, and Uganda. Animals, 12(3): 241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030241
46. Flintan, F.E. 2021. Pastoral women, tenure and governance. ILRI Research Report 92. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134947
47. Ravichandran, T., Farnworth, C.R. y Galiè, A. 2021. Empowering women in dairy cooperatives in Bihar and Telangana, India: A gender and caste analysis. Agri-Gender: Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 6(1): 27–42. https://doi.org/10.19268/JGAFS.612021.3
48. Quisumbing, A., Cole, S., Elias, M., Faas, S., Galiè, A., Malapit, H., Meinzen-Dick, R. et al. 2023. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture: Innovations and evidence. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129707
49. Esta sección se basa en gran medida en FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2022. Hacia la transformación azul. Roma. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC0461ES
50. FAO, Universidad Duke y WorldFish, en prensa, citado en FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2022. Hacia la transformación azul. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CC0461ES
51. ONU Mujeres. 2020. Women’s economic empowerment in fisheries in the blue economy of the Indian Ocean rim: A baseline report. Nueva York, EE. UU., ONU Mujeres.
52. Kleiber, D., Harris, L.M. y Vincent, A.C.J. 2015. Gender and small-scale fisheries: A case for counting women and beyond. Fish and Fisheries, 16(4): 547–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12075.
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54. Farnworth, C.R., Kantor, P., Kruijssen, F., Longley, C. y Colverson, K.E. 2015. Gender integration in livestock and fisheries value chains: Emerging good practices from analysis to action. International Journal of Agricultural Resource, Governance and Ecology, 11(3–4): 262–279.
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57. Müller, J.G., Boubacar, R. y Guimbo, I.D. 2015. The ‘how’ and ‘why’ of including gender and age in ethnobotanical research and community-based resource management. Ambio, 44(1): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0517-8
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91. Se basa en un análisis realizado a partir de los datos de 61 encuestas demográficas, sanitarias y de indicadores múltiples.
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99. Ricciardi, V., Mehrabi, Z., Wittman, H., James, D. y Ramankutty, N. 2021. Higher yields and more biodiversity on smaller farms. Nature Sustainability, 4(7): 651–657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00699-2
100. Hicks, J.H., Kleemans, M., Li, N.Y. y Miguel, E. 2017. Reevaluating agricultural productivity gaps with longitudinal microdata. NBER Working Paper 23253. Cambridge, MA, EE. UU., National Bureau of Economic Research.
101. McCullough, E.B. 2017. Labor productivity and employment gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 67: 133–152.
102. de Janvry, A., Duquennois, C. y Sadoulet, E. 2022. Labor calendars and rural poverty: A case study for Malawi. Food Policy, 109: 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102255
103. Briones, R.M. 2019. The wage gap between male and female agricultural workers. En: Outside looking in: Gendered perspectives in work and education, pp. 109–136. Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies. https://tinyurl.com/2mdr6ofb
104. Debido a limitaciones con los datos, este estudio incluye todo el empleo asalariado no agrícola, incluso más allá del sistema agroalimentario.
105. Fisher, M., Lewin, P.A. y Pilgeram, R. 2021. Farmworkers and the gender wage gap: An empirical analysis of wage inequality in US agriculture. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(4): 2145–2163. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13202
106. Hertz, T., Winters, P., De La O, A.P., Quinones, E.J, Davis, B. y Zezza, A. 2008. Wage inequality in international perspective: Effects of location, sector, and gender. ESA Working Paper No. 08–08. Roma, Agricultural Development Economics Division, FAO.
Capítulo 3
1. Kosec, K., Hidrobo, M., Gartaula, H., Van Campenhout, B. y Carrillo, L. 2023. Making complementary agricultural resource, technologies, and services more gender-responsive. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129706
2. Doss, C. y Mika, H. 2021. This land is her land: A comparative analysis of gender, institutions, and landownership. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2089. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134943
3. Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia. 2023. Girls’ education: Gender equality in education benefits every child. En: UNICEF. Nueva York, EE. UU.. Citado el 1 de febrero de 2023. https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education
4. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO). 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. París. https://tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
5. Figura 5. UNESCO. 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. París. https:// tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
6. FAO. 2012. Voluntary Guidelines on the responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security. Roma. https://www.refworld.org/docid/5322b79e4.html
7. Esta sección se basa principalmente en los informes nacionales para los ODS 5.a.1 y 5.a.2, de los que la FAO es organismo custodio.
8. La información presentada en esta sección se basa en los informes de los países para el Indicador 5.a.2 de los ODS. Dado que los informes de los países proporcionan un punto de datos en términos de tiempo, se consultó una fuente adicional disponible públicamente con respecto a las leyes y reformas legales de antes de 2010 y después de la presentación de los informes de los países para identificar los cambios en la ley desde el informe del Estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2010–11.
9. Los distintos regímenes económicos matrimoniales pueden identificarse como: i) separación de bienes: todo tipo de bienes adquiridos antes o durante el matrimonio siguen siendo bienes separados; ii) comunidad parcial de bienes: los bienes adquiridos durante el matrimonio pasan a ser bienes comunes, pero los bienes adquiridos antes del matrimonio y por herencia siguen siendo bienes separados; iii) comunidad absoluta de bienes: todos los bienes adquiridos antes o durante el matrimonio pasan a ser bienes comunes; y iv) régimen de comunidad parcial o total diferida: algunos o todos los bienes que el marido o la mujer adquieren antes y durante el matrimonio siguen siendo propiedad de quien los adquirió, pero si el matrimonio se disuelve, los bienes se dividen (Almodóvar-Reteguis, N., Kushnir, K. y Meilland, T. 2011. Mapping the legal gender gap in using property and building credit. Women, Business and the Law Topic NOTA. Washington, DC, Banco Mundial. https://tinyurl.com/48s6w3e8) Los informes sobre el indicador 5.a.2 de los ODS muestran que la mayoría de países tienen un régimen matrimonial prevalente, mientras que otros países prevén varios regímenes opcionales o no regulan los efectos del matrimonio. A menudo, el régimen económico matrimonial por defecto se solapa con otros regímenes relevantes para la adquisición de tierras o propiedades, como el derecho consuetudinario o religioso.
10. Hay excepciones como: Kenya. Matrimonial Property Act, 2013, Kenya. Marriage Act, 2014, and Gabon. Loi N° 004/2021 du 15/09/2021 portant modification de certaines dispositions de la loi portant Code Civil, 2021.
