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Глава 2
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37. По данным из многих источников, сельские женщины составляют две трети от общемирового числа малоимущих скотоводов (600 млн человек). Возможно, эти данные соответствуют действительности, но их происхождение неясно – это, в частности, отмечается в публикации MacVicar, I. 2020. Women livestock keepers. Fact Check 9. Livestock Data for Decisions. Edinburgh, UK, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/37437
38. В этой главе мы рассматриваем гендерное неравенство в занятости в секторе, а в главе 3 затронем гендерные вопросы владения скотом и прав на него.
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49. При подготовке этого раздела использовались материалы публикации ФАО. 2022. Состояние мирового рыболовства и аквакультуры – 2022. На пути к "голубой" трансформации. Рим. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/ru/c/cc0461ru
50. FAO, Duke University & WorldFish, цитируется по ФАО. 2022. Состояние мирового рыболовства и аквакультуры – 2022. На пути к "голубой" трансформации. Рим, ФАО. https://www.fao.org/publications/sofia/2022/ru/
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94. Koolwal, G. & Van de Walle, D. 2013. Access to water, women’s work, and child outcomes. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61(2): 369–405.
95. Hemson, D. 2007. ‘The toughest of chores’: policy and practice in children collecting water in South Africa. Policy Futures in Education, 5(3): 315–326.
96. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. & Foster, W. (готовится к публикации). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
97. Piedrahita, N., Costa, V. & Mane, E. (готовится к публикации). Gender gap in agricultural labour productivity: A cross country comparison. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
98. Benali, M., Slavchevska, V., Davis, B., Piedrahita, N., Sitko, N., Nico, G. & Azzari, C. (готовится к публикации). Gender pay gaps among agriculture and non-agriculture wage workers: a cross-country examination. Background paper for The status of women in agrifood systems, 2023. Rome, FAO.
99. Ricciardi, V., Mehrabi, Z., Wittman, H., James, D. & Ramankutty, N. 2021. Higher yields and more biodiversity on smaller farms. Natur. Sustainability, 4(7): 651–657. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00699-2
100. Hicks, J.H., Kleemans, M., Li, N.Y. & Miguel, E. 2017. Reevaluating agricultural productivity gaps with longitudinal microdata. NBER Working Paper 23253. Cambridge, MA, USA, National Bureau of Economic Research
101. McCullough, E.B. 2017. Labor productivity and employment gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy, 67: 133–152.
102. de Janvry, A., Duquennois, C. & Sadoulet, E. 2022. Labor calendars and rural poverty: A case study for Malawi. Food Policy, 109: 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2022.102255
103. Briones, R.M. 2019. The wage gap between male and female agricultural workers. См.: Outside looking in: Gendered perspectives in work and education, pp. 109–136. Quezon City, Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies. https://tinyurl.com/2mdr6ofb
104. В связи с нехваткой данных авторы исследовали оплачиваемую занятость во всех несельскохозяйственных секторах, в том числе за пределами агропродовольственной системы.
105. Fisher, M., Lewin, P.A. & Pilgeram, R. 2021. Farmworkers and the gender wage gap: An empirical analysis of wage inequality in US agriculture. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(4): 2145–2163. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13202
106. Hertz, T., Winters, P., De La O, A.P., Quinones, E.J, Davis, B. & Zezza, A. 2008. Wage inequality in international perspective: Effects of location, sector, and gender. ESA Working Paper No. 08–08. Rome, Agricultural Development Economics Division, FAO.
Глава 3
1. Kosec, K., Hidrobo, M., Gartaula, H., Van Campenhout, B. & Carrillo, L. 2023. Making complementary agricultural resources, technologies, and services more gender-responsive. Background paper for The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems report, 2023. Nairobi, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://gender.cgiar.org/SWAFS-2023.
2. Doss, C. & Mika, H. 2021. This land is her land: A comparative analysis of gender, institutions, and landownership. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2089. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134943
3. United Nations Children’s Fund. 2023. Girls’ education: Gender equality in education benefits every child. См.: UNICEF. New York, USA. По состоянию на 1 февраля 2023 года. https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education
4. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report - Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https://tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
5. Рисунок 5. UNESCO. 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report – Gender Report: A new generation: 25 years of efforts for gender equality in education. Paris. https:// tinyurl.com/25jrt7o7
6. ФАО. 2012. Добровольные руководящие принципы ответственного регулирования вопросов владения и пользования земельными, рыбными и лесными ресурсами в контексте национальной продовольственной безопасности. Рим. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/ru?details=59ca18b6-1ec1-522c-a6ea-48d11b5e9c0e
7. При подготовке этого раздела преимущественно использовались страновые доклады по показателям 5.a.1 и 5.a.2 ЦУР, достижение которых курирует ФАО.
