CHAPITRE 2

1 FAO (Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture). 2024. FAOSTAT: Données de la sécurité alimentaire. [Consulté le 7 mai 2025]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/fr/#data/FS. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

2 DESA (Département des affaires économiques et sociales des Nations Unies). 2024. World Population Prospects 2024. Dans: ONU. [Consulté le 7 mai 2025]. https://population.un.org/wpp

3 FAO. 2025. Perspectives de l ’alimentation. Dans: SMIAR – Système mondial d’information et d’alerte rapide sur l’alimentation et l’agriculture. [Consulté le 7 mai 2025]. https://www.fao.org/giews/reports/food-outlook/fr

4 Réseau d’information sur la sécurité alimentaire et Réseau mondial contre les crises alimentaires. 2025. Global Report on Food Crises 2025. Rome. https://www.fsinplatform.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/GRFC2025-full.pdf

5 IPC (Cadre intégré de classification de la sécurité alimentaire). 2025. Dans: IPC. [Consulté le 9 juin 2025]. https://www.ipcinfo.org

6 IPC Global Partners. 2021. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification Technical Manual Version 3.1. Evidence and Standards for Better Food Security and Nutrition Decisions. Rome. https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/manual/IPC_Technical_Manual_3_Final.pdf

7 FMI (Fonds monétaire international). 2025. World Economic Outlook, April 2025: a critical juncture amid policy shifts. Washington. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2025/04/22/world-economic-outlook-april-2025

8 Commission européenne, EUROSTAT (Office statistique de l’Union européenne). 2021. Applying the degree of urbanisation: a methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons – 2021 edition. Luxembourg, Office des publications de l’Union européenne. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2785/706535

9 FAO et OMS (Organisation mondiale de la Santé). 2019. Régimes alimentaires sains et durables – Principes directeurs. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca6640fr

10 FAO et OMS. 2024. What are healthy diets? Joint statement by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization. Genève (Suisse), OMS. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/379324

11 Verger, E. O., Savy, M., Martin-Prével, Y., Coates, J., Frongillo, E., Neufeld, L., Saha, K. et al. 2023. Healthy diet metrics: A suitability assessment of indicators for global and national monitoring purposes. Genève (Suisse), OMS. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240072138

12 Banque mondiale. 2024. Investment Framework for Nutrition 2024. Washington. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/185f9382-722f-449c-8f92-aa976bba26cc/content

13 Horton, S. et Hoddinott, J. 2018. Benefits and Costs of the Food and Nutrition Targets for the Post-2015 Development Agenda. Dans: B. Lomborg (dir. pub.) Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, p. 367-374. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108233767.022

14 Victora, C. G., Adair, L., Fall, C., Hallal, P. C., Martorell, R., Richter, L. et Sachdev, H. S. 2008. Maternal and child undernutrition: consequences for adult health and human capital. The Lancet, 371(9609): 340-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61692-4

15 Black, R. E., Alderman, H., Bhutta, Z. A., Gillespie, S., Haddad, L., Horton, S., Lartey, A. et al. 2013. Maternal and child nutrition: building momentum for impact. The Lancet, 382 (9890): 372-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60988-5

16 Horton, R. 2008. Maternal and child undernutrition: an urgent opportunity. The Lancet, 371(9608): 179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61869-8

17 Thomas, B. 2022. From Evidence to Action: Uniting Around Nutrition in the 1000-Day Window. American Journal of Public Health, 112(S8): S754-S756. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.307063

18 Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU). 2025. Mise en œuvre des activités relevant de la Décennie d’action des Nations Unies pour la nutrition (2016-2025). A/79/L.66. New York (États-Unis). https://docs.un.org/fr/A/79/L.66

19 OMS et UNICEF (Fonds des Nations Unies pour l’enfance). 2019. WHO/UNICEF discussion paper: The extension of the 2025 maternal, infant and young child nutrition targets to 2030. New York (États-Unis), UNICEF. https://data.unicef.org/resources/who-unicef-discussion-paper-nutrition-targets

20 OMS. 2013. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020. Genève (Suisse). https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241506236