11. Ejemplos interesantes son Malí y Senegal, que establecen como norma la igualdad de derechos sucesorios para mujeres y hombres, a menos que una persona elija explícitamente el régimen (consuetudinario o) musulmán que no reconoce la igualdad (respectivamente Mali. Loi N°2011 – 087 portant Code des personnes et de la famille, 2011 y Senegal. Loi N° 72–61 portant Code de la famille, 1972).
12. Kenya. Land registration Act, Cap. 300, 2012.
13. Bolivia (Plurinational State Of). Ley Nº 3545 – Modifica la Ley Nº 1715, Servicio Nacional de Reforma Agraria, 2006.
14. Dominican Republic. Ley Nº 55 – Modifica la Ley Nº 5.879 de 1962 sobre Reforma Agraria, 1997.
15. Nepal. Financial Bills 2020 for the following Provinces: 1, 2, Bagmati, Gandaki, Lumbini, Karnali and Sudur Paschim.
16. Tailandia. Regulations of the Department of Lands Regarding the registration of spouse’s signature and dividing property between spouses in land and other immovable properties, B.E. 2553, 2010.
17. El ejemplo más reciente es Sierra Leona, donde se introdujeron importantes reformas en 2022 (Sierra Leone. The Customary Land Rights Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The National Land Commission Act, 2022. Sierra Leone. The Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Act, 2022). Todavía no se han reflejado en los resultados de esta publicación.
18. La Recomendación general nº 25, relativa al apartado 1 del artículo 4 de la Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer, contempla el uso de medidas especiales de carácter temporal (MET) como mecanismo para abordar las disparidades de género y acelerar el progreso hacia la igualdad de facto entre hombres y mujeres. Las MET, a menudo denominadas medidas de discriminación positiva, incluyen instrumentos legislativos, ejecutivos, administrativos y normativos, así como la (re)asignación de recursos, el trato preferente y los sistemas de cuotas (párrafo 22). (UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), General recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, on temporary special measures, 2004. https://www.refworld.org/docid/453882a7e0.html).
19. Bayisenge, J., Höjer, S. y Espling, M. 2015. Women’s land rights in the context of the land tenure reform in Rwanda – the experiences of policy implementers. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 9(1): 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.985496
20. Deininger, K., Goyal, A. y Nagarajan, H. 2013. Women’s inheritance rights and intergenerational transmission of resource in India. Journal of Human Resource, 48(1): 114–141.
21. Gaddis, I., Lahoti, R. y Swaminathan, H. 2022. Women’s legal rights and gender gaps in property ownership in developing countries. Population and Development Review, 48(2): 331–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12493
22. Esta conclusión se basa en el análisis de una muestra de 28 países para los que existe información sobre el número de protecciones de los derechos de la mujer en la legislación (basada en el ODS 5.a.2) y estimaciones de la brecha de género en la propiedad de la tierra entre las poblaciones agrícolas (expresada como porcentaje de la propiedad de los hombres).
23. Prindex. 2020. Women’s perceptions of tenure security: Evidence from 140 countries. Londres. https://prindex.net/reports/womens-perceptions-tenure-security-evidence-140-countries/. Las encuestas Prindex, realizadas en 140 países de todo el mundo, pedían a mujeres y hombres que imaginaran con qué probabilidad o poca probabilidad de que perdieran el derecho a la totalidad o parte de sus bienes contra su voluntad en los cinco años siguientes. También se preguntó a los hombres y mujeres casados si les preocupaba perder sus bienes en caso de divorcio o fallecimiento del cónyuge. En todos los países se formularon estas preguntas con respecto a la propiedad principal, que es la vivienda, y a otra propiedad. El análisis que aquí se ofrece se centra en una submuestra de 70 países de renta media y baja y en las respuestas que son relevantes para la agricultura.">https://prindex.net/reports/womens-perceptions-tenure-security-evidence-140-countries/. Las encuestas Prindex, realizadas en 140 países de todo el mundo, pedían a mujeres y hombres que imaginaran con qué probabilidad o poca probabilidad de que perdieran el derecho a la totalidad o parte de sus bienes contra su voluntad en los cinco años siguientes. También se preguntó a los hombres y mujeres casados si les preocupaba perder sus bienes en caso de divorcio o fallecimiento del cónyuge. En todos los países se formularon estas preguntas con respecto a la propiedad principal, que es la vivienda, y a otra propiedad. El análisis que aquí se ofrece se centra en una submuestra de 70 países de renta media y baja y en las respuestas que son relevantes para la agricultura.
24. El índice plantea a los individuos una serie de preguntas que mezclan la preocupación por el acceso al agua y la disponibilidad de agua para tareas domésticas específicas. No se pregunta por el acceso al agua para fines productivos ni por quién es responsable en el hogar de las tareas domésticas o de las actividades de recogida de agua. (Northwestern University. n.d. The HWISE scale. Evanston, IL, EE. UU.. https://doi.org/10.21985/n2-1g6s-6a43).
25. Young, S.L., Bethancourt, H.J., Ritter, Z.R. y Frongillo, E.A. 2022. Estimating national, demographic, and socioeconomic disparities in water insecurity experiences in low-income and middle-income countries in 2020–21: A cross-sectional, observational study using nationally representative survey data. The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(11): e880–e891. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00241-8
26. Wutich, A. 2009. Intrahousehold disparities in women and men’s experiences of water insecurity and emotional distress in urban Bolivia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 23(4): 436–454.
27. Pearson, A.L., Mack, E.A., Ross, A., Marcantonio, R., Zimmer, A., Bunting, E.L., Smith, A.C. et al. 2021. Interpersonal conflict over water is associated with household demographics, domains of water insecurity, and regional conflict: Evidence from nine sites across eight sub-Saharan African countries. Water, 13(9): 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091150
28. Clement, F. y Nicol, A. 2019. Gender, poverty and politics along the real-virtual water spectrum. En: T. Allan, B. Bromwich, M. Keulertz y A. Colman, eds. The Oxford handbook of food, water and society, pp. 250–267. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190669799.013.63
29. Joshi, D., Monterroso, I., Gallant, B., Perera, K. y Peveri, V. 2021. A gender–natural resource tango: Water, land, and forest research. En: R. Pyburn y A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 221–258. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
30. Nauges, C. y Strand, J. 2013. Water hauling and girls’ school attendance. Some new evidence from Ghana. Policy Research Working Paper 6443. Washington, DC, Banco Mundial. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6443
31. van Houweling, E., Hall, R.P., Diop, A.S., Davis, J. y Seiss, M. 2012. The role of productive water use in women’s livelihoods: Evidence from rural Senegal. Water Alternatives, 5(3): 658–677.