8. Представленная в данном разделе информация основана на страновых докладах по показателю 5.a.2 ЦУР. Поскольку в страновых докладах представлено лишь одно значение наблюдений с точки зрения динамики, сведения об изменениях законов с момента публикации доклада "Положение дел в области продовольствия и сельского хозяйства" 2010–2011 годов были взяты из дополнительных общедоступных источников, касающихся законов и правовых реформ за периоды до 2010 года и после представления страновых докладов.
9. Можно выделить различные режимы собственности супругов: i) раздельная собственность: все виды имущества, приобретенные до или после вступления в брак, остаются в раздельной собственности; ii) частично общая собственность: имущество, приобретенное в браке, переходит в общую собственность, но имущество, приобретенное до брака и полученное по наследству, остается в раздельной собственности; iii) исключительно общая собственность: все имущество, приобретенное до или после вступления в брак, переходит в общую собственность; и iv) отложенный режим частичной или полной совместной собственности: имущество, приобретенное мужем или женой до или после вступления в брак, полностью или частично остается в собственности приобретающей стороны, но при расторжении брака имущество делится (Almodóvar-Reteguis, N., Kushnir, K. & Meilland, T. 2011. Mapping the legal gender gap in using property and building credit. Women, Business and the Law Topic Note. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://tinyurl.com/48s6w3e8). Данные по показателю 5.a.2 ЦУР показывают, что в большинстве стран принят один основной режим брака, но есть и ряд стран, где предусмотрено несколько дополнительных режимов или же последствия вступления в брак не регулируются. Нередко режим супружеской собственности, принятый по умолчанию, пересекается с другими режимами, относящимися к приобретению земли или имущества, например устанавливаемыми обычным правом или религиозными законами.
10. В число исключений входят: Кения, Закон Кении об имуществе супругов 2013 года, Закон о браке 2014 года) и Габон, Закон № 004/2021 от 15.09.2021 "О внесении изменений в отдельные положения Гражданского кодекса" (2021).
11. Интересными примерами представляются Мали и Сенегал, где преимущественно действуют равные права наследования для женщин и мужчин, если только человек не принимает прямого решения придерживаться режима, установленного обычным правом или мусульманскими законами, в соответствии с которым равенство не признается (это соответственно Мали, Закон № 2011–087 "О Кодексе личного и семейного права" (2011), и Сенегал, Закон № 72–61 "О семейном Кодексе" (1972).
12. Кения. Закон о регистрации земли, гл. 300, 2012.
13. Боливия (Многонациональное Государство). Закон № 3545, вносящий изменения в Закон № 1715 "О национальной службе по проведению аграрной реформы" 2006 года.
14. Доминиканская Республика. Закон № 55 от 1997 года, вносящий изменения в Закон № 5.879 от 1962 года "Об аграрной реформе".
15. Непал. Финансовые законы 2020 года для следующих провинций: 1, 2, Багмати, Гандаки, Лумбини, Карнали и Судур Пашчим.
16. Таиланд. Регламент Департамента земель о регистрации подписи супруга и раздела права собственности на землю и другое недвижимое имущество между супругами, B.E. 2553, 2010.
17. Последний пример – Сьерра-Леоне, где важные реформы были проведены в 2022 году (Сьерра-Леоне. Закон об обычных земельных правах 2022 года. Сьерра-Леоне. Закон о Национальной земельной комиссии 2022 года. Сьерра-Леоне. Закон о гендерном равенстве и расширении прав и возможностей женщин 2022 года). Информация об этих реформах еще не вошла в состав данных, представленных в настоящей публикации.
18. Общая рекомендация № 25 по пункту 1 Статьи 4 Конвенции о ликвидации всех форм дискриминации в отношении женщин предусматривает использование временных специальных мер (ВСМ) как механизма ликвидации гендерного неравенства и ускорения прогресса в достижении фактического равенства между мужчинами и женщинами. В число ВСМ, или, как их часто называют, "позитивных действий", или "мер позитивной дискриминации", входят законодательные, исполнительные, административные и нормативные инструменты, а также (пере)распределение ресурсов, преференциальный режим и системы квот (п. 22). Комитет ООН по ликвидации дискриминации в отношении женщин (КЛДОЖ), Общая рекомендация № 25 по пункту 1 Статьи 4 Конвенции о ликвидации всех форм дискриминации в отношении женщин о временных специальных мерах, 2004 год. https://www.un.org/ru/documents/decl_conv/conventions/cedaw_handbook/cedaw_rec25.pdf.