21 OMS. 2025. Prolongation du Plan d’application exhaustif concernant la nutrition chez la mère, le nourrisson et le jeune enfant. Projet de décision proposé par l’Afrique du Sud, l’Albanie, le Bangladesh, le Brésil, l’Éthiopie, la Géorgie, le Ghana, la Hongrie, l’Irlande, la Jamaïque, le Japon, le Lesotho, la Micronésie (États fédérés de), la Namibie, le Pakistan, le Paraguay, le Pérou, la République-Unie de Tanzanie, la Roumanie, le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord, Samoa, l’Ukraine et le Vanuatu. Conseil exécutif 156e session EB156/CONF./20. https://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf_files/EB156/B156_CONF20-fr.pdf

22 ONU. 2025. Groupe de la coordination interinstitutions en matière d’environnement - objectifs de développement durable – 2025 Processus d’examen approfondi. Dans: Sustainable Development Goals. [Consulté le 8 mai 2025]. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/iaeg-sdgs/2025-comprehensive-review

23 OMS et UNICEF. 2021. Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: Definitions and measurement methods. Genève (Suisse). https://data.unicef.org/resources/indicators-for-assessing-infant-and-young-child-feeding-practices

24 FAO. 2021. Minimum dietary diversity for women. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb3434en

25 UNICEF. 2024. UNICEF data: Diets. [Consulté le 8 mai 2025]. https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/diets.Licence: CC BY-NC 3.0 IGO.

26 Kozuki, N., Lee, A.C., Katz, J. et Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group. 2012. Moderate to severe, but not mild, maternal anemia is associated with increased risk of small-for-gestational-age outcomes. The Journal of Nutrition, 142(2): 358-362. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.149237

27 Jung, J., Rahman, M.M., Rahman, M.S., Swe, K.T., Islam, M.R., Rahman, M.O. et Akter, S. 2019. Effects of hemoglobin levels during pregnancy on adverse maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1450(1): 69-82. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14112

28 Chaparro, C.M. et Suchdev, P.S. 2019. Anemia epidemiology, pathophysiology, and etiology in low- and middle-income countries. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1450(1): 15-31 https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14092

29 Alshwaiyat, N.M., Ahmad, A., Wan Hassan, W.M.R. et Al-Jamal, H.A.N. 2021. Association between obesity and iron deficiency (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 22(5): 1268. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.10703

30 Weiss, G. et Goodnough, L.T. 2005. Anemia of chronic disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 352(10): 1011-1023. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmra041809

31 Ko, Y-A., Williams, A.M., Peerson, J.M., Luo, H., Flores-Ayala, R., Wirth, J.P., Engle-Stone, R., Young, M.F. et Suchdev, P.S. 2022. Approaches to quantify the contribution of multiple anemia risk factors in children and women from cross-sectional national surveys. PLOS Glob Public Health, 2(10): e0001071. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001071

32 Neufeld, L.M., Larson, L.M., Kurpad, A., Mburu, S., Martorell, R. et Brown, K.H. 2019. Hemoglobin concentration and anemia diagnosis in venous and capillary blood: biological basis and policy implications. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1450(1): 172-189. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14139

33 Karakochuk, C.D., Hess, S.Y., Moorthy, D., Namaste, S., Parker, M.E., Rappaport, A.I., Wegmüller, R., Dary, O. et HEmoglobin MEasurement (HEME) Working Group. 2019. Measurement and interpretation of hemoglobin concentration in clinical and field settings: a narrative review. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1450(1): 126-146. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14003

34 OMS. 2024. Guideline on haemoglobin cutoffs to define anaemia in individuals and populations. Washington. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240088542

CHAPITRE 3

1 Ipsos. 2024. What Worries the World – Juillet 2024. Dans: Ipsos. https://www.ipsos.com/en-nl/what-worries-world-july-2024

2 FAO. 2024. FAOSTAT: Indices de Prix à la Consommation. [Consulté le 19 mars 2025]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/fr/#data/CP. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

3 FAO. 2024. General and food consumer price indices inflation rates. March 2024 update. FAOSTAT Analytical Briefs no 86. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0955en

4 Barrett, C. B. 2020. Actions now can curb food systems fallout from COVID-19. Nature Food, 1(6): 319-320. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-0085-y

5 CSA (Comité de la sécurité alimentaire mondiale). 2020. COVID-19 is Threatening Food Security and Workers’ Health. Discussion Paper for 21 July 2020 CFS Meeting. Rome. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/cfs/Docs1920/COVID-19/CFS_COVID-19_Discussion_Paper_FINAL2.pdf

6 Charlton, D. 2022. Seasonal farm labor and COVID-19 spread. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(3): 1591-1609. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13190