32. Caruso, B.A., Conrad, A., Patrick, M., Owens, A., Kviten, K., Zarella, O., Rogers, H. y Sinharoy, S.S. 2022. Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis. PLOS Water, 1(6): e0000026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026
33. Mekonnen, D.K., Choufani, J., Bryan, E., Haile, B. y Ringler, C. 2022. Irrigation improves weight-for-height z-scores of children under five, and women’s and household dietary diversity scores in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Maternal y Child Nutrition, 18(4): e13395. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13395
34. Mitra, A. y Rao, N. 2019. Gender, water, and nutrition in India: An intersectional perspective. Water Alternatives, 12(1): 169–191.
35. Doss, C. y Meinzen-Dick, R. 2020. Land tenure security for women: A conceptual framework. Land Use Policy, 99: 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105080
36. Meinzen-Dick, R. y Zwarteveen, M. 1998. Gendered participation in water management: Issues and illustrations from water users‘ associations in South Asia. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007533018254
37. Theis, S., Bryan, E. y Ringler, C. 2019. Addressing gender and social dynamics to strengthen resilience for all. En: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick y J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 126–139. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_09
38. van Koppen, B. 1998. Water rights, gender, and poverty alleviation. Inclusion and exclusion of women and men smallholders in public irrigation infrastructure development. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 361–374. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007537119163
39. ONU Mujeres and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2021. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals. The Gender and Snapshot 2021. Nueva York, EE. UU., ONU Mujeres.
40. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. y Foster, W. (en prensa). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Roma, FAO.
41. Las limitaciones de centrarse en la jefatura de familia se debaten ampliamente en la bibliografía (véase también el Cuadro 2.10 del Capítulo 2). En este capítulo, nos basamos en toda la información de las fuentes, tanto a nivel individual como familiar, para obtener indicadores de los cambios a lo largo del tiempo en el acceso a los recursos de todos los grupos de mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios.
42. Njuki, J., Waithanji, E., Sakwa, B., Kariuki, J., Mukewa, E. y Ngige, J. 2014. A qualitative assessment of gender and irrigation technology in Kenya and Tanzania. Gender, Technology and Development, 18(3): 303–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852414544010
43. Kulkarni, S. 2012. Redefining irrigation as if gender mattered. IWMI-Tata Water Policy Research Highlight, 14. Colombo, Sri Lanka, Instituto Internacional de Gestión del Agua.
44. Dickin, S., Segnestam, L. y Sou Dakouré, M. 2021. Women’s vulnerability to climate-related risks to household water security in Centre-East, Burkina Faso. Climate and Development, 13(5): 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1790335
45. Horbulyk, T. y Balasubramanya, S. 2018. Impact of water users associations on water and land productivity, equity and food security in Tajikistan. Final report, Volume 1. Colombo, Sri Lanka, Instituto Internacional de Gestión del Agua.
46. Sugden, F., Maskey, N., Clement, F., Ramesh, V., Philip, A. y Rai, A. 2014. Agrarian stress and climate change in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: Gendered vulnerability in a stratified social formation. Global Environmental Change, 29: 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.008
47. Kristjanson, P., Waters-Bayer, A., Johnson, N., Tipilda, A., Njuki, J., Baltenweck, I., Grace, D. y MacMillan, S. 2014. Livestock and women’s livelihoods. En: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman y A. Peterman, eds. Gender in agriculture: Closing the knowledge gap, pp. 209–233. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_9
48. Acosta, A., Nicolli, F. y Karfakis, P. 2021. Coping with climate shocks: The complex role of livestock portfolios. World Development, 146: 105546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105546
49. McKune, S.L., Borresen, E.C., Young, A.G., Auria Ryley, T.D., Russo, S.L., Diao Camara, A., Coleman, M. y Ryan, E.P. 2015. Climate change through a gendered lens: Examining livestock holder food security. Global Food Security, 6: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2015.05.001
50. Bain, C., Ransom, E. y Halimatusa’diyah, I. 2020. Dairy livestock interventions for food security in Uganda: What are the implications for women’s empowerment? Rural Sociology, 85(4): 991–1020.
51. Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Girard, A.W., Baltenweck, I., Dominguez-Salas, P., Price, M.J., Jones, R. et al. 2019. Women’s empowerment, food security and nutrition of pastoral communities in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 23: 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005
52. Gitungwa, H., Gustafson, C.R., Jimenez, E.Y., Peterson, E.W., Mwanzalila, M., Makweta, A., Komba, E., Kazwala, R.R., Mazet, J.A.K. y VanWormer, E. 2021. Female and male-controlled livestock holdings impact pastoralist food security and women’s dietary diversity. One Health Outlook, 3(1): 3.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-020-00032-5
53. Las unidades de ganado tropical son el número de especies de ganado diferentes convertidas en una unidad común utilizando factores de conversión estándar (véase Cuadro 6 in Ahmed, M.H. y Mesfin, H.M. 2017. The impact of agricultural cooperatives membership on the wellbeing of smallholder farmers: empirical evidence from eastern Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 5: 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-017-0075-z).
54. La comparación con los resultados observados en los hogares es limitada debido a la disponibilidad de datos.
55. Banco Mundial. 2023. Generating relevant data for policy makers and the research community. En: The World Bank. Washington, DC. Citado el 4 de febrero de 2023. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/collections/lsms
56. Esto confirma la conveniencia de utilizar datos a nivel individual, en lugar de datos recopilados por sexo del cabeza de familia, siempre que sea posible. Los datos que utilizan el sexo del cabeza de familia suelen captar datos sobre hogares encabezados por mujeres más desfavorecidos (por ejemplo, viudas).
57. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A. y de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios, 2023. Nairobi, Kenya, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
58. Dumas, S.E., Maranga, A., Mbullo, P., Collins, S., Wekesa, P., Onono, M. y Young, S.L. 2018. “Men are in front at eating time, but not when it comes to rearing the chicken”: Unpacking the gendered benefits and costs of livestock ownership in Kenya. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 39(1): 3–27.