19. Bayisenge, J., Höjer, S. & Espling, M. 2015. Women’s land rights in the context of the land tenure reform in Rwanda - the experiences of policy implementers. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 9(1): 74–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2014.985496
20. Deininger, K., Goyal, A. & Nagarajan, H. 2013. Women’s inheritance rights and intergenerational transmission of resources in India. Journal of Human Resources, 48(1): 114–141.
21. Gaddis, I., Lahoti, R. & Swaminathan, H. 2022. Women’s legal rights and gender gaps in property ownership in developing countries. Population and Development Review, 48(2): 331–377. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12493
22. Этот вывод основан на анализе выборки из 28 стран, в отношении которых есть информация о числе законодательных мер по защите прав женщин (на основе данных по показателю 5.a.2 ЦУР) и расчетные данные о гендерном разрыве в праве собственности на землю среди населения, занимающегося сельским хозяйством (выраженном как доля мужчин-землевладельцев).
23. Prindex. 2020. Women’s perceptions of tenure security: Evidence from 140 countries. London. https://prindex.net/reports/womens-perceptions-tenure-security-evidence-140-countries/. В ходе обследований Prindex, проведенных в 140 странах мира, женщин и мужчин просили представить себе, насколько вероятно или насколько маловероятно, что они против своей воли утратят право на все свое имущество или его часть в ближайшие пять лет. Женщин и мужчин, состоящих в браке, также спрашивали, опасаются ли они потерять имущество в случае развода или смерти супруга. Во всех странах эти вопросы задавались в отношении основного имущества, которым является дом, и другого имущества. Представленный в этой публикации анализ был выполнен на основе данных по подвыборке из 70 стран со средним и низким уровнем дохода и на ответах, имеющих отношение к сельскому хозяйству.
24. В ходе обследования Prindex люди отвечают на различные вопросы, касающиеся доступа к воде и наличия воды для выполнения конкретных бытовых задач. В нем отсутствуют вопросы о доступе к воде для производственных целей, а также о том, кто в домохозяйстве отвечает за домашние дела или за сбор воды (Northwestern University. Без даты. The HWISE scale. Evanston, IL, USA. https://doi.org/10.21985/n2-1g6s-6a43).
25. Young, S.L., Bethancourt, H.J., Ritter, Z.R. & Frongillo, E.A. 2022. Estimating national, demographic, and socioeconomic disparities in water insecurity experiences in low-income and middle-income countries in 2020–21: A cross-sectional, observational study using nationally representative survey data. The Lancet Planetary Health, 6(11): e880-e891. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00241-8
26. Wutich, A. 2009. Intrahousehold disparities in women and men’s experiences of water insecurity and emotional distress in urban Bolivia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 23(4): 436–454.
27. Pearson, A.L., Mack, E.A., Ross, A., Marcantonio, R., Zimmer, A., Bunting, E.L., Smith, A.C. et al. 2021. Interpersonal conflict over water is associated with household demographics, domains of water insecurity, and regional conflict: Evidence from nine sites across eight sub-Saharan African countries. Water, 13(9): 1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091150
28. Clement, F. & Nicol, A. 2019. Gender, poverty and politics along the real-virtual water spectrum. См.: T. Allan, B. Bromwich, M. Keulertz & A. Colman, eds. The Oxford handbook of food, water and society, pp. 250–267. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190669799.013.63
29. Joshi, D., Monterroso, I., Gallant, B., Perera, K. & Peveri, V. 2021. A gender–natural resources tango: Water, land, and forest research. См.: R. Pyburn & A. van Eerdewijk, eds. Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future, pp. 221–258. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.
30. Nauges, C. & Strand, J. 2013. Water hauling and girls’ school attendance. Some new evidence from Ghana. Policy Research Working Paper 6443. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6443
31. van Houweling, E., Hall, R.P., Diop, A.S., Davis, J. & Seiss, M. 2012. The role of productive water use in women’s livelihoods: evidence from rural Senegal. Water Alternatives, 5(3): 658–677.
32. Caruso, B.A., Conrad, A., Patrick, M., Owens, A., Kviten, K., Zarella, O., Rogers, H. & Sinharoy, S.S. 2022. Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis. PLOS Water, 1(6): e0000026. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000026
33. Mekonnen, D.K., Choufani, J., Bryan, E., Haile, B. & Ringler, C. 2022. Irrigation improves weight-for-height z-scores of children under five, and women’s and household dietary diversity scores in Ethiopia and Tanzania. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 18(4): e13395. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.13395
34. Mitra, A. & Rao, N. 2019. Gender, water, and nutrition in India: An intersectional perspective. Water Alternatives, 12(1): 169–191.