7 Cavallo, A. 2020. Inflation with Covid Consumption Baskets. Document de travail no 27352. Cambridge (États-Unis), NBER (Bureau national de recherche économique). https://doi.org/10.3386/w27352

8 Bairagi, S., Mishra, A. K. et Mottaleb, K. A. 2022. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on food prices: Evidence from storable and perishable commodities in India. PLOS One, 17(3): e0264355. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264355

9 Aruga, K., Islam, M. et Jannat, A. 2020. Effects of COVID-19 on Indian energy consumption. Sustainability, 12(14): 5616. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145616

10 Kuik, F., Adolfsen, J. F., Lis, E. M. et Meyler, A. 2022. Energy price developments in and out of the COVID-19 pandemic – from commodity prices to consumer prices. Dans: Economic Bulletin, Issue 4, p. 94-115. Francfort, BCE (Banque centrale européenne). https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/economic-bulletin/html/eb202204.en.html

11 Oner, C. 2010. Inflation: Prices on the Rise. F&D: Finance and Development Magazine, 47(1): 44-45. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/Series/Back-to-Basics/Inflation

12 Cagan, P. 1953. The Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation. Dans: M. Friedman (dir. Pub.). Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, p. 25-117. Chicago (États-Unis), University of Chicago Press.

13 Forum économique mondial. 2022. What is hyperinflation and should we be worried? Dans: Forum économique mondial. [Consulté le 6 mai 2025]. https://www.weforum.org/stories/2022/06/hyperinflation-inflation-interest-rate

14 ONU. 2025. National Accounts - Analysis of Main Aggregates (AMA). [Consulté le 19 mars 2025]. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama. Licence: CC-3.0-IGO.

15 FAO. 2008. L’État de l’insécurité alimentaire dans le monde 2008. Prix élevés des denrées alimentaires et sécurité alimentaire – menaces et perspectives. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/445e8e73-9371-4c06-bed9-e2774b02c9cd/content

16 Filipski, M. et Covarrubias, K. 2012. Distributional Impacts of Commodity Prices in Developing Countries. Dans: J. Brooks (dir. pub.). Agricultural Policies for Poverty Reduction, p. 61-88. Paris, Éditions OCDE (Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques). https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/agricultural-policies-for-poverty-reduction_9789264112902-en.html

17 Banque mondiale. 2008. World Development Report 2008 – Agriculture for Development. Washington. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/5990

18 Smith, V. H. et Glauber, J. W. 2020. Trade, policy, and food security. Agricultural Economics, 51(1): 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12547

19 Dzanku, F. M. , Liverpool-Tasie, L. S. O. et Reardon, T. 2024. The importance and determinants of purchases in rural food consumption in Africa: Implications for food security strategies. Global Food Security, 40: 100739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2024.100739

20 Rapsomanikis, G. 2015. The economic lives of smallholder farmers: an analysis based on household data from nine countries. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i5251e

21 FAO, FIDA (Fonds international de développement agricole), OMS, PAM (Programme alimentaire mondial) et UNICEF. 2023. L’État de la sécurité alimentaire et de la nutrition dans le monde 2023. Urbanisation, transformation des systèmes agroalimentaires et accès à une alimentation saine le long du continuum rural-urbain. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3017fr

22 Anríquez, G., Daidone, S. et Mane, E. 2013. Rising food prices and undernourishment: A cross-country inquiry. Food Policy, 38: 190-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.02.010

23 Ivanic, M. et Martin, W. 2008. Implications of higher global food prices for poverty in low-income countries. Agricultural Economics, 39(s1): 405-416. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2008.00347.x

24 Robles, M. et Torero, M. 2010. Understanding the Impact of High Food Prices in Latin America. Economía, 10(2): 117-164. https://economia.lse.ac.uk/articles/180/files/63fef033e4bd5.pdf

25 Compton, J., Wiggins, S. et Keats, S. 2010. Impact of the Global Food Crisis on the Poor: What is the Evidence? Overseas Development Institute (ODI). https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/6103.pdf

26 Ivanic, M. et Martin, W. 2014. Short- and Long-Run Impacts of Food Price Changes on Poverty. Document de travail sur la recherche dans le domaine des politiques no 7011. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-7011

27 Laborde, D., Lakatos, C. et Martin, W. 2019. Poverty Impact of Food Price Shocks and Policies. Document de travail sur la recherche dans le domaine des politiques no 8724. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/863311549375011898/pdf/WPS8724.pdf