59. Njuki, J. y Sangina, P.C., eds. 2013. Women, livestock ownership and markets: Bridging the gender gap in eastern and southern Africa. Abingdon, Reino Unido, Routledge. https://tinyurl.com/27k3qqqa
60. Köhler-Rollefson, I. 2012. Invisible guardians: Women manage livestock diversity. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No.174. https://www.fao.org/3/a-i3018e.pdf
61. Baltenweck, I., Achandi, E., Bullock, R., Campbell, Z., Crane, T., Eldermire, E., Gichuki, L. et al. 2021. What can we learn from the literature about livestock interventions and women’s empowerment? ILRI Research Brief 105. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/117227
62. Chanamuto, N.J.C. y Hall, S.J.G. 2015. Gender equality, resilience to climate change, and the design of livestock projects for rural livelihoods. Gender y Development, 23(3): 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1096041
63. Tavenner, K., van Wijk, M., Fraval, S., Hammond, J., Baltenweck, I., Teufel, N., Kihoro, E. et al. 2019. Intensifying inequality? Gendered trends in commercializing and diversifying smallholder farming systems in East Africa. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00010
64. Serra, R., Harris-Coble, L., Dickerson, A.J., Povedano, S.A. y Pinzon, S. 2018. Gender and livestock value chains annotated bibliography. Gainesville, FL, EE. UU., Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems. https://tinyurl.com/2n6gfapn
65. Flintan, F. 2021. Pastoral women, tenure, and governance. PIM Flagship Brief December 2021. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134947
66. International Livestock Research Institute. 2021. Losing livestock, losing land, losing face: Pastoralist women and change in Gujarat, India. Nairobi, Kenya. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/117283
67. Njuguna-Mungai, E., Omondi, I., Galiè, A., Jumba, H., Derseh, M., Paul, B.K., Zenebe, M., Juma, A. y Duncan, A. 2022. Gender dynamics around introduction of improved forages in Kenya and Ethiopia. Agronomy Journal, 114(1): 277–295.
68. Ransom, E., Bain, C., Bal, H. y Shannon, N. 2017. Cattle as technological interventions: The gender effects of water demand in dairy production in Uganda. FACETS, 2: 715–732. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0031
69. Silong, A.K.F. y Gadanakis, Y. 2020. Credit FUENTE, access and factors influencing credit demand among rural livestock farmers in Nigeria. Agricultural Finance Review, 80(1): 68–90.
70. Acosta, D., Ludgate, N., McKune, S.L. y Russo, S. 2022. Who Has Access to Livestock Vaccines? Using the social-ecological model and intersectionality frameworks to identify the social barriers to Peste des Petits ruminants vaccines in Karamoja, Uganda. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 160.
71. McKune, S., Serra, R. y Touré, A. 2021. Gender and intersectional analysis of livestock vaccine value chains in Kaffrine, Senegal. PLOS ONE, 16(7): e0252045. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252045
72. Quisumbing, A.R. y Doss, C.R. 2021. Chapter 82—Gender in agriculture and food systems. En: C.B. Barrett y D.R. Just, eds. Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 5: 4481–4549. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesagr.2021.10.009
73. Anderson, C.L., Reynolds, T.W., Biscaye, P., Patwardhan, V. y Schmidt, C. 2021. Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: Assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2): 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071
74. Kaminski, A.M., Cole, S.M., Al Haddad, R.E., Kefi, A.S., Chilala, A.D., Chisule, G., Mukuka, K.N., Longley, C., Teoh, S.J. y Ward, A.R. 2020. Fish losses for whom? A gendered assessment of post-harvest losses in the Barotse Floodplain Fishery, Zambia. Sustainability, 12(23): 10091. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122310091
75. Fischer, G., Wittich, S., Malima, G., Sikumba, G., Lukuyu, B., Ngunga, D. y Rugalabam, J. 2018. Gender and mechanization: Exploring the sustainability of mechanized forage chopping in Tanzania. Journal of Rural Studies, 64: 112–122.
76. Houmy, K., Clarke, L.J., Ashburner, J.E. y Kienzle, J. 2013. Agricultural mechanization in sub-Saharan Africa: Guidelines for preparing a strategy. Integrated Crop Management, 22. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i3349e/i3349e.pdf
77. FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2022.Aprovechar la automatización de la agricultura para transformar los sistemas agroalimentarios. Roma. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/CB9479ES
78. Vemireddy, V. y Choudhary, A. 2021. A systematic review of labor-saving technologies: Implications for women in agriculture. Global Food Security, 29: 100541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100541
79. Caunedo, J. y Kala, N. 2021. Mechanizing agriculture. NBER Working Paper Series No. 29061. Cambridge, MA, EE. UU., National Bureau of Economic Research.
80. Christiaensen, L., Rutledge, Z. y Taylor, J.E. 2021. Viewpoint: The future of work in agrifood. Food Policy, 99: 101963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101963
81. Farnworth, C.R., Bharati, P., Krishna, V.V., Roeven, L. y Badstue, L. 2022. Caste-gender intersectionalities in wheat-growing communities in Madhya Pradesh, India. Gender, Technology and Development, 26(1): 28–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2022.2034096
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Capítulo 4
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8. Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. y Vaz, A. 2013. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. World Development, 52: 71–91.
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10. Quisumbing, A., Gerli, B., Faas, S., Heckert, J., Malapit, H.J., McCarron, C., Meinzen-Dick, R.S. y Paz, F. 2022. Does the UN Joint Program for Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment (JP RWEE) deliver on its empowerment objectives? IFPRI Discussion Paper 2131. Washington, DC: Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136302
11. Baltenweck, I., Achandi, E., Bullock, R., Campbell, Z., Crane, T., Eldermire, E., Gichuki, L. et al. 2021. What can we learn from the literature about livestock interventions and women’s empowerment? ILRI Research Brief 105. Nairobi, Kenya, International Livestock Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/117227
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15. Malapit, H. y Quisumbing, A. 2015. What dimensions of women’s empowerment in agriculture matter for nutrition in Ghana? Food Policy, 52: 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.02.003
16. La única excepción fue en el caso de las niñas de 6 a 23 meses en Ghana, donde el aumento de la puntuación de empoderamiento, el número de decisiones productivas agrícolas y la paridad de género en el hogar se asociaron con dietas menos diversas.
17. Malapit, H., Kadiyala, S., Quisumbing, A., Cunningham, K. y Tyagi, P. 2015. Women’s empowerment mitigates the negative effects of low production diversity on maternal and child nutrition in Nepal. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(8): 1097–1123. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1018904
18. Sraboni, E. y Quisumbing, A. 2018. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and dietary quality across the life course: Evidence from Bangladesh. Food Policy, 81: 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.09.001
19. No incluimos estimaciones de la ingesta de micronutrientes o calorías en las tablas del Anexo, aunque se evalúan en Sraboni y Quisumbing.