35. Doss, C. & Meinzen-Dick, R. 2020. Land tenure security for women: A conceptual framework. Land Use Policy, 99: 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105080
36. Meinzen-Dick, R. & Zwarteveen, M. 1998. Gendered participation in water management: Issues and illustrations from water users‘ associations in South Asia. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 337345. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007533018254
37. Theis, S., Bryan, E. & Ringler, C. 2019. Addressing gender and social dynamics to strengthen resilience for all. См.: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick & J. Njuki, eds. 2019 Annual trends and outlook report: Gender equality in rural Africa: From commitments to outcomes, pp. 126–139. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/9780896293649_09
38. van Koppen, B. 1998. Water rights, gender, and poverty alleviation. Inclusion and exclusion of women and men smallholders in public irrigation infrastructure development. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4): 361–374. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007537119163
39. UN Women & United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2021. Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals. The Gender and Snapshot 2021. New York, USA, UN Women.
40. Anríquez, G., Quiñonez, F. & Foster, W. (готовится к публикации). Levelling the farm fields, A cross-country study of the determinants of gender-based yield gaps. Background paper for The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems report, 2023. Rome, FAO.
41. Ограничения, связанные с тем, что основное внимание в ходе обследований уделяется главам домохозяйств, широко обсуждаются в литературе (см. также врезку 2.10 в главе 2). Для получения приведенных в этой главе данных в динамике, свидетельствующих об изменении положения с доступом к ресурсам всех групп женщин в агропродовольственных системах, мы использовали все источники информации – как на индивидуальном уровне, так и на уровне домохозяйств.
42. Njuki, J., Waithanji, E., Sakwa, B., Kariuki, J., Mukewa, E. & Ngige, J. 2014. A qualitative assessment of gender and irrigation technology in Kenya and Tanzania. Gender, Technology and Development, 18(3): 303–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852414544010
43. Kulkarni, S. 2012. Redefining irrigation as if gender mattered. IWMI-Tata Water Policy Research Highlight, 14. Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.
44. Dickin, S., Segnestam, L. & Sou Dakouré, M. 2021. Women’s vulnerability to climate-related risks to household water security in Centre-East, Burkina Faso. Climate and Development, 13(5): 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2020.1790335
45. Horbulyk, T. & Balasubramanya, S. 2018. Impact of water users associations on water and land productivity, equity and food security in Tajikistan. Final report, Volume 1. Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute.
46. Sugden, F., Maskey, N., Clement, F., Ramesh, V., Philip, A. & Rai, A. 2014. Agrarian stress and climate change in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: Gendered vulnerability in a stratified social formation. Global Environmental Change, 29: 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.008
47. Kristjanson, P., Waters-Bayer, A., Johnson, N., Tipilda, A., Njuki, J., Baltenweck, I., Grace, D. & MacMillan, S. 2014. Livestock and women’s livelihoods. См.: A.R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T.L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J.A. Behrman & A. Peterman, eds. Gender in agriculture: Closing the knowledge gap, pp. 209–233. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_9
48. Acosta, A., Nicolli, F. & Karfakis, P. 2021. Coping with climate shocks: The complex role of livestock portfolios. World Development, 146: 105546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105546
49. McKune, S.L., Borresen, E.C., Young, A.G., Auria Ryley, T.D., Russo, S.L., Diao Camara, A., Coleman, M. & Ryan, E.P. 2015. Climate change through a gendered lens: Examining livestock holder food security. Global Food Security, 6: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2015.05.001
50. Bain, C., Ransom, E. & Halimatusa’diyah, I. 2020. Dairy livestock interventions for food security in Uganda: What are the implications for women’s empowerment? Rural Sociology, 85(4): 991–1020.
51. Galiè, A., Teufel, N., Girard, A.W., Baltenweck, I., Dominguez-Salas, P., Price, M.J., Jones, R. et al. 2019. Women’s empowerment, food security and nutrition of pastoral communities in Tanzania. Global Food Security, 23: 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.04.005
52. Gitungwa, H., Gustafson, C.R., Jimenez, E.Y., Peterson, E.W., Mwanzalila, M., Makweta, A., Komba, E., Kazwala, R.R., Mazet, J.A.K. & VanWormer, E. 2021. Female and male-controlled livestock holdings impact pastoralist food security and women’s dietary diversity. One Health Outlook, 3(1): 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42522-020-00032-5
53. Tropical livestock units are the number of different species of livestock converted into a common unit using standard conversion factors (see Table 6 in Ahmed, M.H. & Mesfin, H.M. 2017. The impact of agricultural cooperatives membership on the wellbeing of smallholder farmers: empirical evidence from eastern Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 5: 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-017-0075-z
54. Сравнение с наблюдаемыми результатами на уровне домохозяйств ограничено ввиду недостаточного объема данных в наличии.