28 Banque mondiale. 2011. Responding to Global Food Price Volatility and its Impact on Food Security. Washington. https://documents.banquemondiale.org/fr/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/426561468336325684

29 FAO. 2025. Outil de suivi et d’analyse des prix alimentaires. Dans: FAO. [Consulté le 5 mai 2025]. https://fpma.fao.org/giews/fpmat4/global/#/dashboard/home

30 Bureau central palestinien des statistiques. 2025. Consumer Price Index. Dans: Bureau central palestinien des statistiques. [Consulté le 5 mai 2025]. https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/site/lang__en/695/default.aspx

31 Banque de réserve du Zimbabwe. 2025. Inflation. Dans: Banque de réserve du Zimbabwe. [Consulté le 5 mai 2025]. https://www.rbz.co.zw/index.php/research/markets/inflation

32 Trading Economics. 2025. Trading Economics: Food Inflation. [Consulté le 5 mai 2025]. https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/food-inflation. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

33 PAM. 2025. VAM: DataViz. [Consulté le 5 mai 2025]. https://dataviz.vam.wfp.org. Licence: CC-BY-IGO.

34 Ascari, G., Bonam, D. et Smadu, A. 2024. Global supply chain pressures, inflation, and implications for monetary policy. Journal of International Money and Finance, 142: 103029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jimonfin.2024.103029

35 Barro, R. et Bianchi, F. 2023. Fiscal influences on inflation in OECD countries, 2020-2023. Document de travail du NBER (Bureau national de recherche économique) no 31838. Cambridge (États-Unis), NBER. https://doi.org/10.3386/w31838

36 Bergholt, D., Canova, F., Furlanetto, F., Maffei-Faccioli, N. et Ulvedal, P. 2024. What drives the recent surge in inflation? The historical decomposition roller coaster. Document de travail no 7. Oslo, Banque centrale de Norvège. https://www.norges-bank.no/contentassets/b32c79a497624e3ea35bf9f52cdbef56/wp-2024-07.pdf?v=10042024101314

37 Blanchard, O. et Bernanke, B. 2023. What caused the US pandemic-era inflation? Document de travail du NBER no 31417. Cambridge (États-Unis), NBER. https://doi.org/10.3386/w31417

38 Blanchard, O. et Bernanke, B. 2024. An analysis of pandemic-era inflation in 11 economies. Document de travail du NBER no 32532. Cambridge (États-Unis), NBER. https://doi.org/10.3386/w32532

39 Giannone, D. et Primiceri, G. E. 2024. The drivers of post-pandemic inflation. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/sintra/ecb.forumcentbankpub2024_Primiceri_paper.en.pdf

40 Mori, L. 2025. Fiscal shocks and the surge of inflation. Document de travail de la faculté Marco Fanno no 318. Padoue (Italie), Université de Padoue. https://www.economia.unipd.it/sites/economia.unipd.it/files/20250318.pdf

41 ONU. 2023. WHO chief declares end to COVID-19 as a global health emergency – UN News. Dans: ONU. [Consulté le 28 février 2025]. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/05/1136367

42 Agarwal, R., Farrar, J., Gopinath, G., Hatchett, R. et Sands, P. 2022. A Global Strategy to Manage the Long-Term Risks of COVID-19. Document de travail du FMI no 68. Washington, FMI. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2022/04/04/A-Global-Strategy-to-Manage-the-Long-Term-Risks-of-COVID-19-516079

43 Mahler, D. G., Yonzan, N., Hill, R., Wu, H. et Yoshida, N. 2022. Pandémie, inflation et pauvreté. Dans: Banque Mondiale Blogs. [Consulté le 3 mars 2025]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/fr/opendata/pandemie-inflation-et-pauvrete

44 FMI. 2021. Database of Fiscal Policy Responses to COVID-19: Fiscal Monitor Database of Country Fiscal Measures in Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic. [Consulté le 1er mars 2025]. https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Fiscal-Policies-Database-in-Response-to-COVID-19

45 Deb, P., Furceri, D., Ostry, J. D., Tawk, N. et Yang, N. 2021. The effects of fiscal measures during COVID-19. Document de travail 2021/262. Washington, FMI. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781557754264.001