20. Quisumbing, A., Sproule, K., Martinez, E.M. y Malapit, H. 2021. Do tradeoffs among dimensions of women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes exist? Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia. Food Policy, 100: 102001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.102001
21. Quisumbing, A., Sproule, K., Martinez, E.M. y Malapit, H. 2021. Do tradeoffs among dimensions of women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes exist? Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia. Food Policy, 100: 102001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.102001
22. Estos resultados deben interpretarse con cautela, ya que un índice de masa corporal más elevado no siempre indica una mejor nutrición.
23. Bonis-Profumo, G., Stacey, N. y Brimblecombe, J. 2021. Measuring women’s empowerment in agriculture, food production, and child and maternal dietary diversity in Timor-Leste. Food Policy, 102: 102102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102102
24. Kassie, M., Fisher, M., Muricho, G. y Diiro, G. 2020. Women’s empowerment boosts the gains in dietary diversity from agricultural technology adoption in rural Kenya. Food Policy, 95: 101957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101957
25. Onah, M.N., Horton, S. y Hoddinott, J. 2021. What empowerment indicators are important for food consumption for women? Evidence from 5 sub-Sahara African countries. PLOS ONE, 16(4): e0250014. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250014
26. Harris-Fry, H., Nur, H., Shankar, B., Zanello, G., Srinivasan, C. y Kadiyala, S. 2020. The impact of gender equity in agriculture on nutritional status, diets, and household food security: A mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 5(3): e002173. https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002173
27. Sraboni, E., Malapit, H., Quisumbing, A. y Ahmed, A.U. 2014. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: What role for food security in Bangladesh? World Development, 61: 11–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.025
28. Holland, C. y Rammohan, A. 2019. Rural women’s empowerment and children’s food and nutrition security in Bangladesh. World Development, 124: 104648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104648
29. Murugani, V.G. y Thamaga-Chitja, J.M. 2019. How does women’s empowerment in agriculture affect household food security and dietary diversity? The case of rural irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Agrekon, 58(3): 308–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2019.1610976
30. Clement, F., Buisson, M.-C., Leder, S., Balasubramanya, S., Saikia, P., Bastakoti, R., Karki, E. y van Koppen, B. 2019. From women’s empowerment to food security: Revisiting global discourses through a cross-country analysis. Global Food Security, 23: 160–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.05.003
31. Seymour, G., Masuda, Y.J., Williams, J. y Schneider, K. 2019. Household and child nutrition outcomes among the time and income poor in rural Bangladesh. Global Food Security, 20: 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.01.004
32. Anik, A.R. y Rahman, S. 2021. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: Level, inequality, progress, and impact on productivity and efficiency. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(6): 930–948. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1817393
33. Diiro, G.M., Seymour, G., Kassie, M., Muricho, G. y Muriithi, B.W. 2018. Women’s empowerment in agriculture and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural maize farmer households in western Kenya. PLOS ONE, 13(5): e0197995. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197995
34. Wouterse, F. 2019. The role of empowerment in agricultural production: Evidence from rural households in Niger. The Journal of Development Studies, 55(4): 565–580. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2017.1408797
35. De Pinto, A., Seymour, G., Bryan, E. y Bhandari, P. 2020. Women’s empowerment and farmland allocations in Bangladesh: Evidence of a possible pathway to crop diversification. Climatic Change, 163(2): 1025–1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02925-w
36. Seymour, G. 2017. Women’s empowerment in agriculture: Implications for technical efficiency in rural Bangladesh. Agricultural Economics, 48(4): 513–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12352
37. Hossain, M., Asadullah, M.N. y Kambhampati, U. 2019. Empowerment and life satisfaction: Evidence from Bangladesh. World Development, 122: 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.013
38. Malapit, H., Sraboni, E., Quisumbing, A.R. y Ahmed, A.U. 2019. Intrahousehold empowerment gaps in agriculture and children’s well-being in Bangladesh. Development Policy Review, 37(2): 176–203. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12374
39. Leight, J., Pedehombga, A., Ganaba, R. y Gelli, A. 2022. Women’s empowerment, maternal depression, and stress: Evidence from rural Burkina Faso. SSM – Mental Health, 2: 100160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100160
40. Scott, S., Arrieta, A., Kumar, N., Menon, P. y Quisumbing, A. 2020. Multidimensional predictors of common mental disorders among Indian mothers of 6- to 24-month-old children living in disadvantaged rural villages with women’s self-help groups: A cross-sectional analysis. PLOS ONE, 15(6), e0233418. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233418
41. Fielding, D. y Lepine, A. 2017. Women’s empowerment and wellbeing: Evidence from Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 53(6): 826–840. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1219345
42. Pyburn, R. y van Eerdewijk, A. 2021. CGIAR research through an equality and empowerment lens. En: R. Pyburn y A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 1–75. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293915_01
43. Doss, C. y Meinzen-Dick, R. 2020. Land tenure security for women: A conceptual framework. Land Use Policy, 99: 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105080
44. Lecoutere, E., Achandi, E.L., Ampaire, E., Fischer, G., Gumucio, T., Najjar, D. y Singaraju, N. 2022. Fostering an enabling environment for equality and empowerment in agrifood systems. Presented at the CGIAR GENDER Science Exchange, Nairobi, 12–14 October 2022. Nairobi, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/125615
46. Farnworth, C.R., Badstue, L., Williams, G.J., Tegbaru, A. y Gaya, H.I.M. 2020. Unequal partners: Associations between power, agency and benefits among women and men maize farmers in Nigeria. Gender, Technology and Development, 24(3): 271–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2020.1794607
47. Leon-Himmelstine, C., Phiona, S., Löwe, A., Plank, G. y Vu, N. 2021. Young women in the agricultural sector in Uganda. Lessons from the Youth Forward Initiative. Report. Londres, the United Kingdom, ODI.
48. Petesch, P. y Badstue, L. 2020. Gender norms and poverty dynamics in 32 villages of South Asia. International Journal of Community Well-Being, 3(3): 289–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42413-019-00047-5
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50. Girls Not Brides y ICRW (International Centre for Research on Women). 2016. Taking action to address child marriage: the role of different sectors – Food Security and Nutrition. Girls Not Brides Briefing Series, Brief #6.
51. Bryant, L. y Garnham, B. 2015. The fallen hero: Masculinity, shame and farmer suicide in Australia. Gender, Place y Culture, 22(1): 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2013.855628
52. Khan, A.R., Ratele, K., Helman, R., Dlamini, S. y Makama, R. 2022. Masculinity and suicide in Bangladesh. OMEGA – Journal of Death and Dying, 86(1): 218–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222820966239
53. Ragonese, C., Shand, T. y Barker, G. 2019. Masculine norms and men’s health: Making the connections. Washington, DC, EE. UU., Promundo-US.