55. World Bank. 2023. Generating relevant data for policy makers and the research community. См.: The World Bank. Washington, DC. По состоянию на 4 февраля 2023 года. https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/collections/lsms
56. Такие выводы показывают, почему следует по возможности перейти от сбора данных в разбивке по полу главы домохозяйства к сбору данных на индивидуальном уровне. В массивы данных с разбивкой по полу главы домохозяйства часто попадает информация о более неблагополучных домохозяйствах, возглавляемых женщинами (например, вдовами).
57. Elias, M., Zaremba, H., Tavenner, K., Ragasa, C., Paez Valencia, A.M., Choudhury, A. & de Haan, N. 2023. Beyond crops: Towards gender equality in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock development. Background paper for The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems report, 2023. Nairobi, CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/129708
58. Dumas, S.E., Maranga, A., Mbullo, P., Collins, S., Wekesa, P., Onono, M. & Young, S.L. 2018. “Men are in front at eating time, but not when it comes to rearing the chicken”: Unpacking the gendered benefits and costs of livestock ownership in Kenya. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 39(1): 3–27.
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16. The only exception was for girls aged 6–23 months in Ghana, where increased empowerment score, number of agricultural productive decisions and household gender parity were associated with less diverse diets.
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19. We do not include estimates of micronutrient or calorie intake in the annex tables although these are assessed in Sraboni & Quisumbing (2018).
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22. Эти результаты следует интерпретировать с осторожностью, поскольку более высокий индекс массы тела не всегда свидетельствует об улучшении качества питания.
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Глава 5
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170. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Development Assistance Committee offers three markers of gender intention: Principal: Gender equality is the main objective of the project and is fundamental is its design and expected results; Significant: Gender equality is an important and deliberate objective but is not the principal reason for undertaking the project; and Not targeted: The project has been screened but has not been found to target gender equality.
171. Data for multilateral institutions is not disaggregated by sector.
172. Over 80 percent of the estimated 570 million farms worldwide are smallholder farms of less than 2 hectares (Lowder, S.K., Sánchez, M.V. & Bertini, R. 2021. Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142: 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455) and these are the types of households that investments by the International Fund for Agricultural Development target. We assume that half of smallholders are reached by gender mainstreaming interventions and the other half are reached by interventions treating gender as fundamental.
Глоссарий
1. Definitions were retrieved and/or adapted from FAO, the UN Women Training Centre eLearning Campus Gender Equality Glossary, and the Glossary of Terms from the CGIAR GENDER platform Background Papers prepared for this report (unless otherwise noted).
2. Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3): 435–464.
3. FAO, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) & World Food Programme (WFP). 2022. Guide to formulating gendered social norms indicators in the context of food security and nutrition. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0673en
Приложение 1
1. International Labour Organization. 2023. ILOSTAT. См.: International Labour Organization. По состоянию на 25 января 2023 года. https://ilostat.ilo.org/
2. Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. FAO Statistics Working Paper Series, No. 23–34. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc4337en
Приложение 4
1. Cavatassi, R., Mabiso, A. & Brueckmann, P. 2019. Impact assessment report: Republic of Indonesia, Coastal Community Development Project. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development. https://tinyurl.com/2p8zn2f
2. IFAD. 2022. IFAD11 impact assessment report. Rome. https://tinyurl.com/5y5px5ak
3. The mean effect sizes from the meta-analyses are validated by estimating impacts using the pooled household-level data. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) re-runs analyses by combining all individual micro-level impact assessment data together and running a pooled data analysis, which controls for country-/project-level unobserved characteristics that may influence impacts. The data, programmes, and other details of the computations sufficient to permit replication along with their revisions are encrypted and anonymized (Arslan A. & Cavatassi, R. 2022. IFAD’s methods for impact assessments, a summary note, IFAD, Rome).
4. This is done using decision-making power over income and/or resources attributed to women only or jointly with men. Projects whose value of this variable is at least equal to the aggregated mean value are considered to empower women, as opposed to the rest of the projects.