46 De Soyres, F., Santacreu, A. M. et Young, H. 2022. Fiscal policy and excess inflation during Covid-19: a cross-country view. FEDS Notes. Washington, Board of Governors of the Federal reserve System. https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/fiscal-policy-and-excess-inflation-during-covid-19-a-cross-country-view-20220715.html

47 DESA. 2022. The monetary policy response to COVID-19: direct impacts and spillovers. Dans: World Economic Situation and Prospects 2022, p. 47-82. New York (États-Unis), ONU. https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210011839c006

48 Runkel, C. 2022. Eurozone: Pandemic Emergency Purchase Program. Journal of Financial Crises, 4(2): 1569-1600. https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal-of-financial-crises/vol4/iss2/73

49 Wolf, M. 2024. «Lessons from the great inflation». Financial Times, 3 septembre 2024. Londres (Royaume-Uni). [Consulté le 20 mars 2025]. https://www.ft.com/content/2ee6364e-3d48-447c-9b37-659d0f36d656

50 Forbes, K., Ha, J. et Kose, M. A. 2024. Rate Cycles. Sintra (Portugal). https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/sintra/ecb.forumcentbankpub2024_Forbes_paper.en.pdf

51 Tepper, T. et Powell, F. 2024. Federal Funds Rate History 1990 to 2025. Dans: Forbes Advisor. [Consulté le 20 mars 2025]. https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/fed-funds-rate-history

52 Baffes, J., Guenette, J. D., Ha, J., Inami, O., Kabundi, A. N., Kasyanenko, S., Kilic Celik, S. et al. 2021. Global economic prospects, June 2021. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1665-9

53 FMI. 2024. World Economic Outlook, October 2024: Policy Pivot, Rising Threats. Dans: FMI. [Consulté le 20 février 2025]. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2024/10/22/world-economic-outlook-october-2024

54 FMI. 2023. External Sector Report: External Rebalancing in Turbulent Times. Washington. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/ESR/Issues/2023/07/19/2023-external-sector-report

55 CNUCED (Conférence des Nations Unies sur le commerce et le développement). 2022. A Double Burden: The Effects of Food Price Increases and Currency Depreciations on Food Import Bills. Genève (Suisse). https://unctad.org/publication/double-burden-effects-food-price-increases-and-currency-depreciations-food-import-bills

56 FAO. 2025. World Food Situation – FAO Food Price Index. Dans: FAO. [Consulté le 17 mars 2025]. https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex/en

57 FAO. 2023. Food Outlook – Biannual report on global food markets. Food Outlook, June 2023. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3020en

58 Algieri, B., Kornher, L. et von Braun, J. 2024. The Changing Drivers of Food Inflation – Macroeconomics, Inflation, and War. ZEF (Centre de recherche sur le développement) - Document de réflexion sur les politiques relatives au développement no 339. Bonn (Allemagne), ZEF. https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=4748639

59 Glauber, J. et Laborde, D. 2022. How will Russia’s invasion of Ukraine affect global food security? Dans: IFPRI (Institut international de recherche sur les politiques alimentaires). [Consulté le 6 juin 2025]. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/how-will-russias-invasion-ukraine-affect-global-food-security

60 CNUCED. 2022. Maritime Trade Disrupted: The war in Ukraine and its effects on maritime trade logistics. Genève (Suisse). https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/osginf2022d2_en.pdf

61 Kamali, P., Koepke, R., Sozzi, A. et Verschuur, J. 2024. Chart of the Week – Red Sea Attacks Disrupt Global Trade. Dans: FMI Blog. [Consulté le 20 mars 2025]. https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2024/03/07/Red-Sea-Attacks-Disrupt-Global-Trade

62 Glauber, J. et Mamun, A. 2024. Impacts of Red Sea shipping disruptions on global food security. Dans: IFPRI Blog. [Consulté le 20 mars 2025]. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/impacts-red-sea-shipping-disruptions-global-food-security

63 CNUCED. 2022. Black Sea Grain Initiative Offers Hope, Shows Power of Trade. Dans: CNUCED. [Consulté le 4 mars 2025]. https://unctad.org/news/black-sea-grain-initiative-offers-hope-shows-power-trade

64 FAO. 2023. FAO Brief on the interruption of the Black Sea Grain Initiative and its potential implications on global food markets and food security. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cc7271en

65 Dodd, E., Welsh, C. et Glauber, J. 2024. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Dans: Setting the Record Straight on Ukraine’s Grain Exports. [Consulté le 4 mars 2025]. https://www.csis.org/analysis/setting-record-straight-ukraines-grain-exports