54. OMS (Organización Mundial de la Salud). 2014. Gender, climate change and health. Ginebra, Suiza. https://tinyurl.com/2dao9je9
55. Bergman Lodin, J., Tegbaru, A., Bullock, R., Degrande, A., Nkengla, L.W. y Gaya, H.I. 2019. Gendered mobilities and immobilities: Women’s and men’s capacities for agricultural innovation in Kenya and Nigeria. Gender, Place y Culture, 26(12): 1759–1783. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1618794
56. Locke, C., Muljono, P., McDougall, C. y Morgan, M. 2017. Innovation and gendered negotiations: Insights from six small–scale fishing communities. Fish and Fisheries, 18(5): 943–957.
57. Boudet, A.M.M., Petesch, P. y Turk, C. 2013. On norms and agency: Conversations about gender equality with women and men in 20 countries. Directions in Development: Human Development. Washington, DC, Banco Mundial. https://doi.org/doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-9862-3
58. Badstue, L., Elias, M., Kommerell, V., Petesch, P., Prain, G., Pyburn, R. y Umantseva, A. 2020. Making room for manoeuvre: Addressing gender norms to strengthen the enabling environment for agricultural innovation. Development in Practice, 30(4): 541–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2020.1757624
59. Fischer, G., Wittich, S., Malima, G., Sikumba, G., Lukuyu, B., Ngunga, D. y Rugalabam, J. 2018. Gender and mechanization: Exploring the sustainability of mechanized forage chopping in Tanzania. Journal of Rural Studies, 64: 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.09.012
60. Inglehart, R., C. Haerpfer, A. Moreno, C. Welzel, K. Kizilova, J. Diez-Medrano, M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin y B. Puranen et al. (eds.). 2018. World Values Survey: Round Six – Country-Pooled Datafile. Madrid, España y Viena, Austria: JD Systems Institute y WVSA Secretariat. doi.org/10.14281/18241.8
61. Haerpfer, C., Inglehart, R., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano J., M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin y B. Puranen et al. (eds.). 2020. World Values Survey: Round Seven – Country-Pooled Datafile. Madrid, España y Viena, Austria: JD Systems Institute y WVSA Secretariat. doi.org/10.14281/18241.1
62. Lecoutere, E., Achandi, E.L., Ampaire, E., Fischer, G., Gumucio, T., Najjar, D. y Singaraju, N. 2022. Fostering an enabling environment for equality and empowerment in agrifood systems. Documento de antecedentes para the Report on the Status of Rural Women in Agrifood Systems: 10 Years after the SOFA 2010-11 of FAO. Nairobi, Kenya: CGIAR GENDER Platform.
63. Afrobarometer Data. 2016-17. [Multiple countries; 2016-17] disponible en: https://www.afrobarometer.org.
64. Mkandawire, E., Mentz-Coetzee, M., Mangheni, M.N. y Barusi, E. 2021. Enhancing the Glopan food systems framework by integrating gender: Relevance for women in African agriculture. Sustainability, 13(15): 8564. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158564
65. Wang, J., Ding, X., Gao, H. y Fan, S. 2022. Reshaping food policy and governance to incentivize and empower disadvantaged groups for improving nutrition. Nutrients, 14(3): 648. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14030648
66. Ampaire, E., Acosta, M., Kigonya, R., Kyomugisha, S., Muchunguzi, P. y Jassogne, L.T. 2016. Gender responsive policy formulation and budgeting in Tanzania: Do plans and budgets match? CCAFS Info NOTA. Copenhage, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/78606
67. Aura, R., Nyasimi, M., Cramer, L. y Thornton, P.K. 2017. Gender review of climate change legislative and policy frameworks and strategies in East Africa. CCAFS Working Paper No. 209. Wageningen, the Netherlands, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security.
68. Gumucio, T. y Tafur Rueda, M. 2015. Influencing gender-inclusive climate change policies in Latin America. Journal of Gender, Agriculture and Food Security, 1(2): 41–60. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.246049
69. Banco Mundial. 2022. Women, Business and the Law Panel Data [2012-2022]. En: Banco Mundial. Washington, DC. https://wbl.worldbank.org
70. El índice abarca la movilidad, el lugar de trabajo, el salario, el matrimonio, la paternidad, el espíritu empresarial, los activos y las pensiones.
71. Además de la legislación que prohíbe la discriminación por razón de sexo, existen medidas especiales de carácter temporal que dan preferencia a las mujeres hasta que se alcance la igualdad de facto entre hombres y mujeres. (Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Roma, FAO). Además de la legislación que prohíbe la discriminación por razón de sexo, existen medidas especiales de carácter temporal que dan preferencia a las mujeres hasta que se alcance la igualdad de facto entre hombres y mujeres. GenderLex, un subconjunto de FAOLEX de la FAO que se lanzará próximamente (https://www.fao.org/faolex/en/), pueden facilitar estas evaluaciones sistemáticas. GenderLex contiene cerca de 500 medidas extraídas de 1 500 textos jurídicos y documentos que prevén medidas especiales de carácter temporal en el ámbito de la alimentación, la agricultura y la gestión de los recursos naturales, que abarcan todos los países y regiones del mundo.
72. Kenney, N. 2022. Achieving de facto gender equality in land, forest and fisheries tenure. FAO Legal Papers No. 110. Roma, FAO.
73. FAO. 2016. The Gender in Agricultural Policies Analysis Tool (GAPo). Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i6274en/i6274en.pdf
74. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2021. Gender and national climate planning: Gender integration in the revised Nationally Determined Contributions. Gland, Suiza, IUCN. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49860
75. Ampaire, E., Acosta, M., Huyer, S., Kigonya, R., Muchunguzi, P., Muna, R. y Jassogne, L. 2020. Gender in climate change, agriculture, and natural resource policies: Insights from East Africa. Climatic Change, 158: 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02447-0
76. Howland, F., Acosta, M., Muriel, J. y Le Coq, J.-F. 2021. Examining the barriers to gender integration in agriculture, climate change, food security, and nutrition policies: Guatemalan and Honduran perspectives. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.664253
77. Paudyal, B.R., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Sherpa, L., Kadariya, I. y Aggarwal, P. 2019. Gender integration in climate change and agricultural policies: The case of Nepal. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00066
78. Alston, M. 2021. Gender and disasters. En: T. Väyrynen, S. Parashar, É. Féron y C.C. Confortini, eds. Routledge handbook of feminist peace research, pp. 343–353. Abingdon, Reino Unido, Routledge.