66 Glauber, J. et Laborde, D. 2023. How sanctions on Russia and Belarus are impacting exports of agricultural products and fertilizer. Dans: J. Glauber et D. Laborde (dir. pub.). The Russia-Ukraine Conflict and Global Food Security. Washington, IFPRI (Institut international de recherche sur les politiques alimentaires). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/140146

67 POLITICO. 2022. ‘Enormous’ fertilizer shortage spells disaster for global food crisis. Dans: POLITICO. [Consulté le 5 mars 2025]. https://www.politico.eu/article/fertilizer-soil-ukraine-war-the-next-global-food-crisis

68 Elleby, C., Dominguez, I. P., Genovese, G., Thompson, W., Adenauer, M. et Gay, H. 2023. A Perfect or Persistent Storm for Global Agricultural Markets: High Energy Prices and the Russia-Ukraine War. Choices, 38(2): p. 4-9. https://www.choicesmagazine.org/UserFiles/file/cmsarticle_860.pdf

69 Hebebrand, C. et Laborde, D. 2023. High fertilizer prices contribute to rising global food security concerns. Dans: The Russia-Ukraine Conflict and Global Food Security, p. 38-42. Washington, IFPRI. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/140084

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177 Martinez-Steele, E., Khandpur, N., Batis, C., Bes-Rastrollo, M., Bonaccio, M., Cediel, G., Huybrechts, I. et al. 2023. Best Practices for Applying the Nova Food Classification System. Nature Food, 4(6): 445-448. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00779-w

178 Adjibade, M., Julia, C., Allès, B., Touvier, M., Lemogne, C., Srour, B., Hercberg, S. et al. 2019. Prospective association between ultra-processed food consumption and incident depressive symptoms in the French NutriNet-Santé cohort. BMC Medicine, 17(78): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1312-y

179 Fiolet, T., Srour, B., Sellem, L., Kesse-Guyot, E., Allès, B., Méjean, C., Deschasaux, M. et al. 2018. Consumption of ultra-processed foods and cancer risk: results from NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort. BMJ, 360(k322): 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k322

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184 Rey-García, J., Donat-Vargas, C., Sandoval-Insausti, H., Bayan-Bravo, A., Moreno-Franco, B., Banegas, J.R., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F. et Guallar-Castillón, P. 2021. Ultra-Processed Food Consumption is Associated with Renal Function Decline in Older Adults: A Prospective Cohort Study. Nutrients, 13(2): 428. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020428

185 Wang, M., Du, X., Huang, W. et Xu, Y. 2022. Ultra-Processed Foods Consumption Increases the Risk of Hypertension in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. American Journal of Hypertension, 35(10): 892-901. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpac069

186 Zhang, S., Gan, S., Zhang, Q., Liu, L., Meng, G., Yao, Z., Wu, H. et al. 2022. Ultra-processed food consumption and the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in the Tianjin Chronic Low-grade Systemic Inflammation and Health Cohort Study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 51(1): 237-249. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyab174

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192 Luiten, C. M., Steenhuis, I. H., Eyles, H., Mhurchu, C. N. et Waterlander, W. E. 2016. Ultra-processed Foods Have the Worst Nutrient Profile, yet they are the Most Available Packaged Products in a Sample of New Zealand Supermarkets. Public Health Nutrition, 19(3): 530-538. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980015002177

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208 Monteiro, C.A., Cannon, G., Moubarac, J.-C., Levy, R. B., Louzada, M. L. C. et Jaime, P. C. 2018. The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA food classification and the trouble with ultra-processing. Public Health Nutrition, 21(1): 5-17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000234

CHAPITRE 4

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2 Hosny, A. 2021. The Sooner (and the Smarter), the Better: COVID-19 Containment Measures and Fiscal Responses. Document de travail du FMI no 21 (65). Washington, FMI. https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513571638.001

3 Gentilini, U., Almenfi, M. B. A., Iyengar, T., Okamura, Y., Downes, J. A., Dale, P., Weber, M. et al. 2022. Social Protection and Jobs Responses to COVID-19: A Real-Time Review of Country Measures. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/37186

4 OMS. 2024. New evidence review of social protection, public health and social measures during emergencies. Dans: OMS. [Consulté le 7 avril 2025]. https://www.who.int/news/item/12-12-2024-new-evidence-review-of-social-protection-public-health-and-social-measures-during-emergencies

5 FMI. 2024. Fiscal Monitor, October 2024: Putting a lid on public debt. Washington. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2024/10/23/fiscal-monitor-october-2024

6 Algieri, B., Kornher, L. et von Braun, J. 2024. The Changing Drivers of Food Inflation – Macroeconomics, Inflation, and War. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4748639

7 Kindberg-Hanlon, G. 2021. Food price volatility and inflation in low-income countries. Dans: Banque mondiale Blogs. [Consulté le 21 mars 2025]. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/developmenttalk/food-price-volatility-and-inflation-low-income-countries

8 Laborde, D., Lakatos, C. et Martin, W. 2019. Poverty Impact of Food Price Shocks and Policies. Document de travail sur la recherche dans le domaine des politiques no 8724. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/863311549375011898/pdf/WPS8724.pdf

9 OCDE. 2021. Keep calm and carry on feeding: Agriculture and food policy responses to the COVID-19 crisis. Policy paper. Paris. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/keep-calm-and-carry-on-feeding-agriculture-and-food-policy-responses-to-the-covid-19-crisis_db1bf302-en.html

10 Wineman, A., Mwakiwa, E., Agyei-Holmes, A., Fall, M. G., Kirimi, L., Mpenda, Z., Mutandwa, E., Ogunbayo, I. et Tschirley, D. 2024. Price Shocks and Associated Policy Responses Stemming from the Russia-Ukraine War and Other Global Crises: Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. East Labsing (États-Unis), Université d’État du Michigan. https://www.canr.msu.edu/prci/assets/DayTwo-Wineman-Shocks-FULL_REPORT.pdf

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17 Bryan, S. 2014. A Cacophony of Policy Responses: Evidence from Fourteen Countries during the 2007–8 Food Price Crisis. Dans: P. Pinstrup-Andersen (dir. pub.). Food Price Policy in an Era of Market Instability, p. 51-75. Oxford (Royaume-Uni), Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718574.003.0003

18 FAO. 2011. Guide for Policy and Programmatic Actions at Country Level to Address High Food Prices. Rome. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ISFP/ISFP_guide_web.pdf

19 Pernechele, V., Balié, J. et Ghins, L. 2018. Agricultural policy incentives in sub-Saharan Africa in the last decade (2005-2016): Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies (MAFAP) synthesis study. Étude technique de la FAO sur l’économie du développement agricole no 3. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i8997en

20 Resnick, D. 2014. The Political Economy of Food Price Policy in Senegal. Dans: P. Pinstrup-Andersen (dir. pub.). Food Price Policy in an Era of Market Instability. Première édition, p. 296-316. Oxford (Royaume-Uni), Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718574.003.0014

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22 Briones Alonso, E. et Swinnen, J. 2016. Who are the producers and consumers? Value chains and food policy effects in the wheat sector in Pakistan. Food Policy, 61: 40-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.02.001

23 Kumar Basantaray, A. 2023. Is Minimum Support Price Effective in India? Evidence from State-wise Paddy Procurement. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 41(1): 53-65. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2023/v41i11833

24 Morales, L. E., Balié, J. et Magrini, E. 2021. How has the minimum support price policy of India affected cross-commodity price linkages? International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 24(2): 179-196. https://doi.org/10.22434/IFAMR2020.0035

25 Aditya, K. S., Subash, S. P., Praveen, K. V., Nithyashree, M. L., Bhuvana, N. et Sharma, A. 2017. Awareness about Minimum Support Price and Its Impact on Diversification Decision of Farmers in India. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 4(3): 514-526. https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.197

26 Chand, R. 2003. Minimum Support Price in Agriculture – Changing Requirements. Economic & Political Weekly, 38(29). https://www.epw.in/journal/2003/29/commentary/minimum-support-price-agriculture.html

27 OMS. 2020. Guidance on Mainstreaming Biodiversity for Nutrition and Health. Première édition. Genève (Suisse). https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/351047/9789240006690-eng.pdf?sequence=1

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29 Gentilini, U., Almenfi, M., Iyengar, H. T., Valleriani, G., Okamura, Y., Urteaga, E. R., Aziz, S., Al Azim Bin Noruzi, M. F. et Chu, M. 2023. Tracking Global Social Protection Responses to Inflation: Living paper, v.5. Social Protection & Jobs Discussion Paper Series. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/37441