79. Huyer, S., Acosta, M., Gumucio, T. y Ilham, J.I.J. 2020. Can we turn the tide? Confronting gender inequality in climate policy. Gender y Development, 28(3): 571–591. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2020.1836817
80. Huyer, S., Gumucio, T., Tavenner, K., Acosta, M., Chanana, N., Khatri-Chhetri, A., Mungai, C. et al. 2021. From vulnerability to agency in climate adaptation and mitigation. In R. Pyburn y A.H.J.M. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 261–294. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
81. Huyer, S. y Partey, S. 2020. Weathering the storm or storming the norms? Moving gender equality forward in climate-resilient agriculture: Introduction to the Special Issue on Gender Equality in Climate-Smart Agriculture: Approaches and Opportunities. Climatic Change, 158(1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02612-5
82. Acosta, M., van Bommel, S., van Wessel, M., Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. y Feindt, P.H. 2019. Discursive translations of gender mainstreaming norms: The case of agricultural and climate change policies in Uganda. Women’s Studies International Forum, 74: 9–19.
83. Dlamini, C. y Samboko, P. 2016. Towards gender mainstreaming in agricuture, natural resource management and climate change programmes in Zambia. Working Paper No. 108. Lusaka, Zambia, Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute. https://www.iapri.org.zm/images/WorkingPapers/wp108_rev.pdf
84. Bryan, E., Bernier, Q., Espinal, M. y Ringler, C. 2018. Making climate change adaptation programmes in sub-Saharan Africa more gender responsive: Insights from implementing organizations on the barriers and opportunities. Climate and Development, 10(5): 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2017.1301870
85. Ragasa, C., Sun, Y., Bryan, E., Abate, C., Atlaw, A. y Keita, M.N. 2013. Organizational and institutional issues in climate change adaptation and risk management: Insights from practitioners’ survey in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Mali. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1279. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/127758
86. Acosta, M., Wessel, M. van, Bommel, S. van, Ampaire, E., Jassogne, L. y Feindt, P.H. 2020. The power of narratives: Explaining inaction on gender mainstreaming in Uganda’s climate change policy. Development Policy Review, 38(5): 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12458
87. Mersha, A.A. y van Laerhoven, F. 2019. Gender and climate policy: A discursive institutional analysis of Ethiopia’s climate resilient strategy. Regional Environmental Change, 19(2): 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1413-8
88. Mavisakalyan, A. y Tarverdi, Y. 2019. Gender and climate change: Do female parliamentarians make difference? European Journal of Political Economy, 56: 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.001
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90. Pearse, R. 2017. Gender and climate change. WIREs Climate Change, 8(2): e451. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.451
91. Picard, M. 2021. Empowering women in climate, environment and disaster risk governance: From national policy to local action. EGM/ENV/BP.1. Documento de antecedentes creado para la Reunión del Grupo de Expertos de ONU Mujeres sobre "El logro de la igualdad entre los géneros y el empoderamiento de todas las mujeres y las niñas en el contexto de las políticas y programas relativos al cambio climático, el medio ambiente y la reducción del riesgo de desastres" 11 – 14 October 2021. Nueva York, EE. UU., ONU Mujeres. https://tinyurl.com/24gkse79
92. WEDO (Women’s Environment y Development Organization). 2022. Women’s participation in the UNFCCC: 2022 report. Brooklyn, NY, EE. UU., WEDO. https://tinyurl.com/2799vgn3
93. Resurrección, B.P. 2013. Persistent women and environment linkages in climate change and sustainable development agendas. Women’s Studies International Forum, 40: 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.03.011
Capítulo 5
1. Quisumbing, A., Meinzen-Dick, R., Behrman, J. y Basset, L. 2011. Gender and the global food-price crisis. Development in Practice, 21(4–5): 488–492. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2011.561283
2. FAO. 2021. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2021: Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4476en
3. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2022. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, Reino Unido and Nueva York, NY, EE. UU., Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844
4. Sultana, F. 2021. Climate change, COVID–19, and the co-production of injustices: A feminist reading of overlapping crises. Social y Cultural Geography, 22(4): 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2021.1910994
5. Koo, J., Azzarri, C., Mishra, A., Lecoutere, E., Puskur, R., Chanana, N., Singaraju, N., Nico, G. y Khatri-Chhetri, A. 2022. Effectively targeting climate investments: A methodology for mapping climate–agriculture–gender inequality hotspots. Working Paper. Plataforma de género del CGIAR. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/119602
6. Hallegatte, S., Fay, M. y Barbier. E.M. 2018. Poverty and climate change: Introduction. Environment and Development Economics, 23(3): 217–233.
7. Dennig F., Budolfson, M.B., Fleurbaey, M., Siebert, A. y Socolow, R.H. 2015. Inequality, climate impacts on the future poor, and carbon prices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112: 15827–15832.
8. Olsson, L., Opondo, M., Tschakert, P., Agrawal, A., Eriksen, S.H., Ma, S., Perch, L.N. y Zakieldeen, S.A. 2014. Livelihoods and poverty. En: C.B. Field, V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee et al., eds. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Part A: Global and sectoral aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 793–832. Cambridge, Reino Unido, Cambridge University Press.
9. Koubi, V. 2019. Climate change and conflict. Annual Review of Political Science, 22: 343–360.
10. Sharifi, A., Simangan, D., Lee, C.Y., Reyes, S.R., Katramiz, T., Josol, J.C., Dos Muchangos, L. et al. 2021. Climate-induced stressors to peace: A review of recent literature. Environmental Research Letters, 16 (7): 073006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abfc08
11. Thomas, D., Beegle, K. y Frankenberg, E. 2000. Labor market transitions of men and women during an economic crisis: Evidence from Indonesia. Santa Monica, CA, EE. UU., RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/drafts/DRU2344.html
12. El estudio analiza datos sobre Argentina, Indonesia, Malasia, México, República de Corea, Tailandia y Turquía. El empleo agrícola aumentó en todos los países excepto en Malasia y México.
13. Sabarwal, S., Sinha, N. y Buvinic, M. 2013. How do women weather economic shocks? A review of the evidence. Policy Research Working Papers. Washington, DC, Banco Mundial. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5496
14. Fallon, P.R. y Lucas, R.E. 2002. The impact of financial crises on labor markets, household incomes, and poverty: A review of evidence. Washington, DC, Banco Mundial.
15. Las estimaciones se basan en los mismos datos sobre el empleo femenino y masculino en los sistemas agroalimentarios que se presentan en el Capítulo 2.