30 Commission européenne. 2021. VAT rates applied in the Member States of the European Union – Situation at 1st January 2021. Bruxelles. https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-06/vat_rates_en.pdf

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32 Fuest, C., Neumeier, F. et Stöhlker, D. 2021. The Pass-Through of Temporary VAT Rate Cuts: Evidence from German Supermarket Retail. CESifo Document de travail no 9149. Munich (Allemagne), CESifo. https://www.cesifo.org/en/publications/2021/working-paper/pass-through-temporary-vat-rate-cuts-evidence-german-supermarket

33 Benzarti, Y., Garriga, S. et Tortarolo, D. 2024. Can VAT cuts and anti-profiteering measures dampen the effects of food price inflation? Document de travail du NBER no 32241. Cambridge ((États-Unis), NBER. https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w32241/w32241.pdf

34 Wodon, Q. et Zaman, H. 2010. Higher Food Prices in Sub-Saharan Africa: Poverty Impact and Policy Responses. The World Bank Research Observer, 25(1): 157-176. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkp018

35 CNUCED. 2023. UNCTAD Data Hub: Currency exchange rates, annual. [Consulté le 8 avril 2025]. https://unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ExchangeRateCrosstab. Licence CC-3.0-IGO.

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43 Olney, D. K., Gelli, A., Kumar, N., Alderman, H., Go, A., Raza, A., Owens, J. et al. 2021. Nutrition-sensitive social protection programs within food systems. Washington, IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.134593

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30 Horton, M. et El-Ganainy, A. 2009. Back to Basics: What Is Fiscal Policy? Finance and Development, 46(2): 52-53. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2009/06/pdf/basics.pdf

31 FAO. 2013. Cadre stratégique révisé. Conférence de la FAO – Trente-huitième session Rome, 15-22 juin 2013. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/52c01d26-0c97-4e6e-be26-2e9810b848e3/content

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34 Shepherd, A. W. 1997. Les Services d’Information sur les Marchés. Théorie et Pratique. Collection Aliments dans les villes. Bulletin des services agricoles de la FAO 125. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/x6993f

35 OMS. 2023. Child growth standards. Dans: OMS. [Consulté le 5 juin 2023]. https://www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards

36 Guenette, J.-D. 2020. Price Controls: Good Intentions, Bad Outcomes. Policy Research Working Paper 9212. Washington, Banque mondiale. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/48221ad1-9caf-58f2-a02f-14e6c42f2f20

37 ONU. 2017. Report of the High-Level Committee on Programmes at its thirty-fourth session. Annex III. CEB/2017/6 (6 novembre 2017). New York (États-Unis). https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3844899?v=pdf

38 ASEAN (Association des nations de l’Asie du Sud-Est). 2014. Proposed Definition of Social Protection and References. Dans: The Inter-Sectoral Consultation on the Development of a Plan of Action for the Implementation of the ASEAN Declaration on Strengthening Social Protection. Siem Reap, décembre 2014. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/rap/files/meetings/2014/141208_6_Proposed_Definition_of_SP_n_References.pdf

39 Banque mondiale, PAM et FAO. 2025. Strengthening Strategic Grain Reserves to Enhance Food Security. Washington. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/43131

40 OCDE. 2006. Subsidy reform and sustainable development: economic, environmental and social aspects. Paris. https://www.cbd.int/financial/fiscalenviron/several-subsidiesreform-oecd.pdf

41 Assemblée générale des Nations Unies. 2016. Rapport du groupe de travail intergouvernemental d’experts à composition non limitée chargé des indicateurs et de la terminologie relatifs à la réduction des risques de catastrophe. Soixante et onzième session, Point 19 c) de l’ordre du jour, A/71/644. New York (États-Unis). 50683_oiewgreportfrench.pdf

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43 UNICEF, OMS et Banque mondiale. 2025. Levels and trends in child malnutrition: UNICEF/WHO/ World Bank Group Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates. Key findings of the 2025 edition. New York (États-Unis), Genève (Suisse) et Washington. https://data.unicef.org/resources/JME, https://www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/, https://datatopics.worldbank.org/child-malnutrition

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46 OCDE. 2025. Parités de pouvoir d’achat (PPA). Dans: OCDE. [Consulté le 4 juillet 2025]. https://www.oecd.org/fr/data/indicators/purchasing-power-parities-ppp.html

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