16. McDermott, J. y Swinnen, J. 2022. COVID–19 and global food security: Two years later. Washington, DC, Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896294226
17. Ceballos, F., Kannan, S. y Kramer, B. 2020. Impacts of a national lockdown on smallholder farmers’ income and food security: Empirical evidence from two states in India. World Development, 136: 105069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105069
18. En el momento de redactar este informe no se disponía de datos de todos los países para 2021, por lo que se utilizan datos hasta 2020.
19. Flor, L.S., Friedman, J., Spencer, C.N., Cagney, J., Arrieta, A., Herbert, M.E., Stein, C. et al. 2022. Quantifying the effects of the COVID–19 pandemic on gender equality on health, social, and economic indicators: A comprehensive review of data from March, 2020, to September, 2021. The Lancet, 399 (10344): 2381–2397. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00008-3
20. Organización Internacional del Trabajo. 2021. Building forward fairer: Women’s rights to work and at work at the core of the COVID–19 recovery. OIT Policy Brief. Ginebra, Suiza.
21. Bundervoet, T., Dávalos, M.E. y Garcia, N. 2022. The short-term impacts of COVID–19 on households in developing countries: An overview based on a harmonized dataset of high-frequency surveys. World Development, 153: 105844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105844
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Capítulo 6
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37. Buehren, N., Goldstein, M., Molina, E. y Vaillant, J. 2019. The impact of strengthening agricultural extension services on women farmers: Evidence from Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 50(4): 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12499
38. Vasilaky, K.N. y Leonard, K.L. 2018. As good as the networks they keep? Improving outcomes through weak ties in rural Uganda. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 66(4): 755–792. https://doi.org/10.1086/697430
39. Ubfal, D. 2023. What works in supporting women-led businesses. Banco Mundial Group Gender Thematic NOTAs Series. Washington, DC, EE. UU., World Bank Group.
40. Campos, F., Frese, M., Goldstein, M., Iacovone, L., Johnson, H.C., McKenzie, D. y Mensmann, M. 2017. Teaching personal initiative beats traditional training in boosting small business in West Africa. Science, 357(6357): 1287–1290. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan5329
41. Ubfal, D., Arraiz, I., Beuermann, D.W., Frese, M., Maffioli, A. y Verch, D. 2022. The impact of soft-skills training for entrepreneurs in Jamaica. World Development, 152: 105787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105787
42. Bulte, E., Lensink, R. y Vu, N. 2017. Do gender and business trainings affect business outcomes? Experimental evidence from Vietnam. Management Science, 63(9): 2885–2902. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2016.2472
43. McKenzie, D. y Puerto, S. 2021. Growing markets through business training for female entrepreneurs: A market-level randomized experiment in Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 13(2): 297-332.
44. Bezabih, M., Holden, S. y Mannberg, A. 2016. The role of land certification in reducing gaps in productivity between male- and female-owned farms in rural Ethiopia. The Journal of Development Studies, 52(3): 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1081175
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48. Mayanja, S., Mudege, N., Snyder, K. A., Kwikiriza, N., Munda, E., Achora, J. y Grant, F. 2022. Commercialisation of the sweetpotato value chain: Impacts on women producers in Mozambique. Outlook on Agriculture, 51(3): 349-358.
49. Shackleton, S., Paumgarten, F., Kassa, H., Husselman, M. y Zida, M. 2011. Opportunities for enhancing poor women’s socio-economic empowerment in the value chains of three African non- timber forest products (NTFPs). International Forestry Review, 13(2): 136-151.
50. Theis, S., Lefore, N., Meinzen-Dick, R. y Bryan, E. 2018. What happens after technology adoption? Gendered aspects of small-scale irrigation technologies in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(3): 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9862-8
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170. El Comité de Asistencia para el Desarrollo de la OCDE plantea tres marcadores de la intencionalidad de género: Principal: la igualdad de género es el principal objetivo del proyecto, es un elemento fundamental en su diseño y es un resultado esperado. Significativo: la igualdad de género es un objetivo importante y deliberado, pero no constituye la razón principal para llevar a cabo el proyecto; y No orientado: el proyecto se ha sometido a examen, concluyéndose que no está orientado a la igualdad de género.
171. Los datos de las instituciones multilaterales no están desglosados por sector.
172. Más del 80 % de los 570 millones de explotaciones agrícolas del mundo son pequeñas explotaciones de menos de 2 hectáreas. (Lowder, S.K., Sánchez, M.V. y Bertini, R. 2021. Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142: 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455) y estos son los tipos de hogares a los que se dirigen las inversiones del Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola. Suponemos que se llega a la mitad de los pequeños agricultores mediante intervenciones que integran la perspectiva de género y a la otra mitad mediante intervenciones que tratan el género como algo fundamental.
Glosario
1. Las definiciones se han retomado o adaptado de la FAO, el Glosario de igualdad de género del sitio de aprendizaje electrónico del Centro de Capacitación de ONU-Mujeres y el glosario de términos de los documentos de antecedentes de la plataforma GENDER Impact del CGIAR preparados para este informe (salvo que se indique otra cosa).
2. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resource, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
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Anexo 1
1. Organización Internacional del Trabajo. 2023. ILOSTAT. En: Organización Internacional del Trabajo. Cited 25 January 2023. https://ilostat.OIT.org/
2. Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. FAO Statistics Working Paper Series, No. 23–34. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4337en
Anexo 4
1. Cavatassi, R., Mabiso, A. y Brueckmann, P. 2019. Impact assessment report: Republic of Indonesia, Coastal Community Development Project. Roma, Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola . https://tinyurl.com/2p8zn2f
2. FIDA. 2022. IFAD11 impact assessment report. Roma. https://tinyurl.com/5y5px5ak
3. El tamaño medio de los efectos de los metaanálisis se valida estimando los efectos a partir de los datos acumulados de los hogares. El FIDA repite los análisis combinando todos los datos individuales de evaluación de los efectos a nivel micro y realizando un análisis de datos acumulados, que verifica las características no observadas en el ámbito nacional y del proyecto que puedan influir en los efectos. Los datos, programas y otros detalles de los cálculos suficientes para permitir la repetición, junto con sus revisiones, se codifican y se mantienen en el anonimato (Arslan A. y Cavatassi, R. 2022. IFAD's methods for impact assessments, a summary note, FIDA, Roma).
4. Para ello se utiliza la facultad decisoria sobre los ingresos y los recursos atribuida a las mujeres de manera exclusiva o conjuntamente con los hombres. Se considera que los proyectos en los que el valor de esta variable iguala al menos el valor medio agregado empoderan a las mujeres, a diferencia de los demás proyectos.